The homogenization and differentiation of hate crime law in the United States, 1978 to 1995: Innovation and diffusion in the criminalization of bigotry

American Sociological Review

Volumn 63, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 286-307

  Grattet, Ryken ^a   Jenness, Valerie ^b   Curry, Theodore R ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0001313011     PISSN: 00031224     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2657328     Document Type: Review

References (86)

1. Adam, Barry D. 1987. The Rise of a Gay and Lesbian Movement. Boston, MA: Twayne.
2. Anti-Defamation League, 1994. Hate Crime Laws: A Comprehensive Guide. New York: Anti-Defamation League.
3. Beckett, Katherine. 1994. "Setting the Public Agenda: 'Street Crime' and Drug Use in American Politics." Social Problems 41:425-47.
4. Bensinger, Gad. 1992. "Hate Crimes: A New/Old Problem." International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice 16:115-23.
5. Ben-Yehuda, Nachman. 1990. The Politics and Morality of Deviance. New York: SUNY Press.
6. Berger, Ronald, Patricia Searles, and W. Lawrence Neuman. 1988. "The Dimensions of Rape Reform Legislation." Law and Society Review 22:329-57.
7. Berk, Richard, Elizabeth A. Boyd, and Karl M. Hamner. 1992. "Thinking More Clearly About Hate-Motivated Crimes." Pp. 123-43 in Hate Crimes: Confronting Violence against Lesbians and Gay Men, edited by G. Herek and K. Berrill. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
8. Berry, Frances Stokes and William D. Berry. 1990. "State Lottery Adoptions as Policy Innovations: An Event History Analysis." American Political Science Review 84:395-415.
9. Best, Joel. 1990. Threatened Children: Rhetoric and Concern about Child Victims. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
10. Burstein, Paul. 1985. Discrimination, Jobs, and Politics: The Struggle for Equal Employment Opportunity in the United States Since the New Deal. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
11. _. 1991. "Policy Domains: Organization, Culture, and Policy Outcomes." Annual Review of Sociology 17:327-50.
12. Call, Jack E., David Nice, and Susette M. Talarico. 1991. "An Analysis of State Rape Shield Laws." Social Science Quarterly 72: 774-88.
13. Chambliss, William and Robert Seidman. 1982. Law, Order, and Power. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
14. Chambliss, William J. and Marjorie S. Zatz. 1993. Making Law: The State, The Law, and Structural Contradictions. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
15. Chaves, Mark. 1996. "Ordaining Women: The Diffusion of an Organizational Innovation." American Journal of Sociology 101:840-73.
16. Coleman, James S., Elihu Katz, and Herbert Menzel. 1966. Medical Innovation. New York: Bobbs-Merrill.
17. Coltrane, Scott and Neal Hickman. 1992. "The Rhetoric of Rights and Needs: Moral Discourse in the Reform of Child Custody and Child Support Laws." Social Problems 39:400-20.
18. DiChiara, Albert and John F. Galliher. 1994. "Dissonance and Contradiction in the Origin of Marijuana Decriminalization" Law and Society Review 28:41-77.
19. Edelman, Lauren B. 1990. "Legal Environments and Organizational Governance: The Expansion of Due Process in the American Workplace." American Journal of Sociology 95:1401-40.
20. _. 1992. "Legal Ambiguity and Symbolic Structures: Organizational Mediation of Civil Rights Law." American Journal of Sociology 97:1531-76.
21. Elazar, Daniel. 1972. American Federalism: A View from the States. New York: Crowell.
22. Eyestone, Robert. 1977. "Confusion, Diffusion, and Innovation." American Political Science Review 71:441-47.
23. Farr, Kathyrn. 1995. "Fetal Abuse and Criminalization of Behavior During Pregnancy." Crime and Delinquency 41:235-45.
24. Fenn, Peter and Taylor McNeil. 1987. The Response of the Criminal Justice System to Bias Crime: An Exploratory Review. Washington, DC: Abt. Associates.
25. Ferree, Myra Marx and Beth B. Hess. 1985. Controversy and Coalition: The New Feminist Movement. Boston, MA: Twayne.
26. Fishman, Mark. 1978. "Crime Waves as Ideology." Social Problems 25:531-43.
27. Galliher, John F. and Linda Basilick. 1979. "Utah's Liberal Drug Laws: Structural Foundations and Triggering Events." Social Problems 26:284-97.
28. Galliher, John F. and John. R. Cross. 1983. Morals Legislation Without Morality: The Case of Nevada. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
29. Goldberg, Robert A. 1991. Grassroots Resistance: Social Movements in Twentieth Century America. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
30. Gray, Virginia. 1973. "Innovation in the States: A Diffusion Study." American Political Science Review 76:1174-85.
31. Gunnlaugsson, Helgi and John F. Galliher. 1986. "Prohibition of Beer in Iceland: An International Test of Symbolic Politics." Law and Society Review 20:334-53.
32. Gusfield, Joseph. 1963. Symbolic Crusade: States, Politics, and the American Temperance Movement. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press.
33. Hagan, John. 1980. "The Legislation of Crime and Delinquency: A Review of Theory, Method, and Research." Law and Society Review 14:603-28.
34. Hall, Stuart, Chas Critcher, Tony Jefferson, John Clarke, and Brian Robert. 1978. Policing the Crisis: Mugging, the State, and Law and Order. London, England: MacMillan.
35. Hernandez, Tanya Kateri. 1990. "Bias Crimes: Unconscious Racism in the Prosecution of 'Racially-Motivated Violence.'" The Yale Law Journal 99:832-64.
36. Hollinger, Richard C. and Lonn Lanza-Kaduce. 1988. "The Process of Criminalization: The Case of Computer Crime Laws." Criminology 26:108-26.
37. Humphries, Drew and David F. Greenberg. 1981. "The Dialectics of Crime Control." Pp. 209-54 in Crime and Capitalism, edited by D. F. Greenberg. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield.
38. Jenness, Valerie. 1995a. "Hate Crimes in the United States: The Transformation of Injured Persons into Victims and the Extension of Victim Status to Multiple Constituencies." Pp. 213-37 in Images and Issues: Typifying Contemporary Social Problems, edited by J. Best. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
39. _. 1995b. "Social Movement Growth, Domain Expansion, and Framing Processes: The Gay/Lesbian Movement and Violence Against Gays and Lesbians as a Social Problem." Social Problems 47:145-70.
40. Jenness, Valerie and Kendal Broad. 1994. "Anti-Violence Activism and the (In)Visibility of Gender in the Gay/Lesbian Movement and the Women's Movement." Gender and Society 8:402-23.
41. _. 1997. Hate Crimes: New Social Movements and the Politics of Violence. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine deGruyter.
42. Jenness, Valerie and Ryken Grattet. 1996. "The Criminalization of Hate: A Comparison of Structural and Polity Influencies on the Passage of 'Bias-Crime' Legislation in the U.S." Sociological Perspectives 39:129-54.
43. Kelly, Robert. 1993. Bias Crime: American Law Enforcement and Legal Responses. Chicago, IL: Office of International Criminal Justice, University of Illinois.
44. Kincaid, John, ed. 1982. Political Culture, Public Policy, and the American States. Philadelphia, PA: Institute for the Study of Human Issues.
45. Knoke, David. 1982. "The Spread of Municipal Reform: Temporal, Spatial, and Social Dynamics." American Journal of Sociology 87:1314-39.
46. Lee, Virginia Nia and Joseph M. Fernandez. 1990. "Legislative Responses to Hate-Motivated Violence: The Massachusetts Experience and Beyond." Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review 25:287-340.
47. Levin, Jack and Jack McDevitt. 1993. Hate Crimes: The Rising Tide of Bigotry and Bloodshed. New York: Plenum.
48. Martin, Susan. 1995. "A Cross-Burning Is Not Just an Arson: Police Social Construction of Hate Crimes in Baltimore County." Criminology 33:303-26.
49. Marx, Gary T. and Douglas McAdam. 1994. Collective Behavior and Social Movements: Processes and Structure. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
50. Mazur-Hart, Helen L. 1982. "Racial and Religious Intimidation: An Analysis of Oregon's 1981 Law." Willamette Law Review 18:197-218.
51. McCammon, Holly. 1995. "The Politics of Protection: State Minimum Wage and Maximum Hours Laws for Women in the United States, 1870-1930." Sociological Quarterly 36:217-49
52. McGarrell, Edmund and Thomas C. Castellano. 1991. "An Integrative Conflict Model of the Criminal Law Formation Process." Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 28:174-96.
53. _. 1993. "Social Structure, Crime, and Politics: A Conflict Model of Law Formation." Pp. 347-78 in Making Law: The State, The Law, and Structural Contradictions," edited by W. J. Chambliss and M. S. Zatz. Bloomington, IN: Indana University Press.
54. Merry, Sally Engle. 1995. "Resistance and the Cultural Power of Law." Law and Society 29:11-26.
55. Miller, Berkeley and William Canak. 1988. "The Passage of Public Sector Collective Bargaining Laws: Unions, Business, and Political Competition in the American States." Political Power and Social Theory 7:249-92.
56. Newton, Michael and Judy Ann Newton. 1991. Racial and Religious Violence in America. New York: Garland.
57. Pavalko, Eliza. 1989. "State Timing of Policy Adoption: Workmen's Compensation in the United States, 1909-1929." American Journal of Sociology 95:592-615.
58. Powell, Walter W. and Paul J. DiMaggio, eds. 1991. The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
59. Rafter, Nicole H. 1990. "The Social Construction of Crime and Crime Control." Journal of Research on Crime and Delinquency 27:376-89.
60. Reinarman, Craig and Harry G. Levine. 1989. "The Crack Attack: Politics and the Media in America's Latest Drug Scare." Pp. 115-37 in Images of Issues: Typifying Contemporary Social Problems, edited by J. Best. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
61. Savage, Robert. 1978. "Policy Innovations in the States." Journal of Politics 40:212-24.
62. Savelsberg, Joachim J. 1987. "The Making of Criminal Law Norms in Welfare States: Economic Crime in West Germany." Law and Society Review 21:529-61.
63. _. 1992. "Law That Does Not Fit Society: Sentencing Guidlines as a Neoclassical Reaction to the Dilemmas of Substantivized Law." American Journal of Sociology 97:1346-81.
64. _. 1994. "Knowledge, Domination, and Criminal Punishment." American Journal of Sociology 99:911-43.
65. Scheingold, Stuart A. 1984. The Politics of Law and Order: Street Crime and Public Policy. New York: Longman.
66. _. 1991. The Politics of Street Crime: Criminal Process and Cultural Obsession. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
67. Shapiro, Joseph P. 1993. No Pity: People with Disabilities Forging a New Civil Rights Movement. New York: Random House.
68. Skocpol, Theda, Marjorie Abend-Wein, Christopher Howard, and Susan Goodrich Lehmann. 1993. "Women's Associations and the Enactment of Mothers' Pensions in the United States." American Political Science Review 87:686-98.
69. Steury, Ellen Hochstedler. 1991. "Specifying the 'Criminalization' of the Mentally Disordered Misdemeanant." Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. 82:334-59.
70. Strang, David. 1990. "From Dependency to Sovereignty: An Event History Analysis of Decolonization, 1870-1987." American Sociological Review 55:846-60.
71. Strang, David and John W. Meyer. 1993. "Institutional Conditions for Diffusion." Theory and Society 22:487-512.
72. Strang, David and Nancy Brandon Tuma. 1993. "Spatial and Temporal Heterogeneity in Diffusion." American Journal of Sociology 99:614-39.
73. Sutherland, Edwin H. 1950. "The Diffusion of Sexual Psychopathy Laws." American Journal of Sociology 56:142-48.
74. Sutton, John R. 1987. Stubborn Children: Controlling Delinquency in the United States, 1640-1981. Berkeley', CA: University of California Press.
75. Taylor, Verta. 1989. "Social Movement Continuity: The Women's Movement in Abeyance." American Sociological Review 54:761-75.
76. Thomas, George M., John Meyer, Francisco Ramirez, and John Boli. 1987. Institutional Structure: Constituting State, Society, and the Individual. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
77. Tolbert, Pamela and Lynne G. Zucker. 1983. "Institutional Sources of Change in the Formal Structure of Organizations: The Diffusion of Civil Service Reform, 1880-1935." Administrative Science Quarterly 28:22-39.
78. Tuma, Nancy and Michael T. Hannan. 1984. Social Dynamics: Models and Methods. Orlando, FL: Academic.
79. U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1986. State and Metropolitan Area Data Book. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
80. _. 1991. State and Metropolitan Area Data Book. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
81. Vaid, Urvashi. 1995. Virtual Equality: The Mainstreaming of Gay and Lesbian Liberation. New York: Anchor Books/Doubleday.
82. Walker, Jack L. 1969. "The Diffusion of Innovations Among the American States." American Political Science Review 63:880-97.
83. _. 1973. "Comment: Problems in Research on the Diffusion of Policy Innovations." American Political Science Review 62:1190.
84. Wright, Gerald C., Robert S. Erikson, and John P. McIver. 1985. "Measuring State Partisanship and Ideology with Survey Data." Journal of Politics 47:469-89.
85. Yamaguchi, Kazuo. 1991. Event History Analysis. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
86. Zucker, Lynne. 1987. "Institutional Theories of Organizations." Annual Review of Sociology 13:443-64.