Structural social change and the mobilizing effect of threat: Explaining levels of patriot and militia organizing in the United States

Social Problems

Volumn 49, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 497-520

  Van Dyke, Nella ^a   Soule, Sarah A ^b  

^a OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0036876101     PISSN: 00377791     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1525/sp.2002.49.4.497     Document Type: Review

References (105)

1. Abanes, Richard 1996 American Militias: Rebellion, Racism, and Religion. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.
2. America Votes 1994 Washington, DC: Elections Research Center, Congressional Quarterly.
3. Barret, Stanley R. 1987 Is God Racist? The Right Wing in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
4. Barron, David N. 1992 "The analysis of count data: Overdispersion and autocorrelation." Sociological Methodology 179-220.
5. Beck, E. M. 2000 "Guess who's coming to town: White supremacy, ethnic competition and social change." Sociological Focus 33(2):153-174.
6. Beck, E. M., and Stewart E. Tolnay 1995 "Analyzing historical count data: Poisson and negative binomial regression models." Historical Methods 28(3):125-131.
7. Bell, Daniel 1963 "The dispossessed-1962." In The Radical Right, Daniel Bell, ed., 1-38. Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Co.
8. Bennet, David H. 1995 The Party of Fear: The American Far Right from Nativism to the Militia Movement. New York: Vintage-Random.
9. Berlet, Chip, and Matthew N. Lyons 2000 Right-Wing Populism in America. New York, The Gullford Press.
10. Betz, Hans-Georg 1994 Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe. New York: St. Martin's Press.
11. Blalock, Hubert M. 1967 Toward a Theory of Minority Group Relations. New York: Wiley.
12. Blee, Kathleen M. 1996 "Becoming a racist: Women in contemporary Ku Klux Klan and neo-Nazi groups." Gender & Society 10:680-702.
13. Buechler, Steven M. 2000 Social Movements in Advanced Capitalism: The Political Economy and Cultural Construction of Social Activism. New York: Oxford University Press.
14. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms 1989 State Laws and Published Ordinances-Firearms, 19th ed. Washington, DC: Department of the Treasury.
15. Burek, Deborah M., ed. 1994 Encyclopedia of Associations. Detroit, MI: Gale Research Inc.
16. Castells, Manuel 1997 The Power of Identity. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers.
17. Cattarinich, Xavier Germain Michel 1998 "The challenge of militant right-wing extremism to contemporary social movement theory." Master's Thesis. University of Alberta, Canada.
18. County and City Extra 1992 Lanham, MD: Bernan Press. 1994 Lanham, MD: Bernan Press. 1995 Lanham, MD: Bernan Press. 1996 Lanham, MD: Bernan Press.
19. County and City Extra 1992 Lanham, MD: Bernan Press. 1994 Lanham, MD: Bernan Press. 1995 Lanham, MD: Bernan Press. 1996 Lanham, MD: Bernan Press.
20. County and City Extra 1992 Lanham, MD: Bernan Press. 1994 Lanham, MD: Bernan Press. 1995 Lanham, MD: Bernan Press. 1996 Lanham, MD: Bernan Press.
21. County and City Extra 1992 Lanham, MD: Bernan Press. 1994 Lanham, MD: Bernan Press. 1995 Lanham, MD: Bernan Press. 1996 Lanham, MD: Bernan Press.
22. Crawford, Robert, and Devin Burghart 1997 "Guns and gavels: Common law courts, militias and white supremacy." In The Second Revolution: States Rights, Sovereignty, and Power of the County, Eric Ward, ed. Seattle: Peanut Butter Publishing.
23. Dees, Morris with James Corcoran 1996 Gathering Storm: America's Militia Threat. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.
24. Deseran, Forrest A. 1989 "Part-time farming and commuting." Research in Rural Sociology and Development 4:171-188.
25. Dobratz, Betty A., and Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile 1997 "White Power, White Pride!": The White Separatist Movement in the United States. New York: Twayne Publishers.
26. Dyer, Joel 1997 Harvest of Rage. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
27. Earl, Jennifer, and Sarah A. Soule 2001 "The differential protection of minority groups: The inclusion of sexual orientation, gender and disability in state hate crime laws, 1976-1995." The Politics of Social Inequality 9:3-34.
28. Finkel, Steven E., and James B. Rule 1986 "Relative deprivation and related psychological theories of civil violence: A critical review." Research in Social Movements, Conflicts, and Change 9:47-69.
29. Gallagher, Charles A. 1994 "White reconstruction in the university." Socialist Review 24:165-187.
30. Garner, Roberta 1997 "50 years of social movement theory." In Social Movement Theory and Research, an Annotated Bibliography. Magill Bibliographies: Salem/Scarecrow Press.
31. Giles, Michael 1977 "Percent black and racial hostility: An old assumption reexamined." Social Science Quarterly 58:412-417.
32. Giles, Michael, and Arthur Evans 1985 "External threat, perceived threat, and group identity." Social Science Quarterly 66:55-66.
33. Goldstone, Jack A., and Charles Tilly 2001 "Threat (and opportunity): Popular action and state response in the dynamics of contentious action." In Silence and Voice in Contentious Politics, Ron Aminzade, Jack A. Goldstone, Doug McAdam, Elizabeth Perry, William Sewell, Jr., Sidney Tarrow, and Charles Tilly, eds., 179-194. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
34. Goodwin, Jeff, and James M. Jasper 1999 "Caught in a winding, snarling vine: The structural bias of political process theory." Sociological Forum 14(l):27-54.
35. Gould, Roger V. 1993 "Collective action and network structure." American Sociological Review 58(2):182-196.
36. Grattet, Ryken, Valerie Jenness, and Theodore R. Curry 1998 "The homogenization and differentiation of hate crime law in the United States, 1978 to 1995: Innovation and diffusion in the criminalization of bigotry." American Sociological Review 63(2):286-307.
37. Gusfleld, Joseph. R. 1963 Symbolic Crusade: Status Politics and the American Temperance Movement. Urbana and Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press.
38. Hamilton, Neil A. 1996 Militias in America: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO Inc.
39. Hofstadter, Richard 1955 The Age of Reform. New York: Knopf.
40. Jacobs, David, and Katherine Wood 1999 "Interracial conflict and interracial homicide: Do political and economic rivalries explain white killings of blacks or black killings of whites?" American Journal of Sociology 105:157-190.
41. Jenkins, J. Craig 1983 "Resource mobilization theory and the study of social movements." Annual Review of Sociology 9:527-553.
42. Kimmel, Michael, and Abby Ferber 2000 "'White men are this nation': Right wing militias and the restoration of rural American masculinity." Rural Sociology 65(4):582-604.
43. Kitschelt, Herbert 1995 The Radical Right in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
44. Koopmans, Ruud 1996 "Explaining the rise of racist and extreme right violence in western Europe: Grievances or opportunities?" European Journal of Political Research 30:185-216.
45. Kornhauser, William 1959 The Politics of Mass Society. New York: Free Press.
46. Lamy, Philip 1996 Millennium Rage. New York: Plenum Press.
47. Land, Kenneth C., Patricia L. McCall, and Daniel S. Nagin 1996 "A comparison of Poisson, negative binomial, and semi-parametric mixed Poisson regression models." Sociological Methods & Research 24(4):387-442.
48. Lang, Kurt, and Gladys Lang 1961 Collective Dynamics. New York: Cromwell.
49. Leicht, Kevin T., and J. Craig Jenkins 1998 "Political resources and direct state intervention: The adoption of public venture capital programs in the American states, 1974-1990." Social Forces 76:1323-1346.
50. Lipset, Seymour Martin 1963 "The sources of the 'Radical right'-1955." In The Radical Right, Daniel Bell, ed., 259-312. Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Co.
51. Lobao, Linda, and Paul Lasley 1995 "Farm restructuring and crisis in the heartland: An introduction." In Beyond Amber Waves of Grain: An Examination of Social and Economic Restructuring in the Heartland, Paul Lasley, Larry Reistaitz, Linda Lobao, and Katherine Meyer, eds., 1-28. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
52. Marrs, Texe 1993 Big Sister is Watching You: Hillary Clinton and the White House Feminists Who Now Control America - and Tell the President What To Do. Austin, TX: Living Truth Publishers.
53. McAdam, Doug 1982 Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970, 2nd edition. Chicago: (1999) University of Chicago Press. 1988 Freedom Summer. New York: Oxford University Press. 1996 "Political opportunities: Conceptual origins, current problems, future directions." In Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald, eds. Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
54. McAdam, Doug 1982 Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970, 2nd edition. Chicago: (1999) University of Chicago Press. 1988 Freedom Summer. New York: Oxford University Press. 1996 "Political opportunities: Conceptual origins, current problems, future directions." In Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald, eds. Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
55. McAdam, Doug 1982 Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970, 2nd edition. Chicago: (1999) University of Chicago Press. 1988 Freedom Summer. New York: Oxford University Press. 1996 "Political opportunities: Conceptual origins, current problems, future directions." In Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald, eds. Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
56. McAdam, Doug, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald 1988 "Social movements," In Handbook of Sociology, Neil Smelser, ed., 695-737. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
57. McAdam, Doug, and Ronnelle Paulsen 1993 "Social ties and activism: Toward a specification of the relationship." American Journal of Sociology 99(3):640-667.
58. McCammon, Holly J., Karen E. Campbell, Ellen M. Granberg, and Christine Mowery 2001 "How movements win: Gendered opportunity structures and U.S. women's suffrage movements, 1866 to 1919." American Sociological Review 66:49-70.
59. McCarthy, John D., and Mayer N. Zald 1977 "Resource mobilization and social movements: A partial theory." American Journal of Sociology 82(6):1212-1241.
60. McVeigh, Rory 1999 "Structural incentives for conservative mobilization: Power devaluation and the rise of the Ku Klux Klan, 1915-1925." Social Forces 77(4):1461-1496.
61. Meyer, David S. 1990 A Winter of Discontent: The Nuclear Freeze and American Politics. New York: Praeger.
62. Meyer, David S., and Suzanne Staggenborg 1996 "Movements, counter-movements and political opportunity." American Journal of Sociology 101:1628-1660.
63. Moore, Barrington, Jr. 1966 Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World. Boston: Beacon Press.
64. Neiwert, David A. 1999 In God's Country - The Patriot Movement and the Pacific Northwest. Pullman: Washington State University Press.
65. Olzak, Susan 1992 The Dynamics of Ethnic Competition and Conflict. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
66. Scott, James C. 1976 The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellions and Subsistence in Southeast Asia. New Haven: Yale University Press.
67. Simpson, William Gayley 1991 "The everlasting truth about race." Christian Patriot Crusader 7(4):19-20.
68. Snow, Robert L. 1999 The Militia Threat: Terrorists among Vs. New York: Plenum Trade.
69. Soule, Sarah A. 1992 "Populism and black lynching in Georgia, 1890-1900." Social Forces 71:431-449.
70. Soule, Sarah A., and Jennifer Earl 2001 "The enactment of state-level hate crime law in the United States: Intrastate and interstate factors." Sociological Perspectives 44(3):281-305.
71. Soule, Sarah A., and Nella Van Dyke 1999 "Black church arson in the United States, 1989-1996." Ethnic and Racial Studies 22(4):724-742.
72. Soule, Sarah A., and Yvonne Zylan 1997 "Runaway train? The diffusion of state-level reforms in ADC/AFDC eligibility requirements, 1950-1967." American Journal of Sociology 3:733-762.
73. Southern Poverty Law Center 1996 "False patriots." Intelligence Report 83:58-68. 1999 "The world of patriots. " Intelligence Report 94:10-11. 2000 "'Patriot' free fall." Intelligence Report 106, http://www.splcenter.org/intelligenceproject/ip-4v6.html.
74. Southern Poverty Law Center 1996 "False patriots." Intelligence Report 83:58-68. 1999 "The world of patriots. " Intelligence Report 94:10-11. 2000 "'Patriot' free fall." Intelligence Report 106, http://www.splcenter.org/intelligenceproject/ip-4v6.html.
75. Southern Poverty Law Center 1996 "False patriots." Intelligence Report 83:58-68. 1999 "The world of patriots. " Intelligence Report 94:10-11. 2000 "'Patriot' free fall." Intelligence Report 106, http://www.splcenter.org/intelligenceproject/ip-4v6.html.
76. Stam, Jerome M., Steven R. Koenig, Susan E. Bentley, and H. Frederick Gale, Jr. 1991 Farm Financial Stress, Farm Exits, and Public Sector Assistance to the Farm Sector in the 1980s. Agricultural Economic Report Number 645. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.
77. Stern, Kenneth S. 1996 A Force Upon the Plain: The American Militia Movement and the Politics of Hate. New York: Simon and Schuster.
78. Swomley, John M. 1999 "The militia movement presents a serious threat." In Hate Croups: Opposing Viewpoints, Tamara L. Roleff, Brenda Stalcup, and Mary E. Williams, eds., 112-124. San Diego, CA: Greenhave Press, Inc.
79. Tarrow, Sidney 1989 Democracy and Disorder: Protest and Politics in Italy, 1965-1975. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1994 Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action, and Mass Politics in the Modem State. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 1996 "States and opportunities: The political structuring of social movements." In Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements, Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald, eds. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
80. Tarrow, Sidney 1989 Democracy and Disorder: Protest and Politics in Italy, 1965-1975. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1994 Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action, and Mass Politics in the Modem State. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 1996 "States and opportunities: The political structuring of social movements." In Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements, Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald, eds. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
81. Tarrow, Sidney 1989 Democracy and Disorder: Protest and Politics in Italy, 1965-1975. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1994 Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action, and Mass Politics in the Modem State. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 1996 "States and opportunities: The political structuring of social movements." In Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements, Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald, eds. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
82. Taylor, Verta 1996 Rock-a-by Baby: Feminism, Self-Help, and Postpartum Depression. New York: Routledge.
83. Tilly, Charles 1964 The Vendée. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univeristy Press. 1978 From Mobilization to Revolution. Reading, MA: AddisonWesley. 1993 European Revolutions, 1492-1992. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers.
84. Tilly, Charles 1964 The Vendée. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univeristy Press. 1978 From Mobilization to Revolution. Reading, MA: AddisonWesley. 1993 European Revolutions, 1492-1992. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers.
85. Tilly, Charles 1964 The Vendée. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univeristy Press. 1978 From Mobilization to Revolution. Reading, MA: AddisonWesley. 1993 European Revolutions, 1492-1992. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers.
86. Tolbert, Charles M., II 1989 "Labor market areas in stratification research: Concepts, definitions and issues." Research in Rural Sociology and Development 4:81-97.
87. Tolbert, Charles M., II, and Molly Sizer 1996 U.S. commuting zones and labor market areas: A 1990 update. Rural Economy Division, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Staff Paper No: AGES-9614.
88. Tolnay, Stewart E., and E. M. Beck 1995 A Festival of Violence: An Analysis of Southern Lynchings, 1882-1930. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
89. Turner, Ralph H., and Lewis M. Killian 1987 Collective Behavior, 3rd edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc.
90. U.S. Bureau of the Census 1983 1980 Census of the Population: General Social and Economic Characteristics. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, Bureau of the Census. 1985 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office. 1991 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office. 1992 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office. 1993 1990 Census of the Population: General Social and Economic Characteristics. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, Bureau of the Census. 1994 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office.
91. U.S. Bureau of the Census 1983 1980 Census of the Population: General Social and Economic Characteristics. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, Bureau of the Census. 1985 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office. 1991 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office. 1992 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office. 1993 1990 Census of the Population: General Social and Economic Characteristics. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, Bureau of the Census. 1994 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office.
92. U.S. Bureau of the Census 1983 1980 Census of the Population: General Social and Economic Characteristics. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, Bureau of the Census. 1985 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office. 1991 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office. 1992 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office. 1993 1990 Census of the Population: General Social and Economic Characteristics. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, Bureau of the Census. 1994 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office.
93. U.S. Bureau of the Census 1983 1980 Census of the Population: General Social and Economic Characteristics. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, Bureau of the Census. 1985 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office. 1991 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office. 1992 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office. 1993 1990 Census of the Population: General Social and Economic Characteristics. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, Bureau of the Census. 1994 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office.
94. U.S. Bureau of the Census 1983 1980 Census of the Population: General Social and Economic Characteristics. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, Bureau of the Census. 1985 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office. 1991 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office. 1992 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office. 1993 1990 Census of the Population: General Social and Economic Characteristics. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, Bureau of the Census. 1994 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office.
95. U.S. Bureau of the Census 1983 1980 Census of the Population: General Social and Economic Characteristics. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, Bureau of the Census. 1985 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office. 1991 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office. 1992 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office. 1993 1990 Census of the Population: General Social and Economic Characteristics. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, Bureau of the Census. 1994 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office.
96. U.S. Committee on the Judiciary 1997a Terrorism in the United States: The Nature and Extent of the Threat and Possible Legislative Responses. Hearings before the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate. April 27 and May 24, 1995. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1997b The Militia Movement in the United States. Hearing before the Subcommittee on Terrorism, Technology, and Government Information of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate. June 15, 1995. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
97. U.S. Committee on the Judiciary 1997a Terrorism in the United States: The Nature and Extent of the Threat and Possible Legislative Responses. Hearings before the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate. April 27 and May 24, 1995. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1997b The Militia Movement in the United States. Hearing before the Subcommittee on Terrorism, Technology, and Government Information of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate. June 15, 1995. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
98. Useem, Bert 1998 "Breakdown theories of collective action." Annual Review of Sociology 24:215-238.
99. Van Dyke, Nella Forthcoming "Protest cycles and party politics: The effects of elite allies and antagonists on student protest in the United States, 1930-1990." In Parties, Politics and Movements, Jack Goldstone, ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
100. Walsh, Edward J. 1981 "Resource mobilization and citizen protest in communities around Three-Mile Island." Social Problems 29:1-21.
101. Wellman, David T. 1993 Portraits of White Racism, Second Edition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
102. Wilcox, Laird 1995 Guide to the American Right. Olathe, KS: Laird Wilcox.
103. Winerup, Michael 1996 "An American place: The paramilitary movement. Ohio case typifies the tensions between militia groups and the law." The New York Times, June 23, Al.
104. Wright, Gerald C., Robert S. Erickson, and John P. McIver 1985 "Measuring state partisanship and ideology with survey data." The Journal of Politics 47(2):469-489.
105. Zylan, Yvonne, and Sarah A. Soule 2000 "Ending welfare as we know it (again): Welfare state retrenchment, 1989-1995." Social Forces 79(2):623-652.