Cardiovascular toxicities of immunosuppressive agents

American Journal of Transplantation

Volumn 2, Issue 9, 2002, Pages 807-818

  Miller, Leslie W ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular toxicity; Immunosuppressants; Organ transplantation

Indexed keywords

ANTILIPEMIC AGENT; AZATHIOPRINE; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CERIVASTATIN; CORTICOSTEROID; CYCLOSPORIN; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIURETIC AGENT; FENOFIBRATE; FIBRIC ACID DERIVATIVE; GEMFIBROZIL; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENT; MEVINOLIN; MYCOPHENOLIC ACID 2 MORPHOLINOETHYL ESTER; NICOTINIC ACID; PRAVASTATIN; PREDNISOLONE; PREDNISONE; PROBUCOL; RAPAMYCIN; RESIN; TACROLIMUS;

ACUTE GRAFT REJECTION; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOTOXICITY; CLINICAL TRIAL; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; DIABETES MELLITUS; DRUG ANTAGONISM; DRUG DOSE REGIMEN; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG EFFICACY; DYSLIPIDEMIA; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; MYOPATHY; NONHUMAN; ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION; RHABDOMYOLYSIS; RISK FACTOR; SHORT SURVEY; THROMBOSIS; VASCULAR DISEASE;

ADRENAL CORTEX HORMONES; ANIMALS; CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM; CORONARY ARTERIOSCLEROSIS; CYCLOSPORINE; DIABETES MELLITUS; HUMANS; HYPERLIPIDEMIAS; HYPERTENSION; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENTS; SIROLIMUS; TACROLIMUS;

EID: 0036820323     PISSN: 16006135     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-6143.2002.20902.x     Document Type: Short Survey

References (139)

1. Bostom AD, Brown RS, Chavers BM et al. Prevention of posttransplant cardiovascular disease: report and recommendations of an ad hoc group. Am J Transplant 2002; 2: 491-500.
2. Kasiske BL. Epidemiology of cardiovascular disease after renal transplantation. Transplantation 2001; 72: S5-S8.
3. Koomans HA, Ligtenberg G. Mechanisms and consequences of arterial hypertension after renal transplantation. Transplantation 2001; 72: S9-S12.
4. Massy ZA. Hyperlipidemia and cardiovascular disease after organ transplantation. Transplantation 2001; 72: S13-S15.
5. Forsythe JLR. Graft function and other risk factors as predictors of cardiovascular disease outcome. Transplantation 2001; 72: S16-S19.
6. First MR. Strategies to minimize immunological and nonimmunological risk factors in the renal transplant population. Transplantation 2001; 72: S20-S24.
7. Hosenpud JD, Bennett LE, Keck BM, Boucek MM, Novick RJ. The Registry of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: seventeenth official report - 2000. J Heart Lung Transplant 2000; 19: 909-931.
8. Miller LW, Schlant RC, Kobashigawa J, Kubo S, Renlund DG. 24th Bethesda Conference: cardiac transplantation. Task Force 5: complications. J Am Coll Cardiol 1993; 22: 41-54.
9. Blum A, Aravot D. Heart transplantation - an update. Clin Cardiol 1996; 19: 930-938.
10. Singer DRJ, Jenkins GH. Hypertension in transplant recipients. J Hum Hypertens 1996; 10: 395-402.
11. Textor SC, Canzanello VJ, Taler SJ, Schwartz L, Augustine J. Hypertension after liver transplantation. Liver Transpl Surg 1995; 1 (Suppl 1): 20-28.
12. Sander M, Lyson T, Thomas GD, Victor RG. Sympathetic neural mechanisms of cyclosporine-induced hypertension. Am J Hypertens 1996; 9: 121S.
13. Sander M, Victor RG. Hypertension after cardiac transplantation: pathophysiology and management. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 1995; 4: 443-451.
14. Ventura HO, Mehra MR, Stapleton DD, Smart FW. Cyclosporine-induced hypertension in cardiac transplantation. Med Clin North Am 1997; 81: 1347-1357.
15. Lyson T, Ermel LD, Belshaw PJ, Alberg DG, Schreiber SL, Victor RG. Cyclosporine- and FK506-induced sympathetic activation correlates with calcineurin-mediated inhibition of T-cell signaling. Circ Res 1993; 73: 596.
16. Quesniaux VFJ. Immunosuppressants: tools to investigate the physiological role of cytokines. Bioassays 1993; 15: 731-739.
17. Golub MS, Lustig S, Berger ME, Lee DBN. Altered vascular responses in cyclosporine-treated rats. Transplantation 1989; 48: 116-118.
18. Lucini D, Milani RV, Ventura HO et al. Cyclosporine-induced hypertension: evidence for maintained baroreflex circulatory control. J Heart Lung Transplant 1997; 16: 615-620.
19. De Lima JJ, Xue H, Coburn L et al. Effects of FK506 in rat and human resistance arteries. Kidney Int 1999; 55: 1518-1527.
20. Sudhir K, MacGregor JS, DeMarco T et al. Cyclosporine impairs release of endothelium-derived relaxing factors in epicardial and resistance coronary arteries. Circulation 1994; 90: 3018-3023.
21. Bartholomeusz B, Hardy KJ, Nelson AS, Phillips PA. Modulation of nitric oxide improves cyclosporin A-induced hypertension in rats and primates. J Hum Hypertens 1998; 12: 839-444.
22. Bracht C, Yan XW, LaRocca HP, Sutsch G, Kiowski W. Cyclosporine A and control of vascular tone in the human forearm: influence of posttransplant hypertension. J Hypertens 1999; 17: 357-363.
23. Taylor DO, Barr ML, Radovancevic B et al. A randomized, multicenter comparison of FK506 and cyclosporine immunosuppressive regimens in cardiac transplantation: decreased hyperlipidemia and hypertension with FK506. J Heart Lung Transplant 1999; 18: 336-345.
24. Stegall MD, Wachs ME, Everson G et al. Prednisone withdrawal 14 days after liver transplantation with mycophenolate, a prospective trial of cyclosporine and tacrolimus. Transplantation 1997; 64: 1755-1760.
25. Neylan JF. for the FK506 Kidney Transplant Study Group. Racial differences in renal transplantation after immunosuppression with FK506 versus cyclosporine. Transplantation 1998; 65: 515-523.
26. Radermacher J, Meiners M, Bramlage C et al. Pronounced renal vasoconstriction and systemic hypertension in renal transplant patients treated with cyclosporin A versus FK 506. Transplant Int 1998; 11: 3-10.
27. Jain A, Reyes J, Kashyap R et al. What have we learned about primary liver transplantation under tacrolimus immunosuppression? Long-term follow-up of the first 1000 patients. Ann Surg 1999: 230: 441-448.
28. Guckelberger O, Bechstein WO, Neuhaus R et al. Cardiovascular risk factors in long-term follow-up after orthotopic liver transplantation. Clin Transplant 1997; 11: 60-65.
29. Canzanello VJ, Schwartz L, Taler SJ et al. Evolution of cardiovascular risk after liver transplantation: a comparison of cyclosporine A and tacrolimus (FK506). Liver Transpl Surg 1997; 3: 1-9.
30. Brozena SC, Johnson MR, Ventura H et al. Effectiveness and safety of diltiazem or lisinopril in treatment of hypertension after heart transplantation. Results of a prospective, randomized multicenter trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996; 27: 1707-1712.
31. Kirk JK, Dupuis RE. Approaches to the treatment of hyperlipidemia in the solid-organ transplant recipient. Ann Pharmacother 1995; 29: 879-891.
32. Kobashigawa JA, Kasiske BL. Hyperlipidemia in solid organ transplantation. Transplantation 1997; 63: 331-338.
33. Ong CS, Pollock CA, Caterson RJ, Mahony JF, Waugh DA, Ibels LS. Hyperlipidemia in renal transplant recipients: natural history and response to treatment. Medicine 1994; 73: 215-223.
34. Guijarro C, Massy ZA, Kasiske BL. Clinical correlation between renal allograft failure and hyperlipidemia. Kidney Int 1995; 48 (Suppl. 52): S56-S59.
35. Ballantyne CM, Radovancevic B, Farmer JA et al. Hyperlipidemia after heart transplantation: report of a 6-year experience, with treatment recommendations. J Am Coll Cardiol 1992; 19: 1315-1321.
36. Vathsala A, Weinberg RB, Schoenberg L et al. Lipid abnormalities in cyclosporine-prednisone-treated renal transplant recipients. Transplantation 1989; 48: 37-43.
37. Cassader M, Ruiu G, Gambino R, Alemanno N, Triolo G, Pagano G. Lipoprotein-apolipoprotein changes in renal transplant recipients: a 2-year follow-up. Metabolism 1991; 40: 922-925.
38. Brattström C, Wilczek H, Tydén G, Böttiger Y, Säwe J, Groth C-V. Hyperlipidemia in renal transplant recipients treated with sirolimus (rapamycin). Transplantation 1998; 65: 1272.
39. Chan MK, Varghese Z, Persaud JW, Fernando ON, Moorhead JF. The role of multiple pharmacotherapy in the pathogenesis of hyperlipidemia after renal transplantation. Clin Nephrol 1981; 15: 309-313.
40. Fabbian F, Squerzanti R, Lambertini D, Gilli P. Determinants of lipid profile in renal transplant recipients. Am J Kidney Dis 1997; 30: 934-935.
41. Becker DM, Chamberlain B, Swank R et al. Relationship between corticosteroid exposure and plasma lipid levels in heart transplant recipients. Am J Med 1988; 85: 632-638.
42. McCune TR, Thacker LRII, Peters TG et al. Effects of FK506 on hyperlipidemia after successful renal transplantation: a Southeastern Organ Procurement Foundation multicenter clinical study. Transplantation 1998; 65: 87-92.
43. Charco R, Cantarell C, Vargas V et al. Serum cholesterol changes in long-term survivors of liver transplantation: a comparison between cyclosporine and tacrolimus therapy. Liver Transpl Surg 1999; 5: 204-208.
44. Manzarbeitia C, Reich DJ, Rothstein KD, Braitman LE, Levin S, Munoz SJ. Tacrolimus conversion improves hyperlipidemic states in stable liver transplant recipients. Liver Transpl 2001; 7: 93-99.
45. Neal DA, Gimson AE, Gibbs P, Alexander GJ. Beneficial effects of converting liver transplant recipients from cyclosporine to tacrolimus on blood pressure, serum lipids, and weight. Liver Transpl 2001; 7: 533-539.
46. Valantine HA, Brozena SC, Hobbs R et al. A randomized double blind, placebo-controlled dose-response study to assess the safety and efficacy of oral sirolimus (Rapamycin) in the treatment of acute grade 2 or grade 3A cardiac allograft rejection. Transplantation 2002; submitted.
47. Turgan C, Russell GI, Baker F, Walls J. The effect of renal transplantation with a minimal steroid regime on uraemic hypertriglyceridaemia. Q J Med 1984; 43: 271-277.
48. Curtis JJ, Galla JH, Woodford SY, Lucas BA, Luke RG. Effect of alternate-day prednisone on plasma lipids in renal transplant recipients. Kidney Int 1982; 22: 42-47.
49. Hricik DE, Bartucci MR, Mayes JT, Schulak JA. The effects of steroid withdrawal on the lipoprotein profiles of cyclosporine-treated kidney and kidney-pancreas transplant recipients. Transplantation 1992; 54: 868-871.
50. Keogh A. Macdonald P, Harvison A, Richens D, Mundy J, Spratt P. Initial steroid-free versus steroid-based maintenance therapy and steroid withdrawal after heart transplantation: two views of the steroid question. J Heart Lung Transplant 1992; 11: 421-427
51. Renlund DG, Bristow MR, Crandall BG et al. Hypercholesterolemia after heart transplantation: amelioration by corticosteroid-free maintenance immunosuppression. J Heart Transplant 1989; 8: 214- 219.
52. Kobashigawa JA. Stevenson LW, Brownfield ED et al. Corticosteroid weaning late after heart transplantation, relation to HLA-DR mismatching and long-term metabolic benefits. J Heart Lung Transplant 1995; 14: 963-967.
53. Miller LW, Wolford T, McBride LR, Peigh P, Pennington DG. Successful withdrawal of corticosteroids in heart transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 1992; 11: 431-434.
54. Pritzker MR, Lake KD, Reutzel TJ et al. Steroid-free maintenance immunotherapy: Minneapolis Heart Institute experience. J Heart Lung Transplant 1992; 11: 415-420.
55. Kasiske BL, Tortorice KL, Heim-Duthoy KL, Awni WM, Rao KV. The adverse impact of cyclosporine on serum lipids in renal transplant recipients. Am J Kidney Dis 1991; 27: 700-707.
56. Ballantyne CM, Podet EJ, Patsch WP et al. Effects of cyclosporine therapy on plasma lipoprotein levels. JAMA 1989; 262: 53-56.
57. Derfler K, Hayde M, Heinz G et al. Decreased postheparin lipolytic activity in renal transplant recipients with cyclosporin A. Kidney Int 1991; 40: 720-727.
58. de Groen PC. Cyclosporine, low-density lipoprotein, and cholesterol. Mayo Clin Proc 1988; 63: 1012-1021.
59. Apanay DC, Neylan JF, Ragab MS, Sgoutas DS. Cyclosporine increases the oxidizability of low-density lipoproteins in renal transplant recipients. Transplantation 1994; 58: 663-669.
60. Steinmuller TM, Graf K-J, Schleicher J et al. The effect of FK506 versus cyclosporine on glucose and lipid metabolism - a randomized trial. Transplantation 1994; 58: 669-674.
61. Abouljoud MS, Levy MF, Klintmalm GB, the US Multicenter Study Group. Hyperlipidemia after liver transplantation: long-term results of the FK506/cyclosporine. A US multicenter trial. Transplant Proc 1995; 27: 1121-1123.
62. Henley SE, Larsen JL, Mack-Shipman L, Miller SA, Cushing KA, Stratta RJ. Lipids following pancreas transplantation in recipients receiving FK 506. Transplant Proc 1995; 27: 2997.
63. Taylor DO, Barr ML, Radovancevic B et al. A randomized, multicenter comparison of FK506 and cyclosporine immunosuppressive regimens in cardiac transplantation: decreased hyperlipidemia and hypertension with FK506. J Heart Lung Transplant 1999; 18: 336-345.
64. Asante-Korang A, Boyle GJ, Webber SA, Miller SA, Fricker FS. Experience of FK506 immune suppression in pediatric heart transplantation: a study of long-term adverse effects. J Heart Lung Transplant 1996; 15: 415-422.
65. Kahan BD, Podbielski J, Napoli KL, Katz SM, Meier-Kriesche HU, Van Buren CT. Immunosuppressive effects and safety of a sirolimus/cyclosporine combination regimen for renal transplantation. Transplantation 1998; 66: 1040-1046.
66. Groth CG, Backman L, Morales JM et al. Sirolimus (rapamycin)-based therapy in human renal transplantation: similar efficacy and different toxicity compared with cyclosporine. Sirolimus European Renal Transplant Study Group. Transplantation 1999; 67: 1036-1042.
67. MacDonald AS. A worldwide, phase III, randomized, controlled, safety and efficacy study of a sirolimus/cyclosporine regimen for prevention of acute rejection in recipients of primary mismatched renal allografts. Transplantation 2001; 71: 271-280.
68. Sells RA. Cardiovascular complications following renal transplantation. Transplant Rev 1997; 11: 111-126.
69. Kobashigawa JA, Ro TK, Moriguchi JD et al. Cholesterol lowering after heart transplantation is associated with a lower incidence of transplant coronary artery disease. Transplantation 1998; 65: 103.
70. Wanner C, Bartens W, Galle J. Clinical utility of antilipidemic therapies in chronic renal allograft failure, Kidney lnt 1995; 48 (Suppi. 52): S60-S62.
71. Boissonnat P, Salen P, Guidollet J et al. The long-term effects of the lipid-lowering agent fenofibrate in hyperlipidemic heart transplant recipients. Transplantation 1994; 58: 245-247.
72. Wenke K, Meiser B, Thiery J et al. Simvastatin reduces graft vessel disease and mortality after heart transplantation: a four-year randomized trial. Circulation 1997; 96: 1398-1402.
73. Arnadottir M, Berg A-L. Treatment of hyperlipidemia in renal transplant recipients. Transplantation 1997; 63: 339-345.
74. Shepherd J, Cobbe SM, Ford I et al. Prevention of coronary heart disease with pravastatin in men with hypercholesterolemia. N Engl J Med 1995; 333: 1301-1307.
75. Barbir M, Rose M, Kushwaha S, Akl S, Mitchell A, Yacoub M, Low-dose simvastatin for the treatment of hypercholesterolaemia in recipients of cardiac transplantation. Int J Cardiol 1991; 33: 241-246.
76. Castelao AM, Grino JM, Andres E et al. HMGCoA reductase inhibitors lovastatin and simvastatin in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia after renal transplantation. Transplant Proc 1993; 25: 1043-1046.
77. Holdaas H, Hartmann A, Stenstrøm J, Dahl KJ, Borge M, Pfister P. Effect of fluvastatin for safely lowering atherogenic lipids in renal transplant patients receiving cyclosporine. Am J Cardiol 1995; 76: 102A-106A.
78. Kobashigawa JA, Katznelson S, Laks H et al. Effect of pravastatin on outcomes after cardiac transplantation. N Engl J Med 1995; 333: 621-627.
79. Katznelson S, Wilkinson AH, Kobashigawa JA et al. The effect of pravastatin on acute rejection after kidney transplantation - a pilot study. Transplantation 1996; 61: 1469-1474.
80. Katznelson S, Amphan C, Ramirez A, Perez RV, Weiss RH. Anti-proliferative effects of pravastatin (PVS) and cyclosporin (CS) on vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) - is inhibition of RAS activity the mechanism? Transplantation 1998; 65: 175.
81. Katznelson S, Berryman E, Griffey S, Perez RV, Gregory C. Combined therapy with pravastatin (PVS) and cyclosporin (CS) decreases arterial intimal thickening in a model of severe vascular immune injury. Transplantation 1998; 65: 114.
82. Katznelson S, Wang XM, Chia D et al. The inhibitory effects of pravastatin on natural killer cell activity in vivo and on cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity in vitro. Heart Lung Transplant 1998; 17: 335-340.
83. Chan TM, Cheng TKP, Tam SCF. Hyperlipidemia after renal transplantation: treatment with gemfibrozil. Nephron 1994; 67: 317-321.
84. Sundararajan V, Cooper DKC, Muchmore J et al. Interaction of cyclosporine and probucol in heart transplant patients. Transplant Proc 1991; 23: 2028-2032.
85. East C, Alivizatos PA, Grundy SM, Jones PH, Farmer JA. Rhabdomyolysis in patients receiving lovastatin after cardiac transplantation. N Engl J Med 1988; 318: 47.
86. Tobert JA. Rhabdomyolysis in patients receiving lovastatin after cardiac transplantation. N Engl J Med 1988; 318: 48.
87. Regazzi MB, lacona I, Campana C et al. Altered disposition of pravastatin following concomitant drug therapy with cyclosporin A in transplant recipients. Transplant Proc 1993; 25: 2732-2734.
88. Gemici G, Toprak A, Oktay A. Rhabdomyolysis due to cerivastatin monotherapy. Am J Med 2001; 100: 742.
89. Tomlinson B, Lan IW. Combination therapy with cerivastatin and gemfibrozil causing rhabdomyolysis: is the interaction predictable? Am J Med 2001; 110: 669-670.
90. Arner P, Gunnarsson R, Blomdahl S, Groth CG. Some characteristics of steroid diabetes: a study in renal-transplant recipients receiving high-dose corticosteroid therapy. Diabetes Care 1983; 6: 23-25.
91. Vesco L, Busson M, Bedrossian J, Bitker MO, Hiesse C, Lang P. Diabetes mellitus after renal transplantation, characteristics, outcome, and risk factors. Transplantation 1996; 61: 1475-1478.
92. Hjelmesaeth J, Hartmann A, Kofstad J et al. Glucose intolerance after renal transplantation depends upon prednisolone dose and recipient age. Transplantation 1997; 64: 979-983.
93. Hirano Y, Fujihira S, Ohara K, Katsuki S, Noguchi H. Morphological and functional changes of islets of Langerhans in FK506-treated rats. Transplantation 1992; 53: 889-894.
94. Roth D, Milgrom M, Esquenazi V, Fuller L, Burke G, Miller J. Posttransplant hyperglycemia. Transplantation 1989; 47: 278-281.
95. Pirsch JD, Miller J, Deierhoi MH, Vincenti F, Filo RS, for the FK506 Kidney Transplant Study Group. A comparison of FK506 (FK506) and cyclosporine for immunosuppression after cadaveric renal transplantation. Transplantation 1997; 63: 977-983.
96. Drachenberg CB, Klassen DK, Weir MR et al. Islet cell damage associated with FK506 and cyclosporine: morphological features in pancreas allograft biopsies and clinical correlation. Transplantation 1999; 68: 396-402.
97. Sheiner PA, Magliocca JF, Bodian CA et al. Long-term medical complications in patients surviving ≥5 years after liver transplant. Transplantation 2000; 69: 871.
98. Blanco JJ, Herrero JI, Quiroga J et al. Liver transplantation in cirrhotic patients with diabetes mellitus: midterm results, survival, and adverse events. Liver Transpl 2001; 7: 226-233.
99. Miller LW. Allograft vascular disease: a disease not limited to hearts. J Heart Lung Transplant 1992; 11: S32-S37.
100. Weiss M, von Scheidt W. Cardiac allograft vasculopathy: a review. Circulation 1997; 96: 2069-2077.
101. Valantine HA. Role of lipids in allograft vascular disease: a multicenter study of intimal thickening detected by intravascular ultrasound. J Heart Lung Transplant 1995; 14: S234-S237.
102. McManus BM, Horley KJ, Wilson JE et al. Prominence of coronary arterial wall lipids in human heart allografts: implications for pathogenesis of allograft artedopathy. Am J Pathol 1995; 147: 293-308.
103. Winters GL, Kendall TJ, Radio SJ et al. Posttransplant obesity and hyperlipidemia: major predictors of severity of coronary arteriopathy in failed human heart allografts. J Heart Transplant 1990; 9: 364-371.
104. Mills RM, Naftel DC, Kirklin JK et al. Heart transplant rejection with hemodynamic compromise, a multiinstitutional study of the role of endomyocardial cellular infiltrate. J Heart Lung Transplant 1997; 16: 813-821.
105. Lim TT, Liang DH, Botas J, Schroeder JS, Oesterle SN, Yeung AC. Role of compensatory enlargement and shrinkage in transplant coronary artery disease: serial intravascular ultrasound study. Circulation 1997; 95: 855-859.
106. Choy BY, Walker RG, Becker GJ. Vasculopathy in cyclosporine-treated renal allografts: possible protection by diltiazem. Clin Transplant 1994; 8: 271-273.
107. Bull DA, Hunter GC, Copeland JG et al. Peripheral vascular disease in heart transplant recipients. J Vasc Surg 1992; 16: 546-554.
108. Wenke K, Meiser B, Thiery J et al. Simvastatin reduces graft vessel disease and mortality after heart transplantation: a four-year randomized trial. Circulation 1997; 961: 1398-1402.
109. Patrassi GM, Sartori MT, Livi U et al. Impairment of fibrinolytic potential in long-term steroid treatment after heart transplantation. Transplantation 1997; 64: 1610-1614.
110. Vaughan DE. The renin-angiotensin system and fibrinolysis. Am J Cardiol 1997; 79: 12-16.
111. Gao S-Z, Schroeder JS, Alderman EL et al. Prevalence of accelerated coronary artery disease in heart transplant survivors: comparison of cyclosporine and azathioprine regimens. Circulation 1989; 80 (Suppl. III): 100-105.
112. Mehra MR, Ventura HO, Chambers RB, Ramireddy K, Smart FW, Stapleton DD. The prognostic impact of immunosuppression and cellular rejection on cardiac allograft vasculopathy: time for a reappraisal. J Heart Lung Transplant 1997; 16: 743-751.
113. Gamba A, Mamprin F, Fiocchi R et al. The risk of coronary artery disease after heart transplantation is increased in patients receiving low-dose cyclosporine, regardless of blood cyclosporine levels. Clin Cardiol 1997; 20: 767-772.
114. Esper E, Glagov S, Karp RB et al. Role of hypercholesterolemia in accelerated transplant coronary vasculopathy: results of surgical therapy with partial ileal bypass in rabbits undergoing heterotopic heart transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 1997; 16: 420-435.
115. Mennander A, Tiisala S, Paavonen T, Halttunen J, Häyry P. Chronic rejection of rat aortic allograft. II. Administration of cyclosporin induces accelerated allograft arteriosclerosis. Transplant Int 1991; 4: 173-179.
116. Mennander A, Paavonen T, Häyry P. Cyclosporine-induced endothelialitis and accelerated arteriosclerosis in chronic allograft rejection. Transplant Proc 1992; 24: 341.
117. Tavares P, Martínez-Salgado C, Eleno N, Teixeira F. López Novoa JM. Effect of cyclosporin A on rat smooth-muscle cell proliferation. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 19BB; 31: 46-49.
118. Vanrenterghem Y, Roels L, Lerut T et al. Thromboembolic complications and haemostatic changes in cyclosporin-treated cadaveric kidney allograft recipients. Lancet 19B5; i: 999-1002.
119. Van den Dorpel MA, Veld AJ, Levi M, ten Cate JW, Weimar W. Beneficial effects of conversion from cyclosporine to azathioprine on fibrinolysis in renal transplant recipients. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1999; 19: 1555-1558.
120. Gunji Y, Ochiai T, Sakamoto K et al. Pathologic characteristics of vasculitis in renal transplant recipient dogs receiving immunosuppressive agents, FK 506, rapamycin, or RS-61443. Transplant Proc 1993; 25: 752.
121. Atkison PR, Joubert GI, Guiraudon C et al. Arteritis and increased intracellular calcium as a possible mechanism for FK506-related cardiac toxicity in a pediatric transplant recipient. Transplantation 1997; 64: 773-775.
122. Milliard S, Silva A, Blaise G et al. Rapamycin's effect on vasomotion in the rat. Transplant Proc 1998; 30: 1036-1038.
123. Lüscher TF, Tanner FC, Tschudi MR, Noll G. Endothelial dysfunction in coronary artery disease. Annu Rev Med 1993; 44: 395-418.
124. Pham SM, Shears LL, Kawaharada N, Li S, Venkataramanan R, Sehgal S. High local production of nitric oxide as a possible mechanism by which rapamycin prevents transplant arteriosclerosis. Transplant Proc 1998; 30: 953-954.
125. Sousa JE, Costa MA, Abizaid A et al. Lack of neointimal proliferation after implantation of sirolimus-coated stents in human coronary arteries: a quantitative coronary angiography and three-dimensional intravascular ultrasound study. Circulation 2001; 103: 192-195.
126. Ochiai T, Gunji Y, Nagata M, Komori A, Asano T, Isono K. Effects of rapamycin in experimental organ allografting. Transplantation 1993; 56: 15-19.
127. Fryer J, Yatscoff RW, Pascoe EA, Thliveris J. The relationship of blood concentrations of rapamycin and cyclosporine to suppression of allograft rejection in a rabbit heterotopic heart transplant model. Transplantation 1993; 55: 340-345.
128. Sollinger HW. Mycophenolate mofetil for the prevention of acute rejection in primary cadaveric renal allograft recipients. Transplantation 1995; 60: 225-232.
129. The Tricontinental Mycophenolate Mofetil Renal Transplantation Study Group. A blinded randomized clinical trial of mycophenolate mofetil for the prevention of acute rejection in cadaveric renal transplantation. Transplantation 1996; 61: 1029-1037.
130. European Mycophenolate Mofetil Cooperative Study Group. Placebo-controlled study of mycophenolate mofetil combined with cyclosporin and corticosteroids for prevention of acute rejection. Lancet 1995; 345: 1321-1325.
131. Kobashigawa JA, Miller L, Renlund D et al. A randomized active-controlled trial of mycophenolate mofetil in heart transplant recipients. Mycophenolate Mofetil Investigators. Transplantation 1998; 66: 507-515.
132. Eisen H, Bourge R, Costanzo M et al. Three-year allograft vasculopathy results of the multicenter mycophenolate mofetil randomized trial. Transplantation 1999; 67 (Suppl. 1): S268.
133. Allison AC, Eugui EM. Preferential suppression of lymphocyte proliferation by mycophenolic acid and predicted long term effects of mycophenolate mofetil in transplantation. Transplant Proc 1994; 26: 3205-3210.
134. Fujino Y, Kawamura T, Hullett DA, Sollinger HW. Evaluation of cyclosporine, mycophenolate mofetil, and brequinar sodium combination therapy on hamster-to-rat cardiac xenotransplantation. Transplantation 1994; 57: 41-46.
135. Sollinger HW. Mycophenolate mofetil for the prevention of acute rejection in primary cadaveric renal allograft recipients. US Renal Transplant Mycophenolate Mofetil Study Group. Transplantation 1995; 60: 225-232.
136. Grattan MT, Moreno-Cabral CE, Starnes VA, Oyer PE, Stinson EB, Shumway NE. Cytomegalovirus infection is associated with cardiac allograft rejection and atherosclerosis. JAMA 19B9; 261: 3561-3566.
137. Rubin RH. Impact of cytomegalovirus infection on organ transplant recipients. Rev Infect Dis 1990; 12 (Suppl. 7): S754-S766.
138. Lautenschlager I, Soots A, Krogerus L et al. Effect of cytomegalovirus on an experimental model of chronic renal allograft rejection under triple-drug treatment in the rat. Transplantation 1997; 64: 391-39B.
139. Giral M, Nguyen JM, Daguin P et al. Mycophenolate mofetil does not modify the incidence of cytomegalovirus (CMV) disease after kidney transplantation but prevents CMV-induced chronic graft dysfunction. J Am Soc Nephrol 2001; 12: 175B-1763.