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ECHAM4 solves prognostic equations for the mass mixing ratio of dimethyl sulfide, sulfur dioxide, sulfate aerosols, methane sutfonic acid, hydrophobic and hydrophilic organic and black carbon aerosols, respectively, dust and sea salt aerosols; cloud liquid water and cloud ice mixing ratio; and number concentrations of cloud droplets and ice crystals. Transport, dry, and wet deposition, and chemical transformations of the aerosols and gaseous precursors are calculated online with the GCM. We used the autoconversion rate of cloud droplets to form rain drops and the accretion rates of cloud droplets by (26).
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15
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2142770821
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The reference simulation ECHAM-CTL and the preindustrial climate simulation ECHAM-PI are 5-year integrations after an initial adjustment of 3 months, whereas the simulations with no aerosol indirect effects, ECHAM-NO-AIE, and cloud lifetime effect (second indirect effect) only, ECHAM-2ND-AIE, were integrated for 3 years after the initial 3-month adjustment.
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16
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2142717954
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It is not possible to only include the cloud albedo effect in a present-day simulation because if CDNC is constant in the cloud microphysics, then the precipitation efficiency, the cloud lifetime, and the cloud liquid water path of water clouds change. This has a stronger implication for cloud radiative effects than expected from the cloud albedo effect alone. Furthermore, all simulations include aerosol direct effects.
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17
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2142658475
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There is no black carbon in the preindustrial simulation, and carbonaceous aerosol emissions from forest fires are neglected. Carbon dioxide levels are held constant at their present-day values.
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20
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More and smaller cloud droplets over land are caused by more vigorous updrafts and more aerosol particles.
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2142829101
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note
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We thank F.-M. Bréon for providing the POLDER data and S. Ghan and one anonymous reviewer for helpful comments and suggestions. Supported by the National Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada and the Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Science collaborative research grants. We thank the Deutsches Klimarechenzentrum for computing time.
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