The effect of polygamous marital structure on behavioral, emotional, and academic adjustment in children: A comprehensive review of the literature

Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review

Volumn 5, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 255-271

  Elbedour, Salman ^a   Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J ^a   Caridine, Corin ^a   Abu Saad, Hasan ^b  

^a HOWARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b Howard University ^*

Author keywords

Child adjustment; Family structure; Marital conflict; Polygamy

Indexed keywords

ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR; CHILD; CHILD BEHAVIOR; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; CHILD PSYCHOLOGY; CHILD WELFARE; CONFLICT; EDUCATIONAL STATUS; EMOTION; FAMILY RELATION; FAMILY SIZE; HUMAN; JEALOUSY; LEGAL ASPECT; MARRIAGE; MENTAL STRESS; POVERTY; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SOCIAL ADAPTATION; STATISTICS;

ADAPTATION, PSYCHOLOGICAL; CHILD; CHILD BEHAVIOR; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; CHILD PSYCHOLOGY; CHILD WELFARE; CONFLICT (PSYCHOLOGY); EDUCATIONAL STATUS; EMOTIONS; FAMILY CHARACTERISTICS; FAMILY RELATIONS; HUMANS; JEALOUSY; MARRIAGE; POVERTY; RISK FACTORS; SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT; STRESS, PSYCHOLOGICAL;

EID: 0036884077     PISSN: 10964037     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1020925123016     Document Type: Review

References (149)

1. Achte, K., & Schakit, T. (1980). Jealousy in various cultures in the light of transactional psychiatry. Psychiatry Fennica, 11, 33-34.
2. Agadjanian, V., & Ezeh, A. C. (2000). Polygyny, gender relations, and reproduction in Ghana. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 31, 427-441.
3. Aghanawa, H. S., Dare, F. O., & Ogunniyi, S. O. (1999). Sociodemographic factors in mental disorders associated with infertility in Nigeria. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 46, 117-123.
4. Alexander, K., Entwisle, D., & Thompson, M. (1987). School performance, status relations, and the structure of sentiment: Bringing the teacher back in. American Sociological Review, 52, 665-682.
5. Al-Issa, I. (1990). Culture and mental illness in Algeria. The International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 36, 230-240.
6. Al-Issa, I. (1995). The illusion of reality or the reality of illusion: Hallucination and culture. British Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 368-373.
7. Al-Krenawi, A. (1998). Family therapy with a multi-parental/multispousal family. Family Process, 37, 65-81.
8. Al-Krenawi, A. (2001). Women from polygamous and monogamous marriages in an out-patient psychiatric clinic Transcultural Psychiatry, 38, 187-199.
9. Al-Krenawi, A., & Graham, J. R. (1997). Social work with Polygamous families. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 14, 445-458.
10. Al-Krenawi, A., & Graham, J. R. (1999). The story of Bedouin-Arab women in a polygamous marriage. Women Studies International Forum, 22, 497-509.
11. Al-Krenawi, A., Graham, J. R., & Al-Krenawi, S. (1997). Social work practice with polygamous families. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 14, 445-458.
12. Al-Krenawi, A., & Lightman, E. S. (2000). Learning achievement, social adjustment, and family conflict among Bedouin-Arab children from polygamous and monogamous families. Journal of Social Psychology, 140, 345-356.
13. Altman, I., & Ginat, J. (1996). Polygamous families in contemporary society. New York: Cambridge University Press.
14. Amato, P. R., & Keith, B. (1991). Parental divorce and the well-being of children: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 26-46.
15. American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
16. Anderson, C. M. (2000). The persistence of polygyny as an adaptive response to poverty and oppression in Apartheid South Africa. Cross-Cultural Research, 34, 99-113.
17. Arditti, J. A. (1999). Rethinking relationships between divorced mothers and their children: Capitalizing on family strengths. Family Relations, 48, 109-119.
18. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
19. Belsky, J. (1981). Early human experience: A family perspective. Developmental Psychology, 17, 3-23.
20. Bergstrom, T. C. (1994). On the economics of polygyny. Retrieved July 25, 2002, from http://netec.mcc.ac.uk/BibEc/ data/Papers/elsesrcls042.html.
21. Bouchard, T. J., Lykken, D. T., McGue, M., Segal, N. L., & Tellegen, A. (1990). Sources of human psychological differences: The Minnesota Study of twins reared apart. Science, 250, 223-228.
22. Bowen, G. L., & Chapman, M. V. (1996). Poverty, neighborhood danger, social support, and the individual adaptation among at-risk youth. Journal of Family Issues, 17, 641-666.
23. Bradley, R. H., Corwyn, R. E., & Whiteside-Mansell, L. (1996). Life at home: Same time, different places - An examination of the home inventory in different cultures. Early Development and Parenting, 5, 251-269.
24. Bradley, R. H., Whiteside, L., Munford, D. J., Casey, P. H., Kelleher, K. J., & Pope, S. K. (1994). Early indications of resilience and their relation to experiences in the home environments of lowbirth weight, premature children living in poverty. Child Development, 65, 346-360.
25. Bronefenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
26. Bronefenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context of human development: Research perspectives. Developmental Psychology, 22, 723-742.
27. Broude, G. J. (1994). Marriage, family, and relationships: A cross-cultural encyclopaedia. Denver, CO: ABC-CLIO.
28. Brown, P. C., & Smith, T. W. (1992). Social influence, marriage, and the heart: Cardiovascular consequences of interpersonal control in husbands and wives. Health Psychology, 11, 88-96.
29. Buehler, C., & Gerard, J. M. (2002). Marital conflict, ineffective parenting, and children's and adolescents. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 78-92.
30. Bumpass, L. L., & Raley, R. K. (1995). Redefining single-parent families: Cohabitation and changing family reality. Demography, 32, 97-109.
31. Caldwell, J. C., & Caldwell, P. (1993). The nature and limits of the sub-Saharan Africa AIDS epidemic: Evidence from geographic and other patterns. Population and Development Review, 19, 817-848.
32. Camara, S. (1978). Femmes Africaines, polygamie, et authorité masculine (African women, polygamy, and masculine authority). Ethnopsychology, 33, 43-53.
33. Carlson, M. J., & Corcoran, M. E. (2001). Family structure and children's behavioral and cognitive outcomes. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 779-792.
34. Chaleby, K. (1985). Women of polygamous marriages in an inpatient psychiatric services. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 173, 56-58.
35. Cherian, V. I. (1990). Academic achievement of children from monogamous and polygamous families. Journal of Social Psychology, 130, 117-119.
36. Cherian, V. I. (1994). Corporal punishment and academic achievement of Xhosa children from polygynous and monogamous families Journal of Social Psychology, 134, 387-390.
37. Cleveland, H. H., Wiebe, R. P., van den Oord, E. J. C. G., & Rowe, D. C. (2000). Behavior problems among children from different family structures: The influence of genetic self-selection. Child Development, 71, 733-751.
38. Coleman, R. E., & Miller, A. G. (1975). The relationship between depression and marital maladjustment in a clinic population: A multitrait-multimethod study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 647-651.
39. Conger, R., Conger, K., & Elder, G. (1997). Family economic hardship and adolescent adjustment: Mediating and moderating processes. In G. J. Duncan & J. Brooks-Gunn (Eds.), Consequences of growing up poor (pp. 288-310). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
40. Crooks, D. (1995). American children at risk: Poverty and its consequences for children's health, growth, and school achievement. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 38, 57-86.
41. Crosson-Tower, C. (1998). Understanding child abuse and neglect (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
42. Cummings, E. M., & Davis, P. T. (1994). Children and marital conflict: The impact of family dispute and resolution. New York: Guilford Press.
43. Cummings, E. M., & O'Reilly, A. W. (1997). Fathers in family context: Effects of marital quality on child adjustment. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (pp. 49-65). New York: Wiley.
44. Cummings, E. M., Zahn-Waxler, C., & Radke-Yarrow, M. (1984). Developmental changes in children's reactions to anger in the home. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 25, 6374.
45. Davies, P. T., Myers, R. L., & Cummings, M. E. (1996). Responses of children and adolescents to marital conflict scenarios as a function of the emotionality if conflict endings. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 42, 1-21.
46. Demo, D., & Acock, A. (1988). The impact of divorce on children. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 50, 619-648.
47. Demo, D. H., & Acock, A. C. (1996). Family structure, family process, and adolescent well-being. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 6, 457-488.
48. Duncan, G. J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1997). Income effects across the life span: Integration and interpretation. In G. J. Duncan & J. Brooks-Gunn (Eds.), The Consequences of growing up poor (pp. 596-610). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
49. Duncan, G. J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2000). Family, poverty, welfare reform, and child development. Child Development, 71, 188-196.
50. Duncan, G. J., Yeung, W. J., Brooks-Gunn, J. R., & Smith, J. (1998). How much does childhood poverty affect the life chances of children? American Sociological Review, 63, 406-423.
51. Dunn, J. (1988). Annotation: Sibling influences on childhood development. Journal of Child Psychology Psychiatry, 29, 119-127.
52. Dunn, J., Deatcr-Dcckard, K., Picketing, K., & O'Connor, T. G. (1998). Children's adjustment and proscoial behavior in step-, single-parent, and non-stepfamily settings: Findings from a community study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 1083-1095.
53. Dwairy, M. (1998). Cross-cultural counseling: The Arab-Palestinian case. New York: Haworth Press.
54. Eapen, V., Al-Gazali, L., Bin-Othman, S., & Abou-Saleh, M. (1998). Mental health problems among school children in the United Arab Emirates: Prevalence and risk factors. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37(8), 880-886.
55. Ebigbo, P. O., Onyeama, W. P., Ihezue, U. H., & Ahanotu, A. C. (1981). Family therapy with polygynous families. Zeitschrift fur Psychosomatische Medizin und Psychoanalyse, 27, 180-191.
56. Egeland, B., Sroufe, A., & Erickson, M. (1983). The development consequences of different patterns of maltreatment. Child Abuse and Neglect, 7, 459-469.
57. Einon, D. (1998). How many children can one man have? Evolution and Human Behavior, 19, 413-426.
58. Elbedour, S., Bart, W. M., & Hektner, J. M. (2000). Scholastic achievement and family marital structure: Bedouin Arab adolescents from monogamous and polygamous families in Israel. Journal of Social Psychology, 140, 503-515.
59. Elbedour, S., Bart, W., & Hektner, J. (in press-a). Intelligence and family marital structure: The case of adolescents from monogamous and polygamous families among Bedouin Arabs in Israel. Journal of Social Psychology.
60. Elbedour, S., Bart, W., & Hektner, J. (in press-b). The relationship between monogamous/polygamous family structure and the mental health of school-aged children. Journal of Family Psychology.
61. Elbedour, S., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Alatamin, M. (2002). Behavioral problems and scholastic adjustment among Bedouin-Arab children from polygamous and monogamous marital family structures: Some developmental considerations. Manuscript submitted for publication.
62. Elder, G. H., Jr., Eccles, J. S., Ardelt, M., & Lord, S. (1995). Innercity parents under economic pressure: Perspectives on the strategies of parenting. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57, 771-784.
63. El-Sheikh, M. (1994). Children's emotional and physiological response to interadult angry behavior: The role history of interparental hostility. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22, 661-678.
64. Emery, R. E., & O'Leary, K. D. (1982). Children's perceptions of marital discord and behavioral problems of boys and girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 10, 11-24.
65. Emery, R. E., & O'Leary, K. D. (1984). Marital discord and child behavior problems in a non-clinic sample. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 12, 411-420.
66. Engfer, A. (1988). The interrelatedness of marriage and the mother-child relationship. In R. A. Hinde & J. Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), Relationships within families: Mutal influences (pp. 104-118). Oxford, U.K.: Clarenda Press.
67. Evans, M. D. R., Kelley, J., Borgers, M., Dronkers, J., & Grullenberg, L. (1995, July 17). Parent divorce and children's education: Australian evidence. Worldwide Attitudes, 1-8.
68. Feghali, E. (1997). Arab cultural communication patterns. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 21, 345-378.
69. Fincham, F. (1998). Child development and marital relations. Child Development, 69, 543-574.
70. Frosch, C. A., & Mangelsdorf, S. C. (2001). Marital behavior, parenting behavior, and multiple reports of preschoolers' behavior problems: Mediation or moderation? Developmental Psychology, 37, 502-519.
71. Gage-Brandon, A. J. (1992). The polygyny-divorce relationship: A case study of Nigeria. Journal of Marriage and Family, 54, 285-293.
72. Ganong, L. H., & Coleman, M. (1993). A meta-analytic comparison of the self-esteem and behavior problems of stepchildren to children in other family structures. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 19, 143-163.
73. Garenne, M., & van de Walle, E. (1989). Polygyny and fertility among the Sereer of Senegal. Population Studies, 43, 267-283.
74. Garmezy, N. (1983). Stressors of childhood. In N. Garmezy & M. Rutter (Eds.), Stress, coping and development in children (pp. 43-84). New York: McGraw-Hill.
75. Gecas, V., & Schwalbe, M. L. (1986). Parental behavior and adolescent self-esteem. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 48, 37-46.
76. Glick, P. C. (1989). Remarried families, stepfamilies, and stepchildren: A brief demographic profile. Family Relations. 38, 24-27.
77. Gottman, J. M. (1994). What predicts divorce: The relationship between marital processes and marital outcomes. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
78. Gottman, J. M., & Notarius, C. I. (2000). Decade review: Observing marital interaction. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62, 927-47.
79. Greenway, T., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (in press). Relationships between family structure and academic achievement and attendance rate among Georgia middle school students. Louisiana Educational Research Journal.
80. Grych, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (1990). Marital conflict and children's adjustment: A cognitive-contextual framework. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 2, 267-290.
81. Grych, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (1992). Marital dissolution and family adjustment: An attributional analysis. In T. L. Orbuch (Ed.). Close relationship loss: Theoretical perspectives (pp. 157-173). New York: Springer.
82. Gwanfogbe, P. N., Schumm, U. R., Smith, M., & Furrow, J. L. (1997). Polygyny and marital life satisfaction: An expository study from rural Cameroon. Journal of Comparative Family Studies. 28, 55-71.
83. Hanson, T. L., McLanahan, S. S., & Thomson, E. (1997). Double jeopardy: Parental conflict and stepfamily outcomes for children. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58, 141-154.
84. Harris, J. R. (1995). Where is the child's environment? A group socialization theory of development. Psychological Review, 102, 458-489.
85. Hartung, J. (1982). Polygyny and inheritance of wealth. Current Anthropology, 23, 1-12.
86. Hashima, P. Y., & Amato, P. R. (1994). Poverty, social support, and parental behavior. Child Development. 65, 394-403.
87. Hassouneh-Phillips, D. (2001). Polygamy and wife abuse: A qualitative study of Muslim women in America. Health Care for Women International, 22, 735-748.
88. Haugaard, J. L. (1998). Is adoption a risk factor for the development of adjustment problems? Clinical Psychology Review, 18, 47-69.
89. Hetherington, E. M., Cox, M., & Cox, R. (1982). Effects of divorce on parents and children. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), Nontraditional families: Parenting and child development (pp. 233-288). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
90. Hetherington, E. M., & Stanley-Hagan, M. (1986). Divorced fathers: Stress, coping, and adjustment. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.). The father's role: Applied perspectives (pp. 103-134). New York: Wiley.
91. Hetherington, E. M., Stanley-Hagen, M., & Anderson, E. R. (1989). Marital transitions: A child's perspective. American Psychologist, 44, 303-312.
92. Hillman, E. (1975). Polygyny reconsidered. New York: Orbis Books
93. Ibrahim, A. S., & Ibrahim, R. M. (1993). Is psychotherapy really needed in nonwestern cultures? The case of Arab countries. Psychological Reports, 72, 881-882.
94. Jankowiak, W., & Diderich, M. (2000). Sibling solidarity in a polygamous community in the USA: Unpacking inclusive fitness. Evolution and Human Behavior, 21, 125-139.
95. Jennings, K. D., Stagg, V., & Conners, R. E. (1991). Social networks and mothers' interactions with their preschool children. Child Development, 62, 966-978.
96. Kampambwe, G. M. (1980). An investigation into the relationship between family background and scholastic achievement of a group of junior secondary school subjects in Zambia. Unpublished master's thesis, University of Zambia, Lusaka.
97. Katz, L. F., & Gottman, J. M. (1991). Marital discord and child out-comes: A social psychophysiological approach. In J. Garber & K. A. Dodge (Eds.), The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation (pp. 129-158). New York: Cambridge University Press.
98. Katz, L. F., & Gottman, J. M. (1993). Patterns of marital conflict predict children's internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 29, 940-950.
99. Kelly, J. B., & Wallerstein, J. S. (1975). The effects of parental divorce. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 45, 253-254.
100. Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Fisher, L., Ogrocki, P., Stout, J. C., Speicher, C. E., & Glaser, R. (1987). Marital quality, marital disruption, and immune function. Psychosomatic Medicine, 49, 13-34.
101. Klomegah, R. (1997). Socio-economic characteristics of Ghanaian women in polygynous marriages. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 28, 73-88.
102. Korbin, J. (1980). The cultural context of child abuse and neglect. Child Abuse and Neglect, 4, 13-24.
103. Krishnakumar, A., & Buehler, C. (2000). Interpersonal conflict and parenting behaviors: A meta-analytic review. Family Relations, 49, 29-40.
104. Lansford, J. E., Ceballo, R., Abbey, A., & Stewart, A. J. (2001). Does family structure matter? A comparison of adoptive, two-parent biological, single-mother, stepfather, and stepmother households. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 840-851.
105. Lev-Wiesel, R., & Al-Krenawi, A. (2000). Perception of family among Bedouin-Arab children of polygamous families as reflected in their family drawings. American Journal of Art Therapy, 38, 98-107.
106. Maitra, B. (1996). Child abuse: A universal 'diagnostic' category? The implication of culture in definition and assessment. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 42, 287-304.
107. Mann, B. J., & MacKenzie, E. P. (1996). Pathways among marital functioning, parental behaviors, and child behavior problems in school-age boys. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 25, 183-191.
108. McGoldrick, M., & Gerson, R. (1985). Genograms in family assessment. New York: Norton.
109. McLanahan, S., & Sandefur, G. (1994). Growing up with a single parent: What hurts, what helps. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
110. McLoyd, V. C. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist, 53(2), 185-204.
111. Minde, K. K. (1975). Psychological problems in Ugandan school children: A controlled evaluation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 16, 49-59.
112. Minuchin, P. P. (1988). Relationships within the family: A systems perspective on development. In R. A. Hinde & J. Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), Relationships within families: Mutual influences (pp. 7-26). New York: Oxford University Press.
113. Motneni, D. (1975) Polygyny in Iran. Journal of Marriage and the Familv, 37, 453-456.
114. Mulder, M. B. (1994). On polygyny and sex ratio at birth: An evaluation of Whiting's study. Current Anthropology, 35, 625-627.
115. Needleman, H. L., Schell, A., Bellinger, D., Leviton, A., & Allred, E. (1990). The long-term effects of low doses of lead in childhood: An 11-year follow-up report. New England Journal of Medicine, 322, 83-88.
116. Ohadike, P. O. (1968). A demographic note on marriage, family and family growth in Lagos, Nigeria. In the population of Tropical Africa. London: Longmans Green & Co.
117. Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Daniel, L. G. (2002). Uses and misuses of the correlation coefficient. Research in the Schools, 9, 73-90.
118. Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Daniel, L. G. (in press). Typology of analytical and interpretational errors in quantitative and qualitative educational research. Current Issues in Education.
119. Oyefeso, A., & Adegoke, A. R. (1992). Psychological adjustment of Yoruba adolescents as influenced by family type: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33, 785-788.
120. Owuamanam, D. (1984). Adolescents' perceptions of the polygamous family and its relationship to self concept. International Journal of Psychology, 19, 593-598.
121. Pagani, L., Boulerice, B., & Tremblay, R. (1997). The influence of poverty on children's classroom placement and behavior problems. In G. Duncan & J. Brooks-Gunn (Eds.), Consequences of growing up poor (pp. 311-339). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
122. Pearson, J. P., & Thoennes, N. (1988). Supporting children after divorce: The influence of custody on support levels and payments. Family Law Quarterly, 22, 319-339.
123. Pederson, E. Anderson, B., & Cain, R. (1977, April). An approach to understanding linkages between parent-infant and spouse relationships. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child development, New Orleans, LA.
124. Peterson, S. A. (1999). Marriage structure and contraception in Niger. Journal of Biosocial Science, 31, 93-104.
125. Porter, B., & O'Leary, D. K. (1980). Marital discord and childhood behavior problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 8, 287-295.
126. Rosenbaum, S. (1992). Child health and poor children. American Behavioral Scientist, 35, 275-389.
127. Rutter, M. (1975). Helping troubled children. New York: Plenum.
128. Seccombe, K. (2000). Families in poverty in the 1990's: Trends, causes, consequences, and lessons learned. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62, 1094-1113.
129. Sichona, F. J. (1993). The polygyny-fertility hypothesis revisited: The situation in Ghana. Journal of Biosocial Science, 25, 473-482.
130. Sinha, D., & Bharat, S. (1985). Three types of family structure and psychological differentiation: A study among the Jaunsar-Bawar society. International Journal of Psychology, 20, 693-708.
131. Smith, J. (2001). The adopted child syndrome: A methodological perspective. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 82, 491-497.
132. Snoek, C. J. (1970). Marriage and institutionalization of sexual relations. The future of marriage as institution. Concilium 55. New York: Herder and Herder.
133. Speizer, I. (1995). Men's desire for additional wives and children. Social Biology, 42, 199-213.
134. Stewarl, A. J., Copeland, A. P., Chester, N .L., Malley, J. E., & Barenbaum, N. B. (1997). Separating together: How divorce transforms families. New York: Guilford Press.
135. Strassmann, I. (1997). Polygyny as a risk factor for child mortality among the Dogon. Current Anthropology, 38, 688-695.
136. Swanson, R. B., Masssey, R. H., & Payne, I. R. (1972). Ordinal position, family size, and personal adjustment. Journal of Psychology, 81, 51-58.
137. Takeuchi, D. T., Williams, D. R., & Adair, R. K. (1991). Economic stress in the family and children's emotional and behavior problems. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53, 1031-1041.
138. Thompson, R. A. (1986). Fathers and the child's best interests: Judicial decision making in custody disputes. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The father's role: Applied perspectives. New York: Wiley.
139. Thornton, A., & Camburn, D. (1987). The influence of the family on premarital sexual attitudes and behavior. Demography, 24, 323-340.
140. Triandis, H. C. (2001). Individualism-collectivism and personality. Journal of Personality, 69, 907-924.
141. Triandis, H. C., Betancourt, H., Iwao, S., Leung, K., Salazar, J. M., Setiadi, et al. (1993). An etic-emic analysis of individualism and collectivism. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 24, 366-383.
142. U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1998). Statistical abstract of the United States, 1998 (118th ed.). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
143. Valsiner, J. (1989). Organization of children's social development in polygamie families. In J. Valsiner (Ed.), Child development in cultural context (pp. 67-86). Toronto, Canada: Hogrefe and Huber.
144. van de Walle, E. (1968). Marriage in African censuses and inquiries. In W. Brass, A. J. Coale, P. Demeny, D. F. Heisel, F. Lorimer, A. Romaniuk, & E. van de Walle (Eds.), The demography of Tropical Africa (pp. 183-238). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
145. Ware, H. (1979). Polygamy: Women's view in transitional society, Nigeria 1975. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 41, 185-195.
146. Weinger, S. (1998). Poor children "know their place": Perceptions of poverty, class, and public messages. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 25, 100-118.
147. Welch, C. E., & Click, P. C. (1981). The incidence of polygamy in contemporary Africa: A research note. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 191-194.
148. Wenk, D., Hardesty, C. L., Morgan, C., & Blair, S. L. (1994). The influence of parental involvement on the well-being of sons and daughters. Journal of Marriage and Family, 56, 229-234.
149. Wolfe, B. L. (1999, September). Poverty, children's health, and health care utilization. FRBNY Economic Policy Review, 9-21.