The continuous prisoner's dilemma and the evolution of cooperation through reciprocal altruism with variable investment

American Naturalist

Volumn 160, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 421-438

  Killingback, Timothy ^a   Doebeli, Michael ^a  

^a ETH ZURICH   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

Adaptive dynamics; Evolution of cooperation; Prisoner's dilemma; Reciprocal altruism; Variable investment

Indexed keywords

ALTRUISM; COOPERATIVE BEHAVIOR; EVOLUTION;

EID: 0036792854     PISSN: 00030147     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/342070     Document Type: Article

References (85)

1. Alexander, R. D. 1986. Ostracism and indirect reciprocity: the reproductive significance of humor. Ethology and Sociobiology 7:253-270.
2. Altmann, S. A. 1979. Altruistic behaviour: the fallacy of kin deployment. Animal Behaviour 27:958-959.
3. Axelrod, R. 1984. The evolution of cooperation. Basic Books, New York.
4. Axelrod, R., and D. Dion. 1988. The further evolution of cooperation. Science (Washington, D.C.) 242:1385-1390.
5. Axelrod, R., and W. D. Hamilton. 1981. The evolution of cooperation. Science (Washington, D.C.) 211:1390-1396.
6. Bourke, A. F. G., and N. R. Franks. 1995. Social evolution in ants. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
7. Brown, J. L. 1978. Avian communal breeding systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 9:123-155.
8. _. 1987. Helping and communal breeding in birds. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
9. Cohen, D., and I. Eshel. 1976. On the founder effect and the evolution of altruistic traits. Theoretical Population Biology 10:276-302.
10. Crozier, R. H., and P. Pamilo. 1996. Evolution of social insect colonies: sex allocation and kin selection. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
11. Dieckmann, U., and R. Law. 1996. The dynamical theory of coevolution: a derivation from stochastic ecological processes. Journal of Mathematical Biology 34:579-612.
12. Doebeli, M., and N. Knowlton. 1998. The evolution of interspecific mutualism. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 95:8676-8680.
13. Dugatkin, L. A. 1997. Cooperation among animals: an evolutionary perspective. Oxford University Press, New York.
14. _. 1998. Do guppies play TIT FOR TAT during predator inspection visits? Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 25:395-399.
15. Dugatkin, L. A., and M. Alfieri. 1991. TIT FOR TAT in guppies: the relative nature of cooperation and defection during predator inspection. Evolutionary Ecology 5: 300-309.
16. Emlen, S. T. 1978. The evolution of cooperative breeding in birds. Pages 245-281 in J. Krebs and N. Davies, eds. Behavioral ecology: an evolutionary approach. Blackwell, Oxford.
17. _. 1984. Cooperative breeding in birds and mammals. Pages 305-335 in J. Krebs and N. Davies, eds. Behavioral ecology: an evolutionary approach. 2d ed. Blackwell, Oxford.
18. _. 1995. An evolutionary theory of the family. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 92:8092-8099.
19. _. 1996. Reproductive sharing in different types of kin associations. American Naturalist 148:756-763.
20. Fischer, E. A. 1980. The relationship between mating system and simultaneous hermaphroditism in the coral reef fish, Hypoplectrus nigricans (Serranidae). Animal Behaviour 28:620-633.
21. _. 1984. Egg trading in the chalk bass, Serranus tortugarum, simultaneous hermaphrodite. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 66:143-151.
22. _. 1986. Mating systems of simultaneous hermaphroditic serranid fishes. Pages 776-784 in T. Uyeno, R. Arai, T. Taniuchi, and K. Matsuura, eds. Indo-Pacific fish biology: proceedings of the second conference on Indo-Pacific fishes. Ichthyological Society of Japan, Tokyo.
23. _. 1988. Simultaneous hermaphroditism, tit-for-tat, and the evolutionary stability of social systems. Ethology and Sociobiology 9:119-136.
24. Fischer, R. A. 1930. The genetical theory of natural selection. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
25. Frank, S. A. 1998. Foundations of social evolution. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
26. Frean, M. 1994. The prisoner's dilemma without synchrony. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, Biological Sciences 257:75-79.
27. _. 1996. The evolution of degrees of cooperation. Journal of Theoretical Biology 182:549-559.
28. Geritz, S. A. H., E. Kisdi, G. Meszéna, and J. A. J. Metz. 1998. Evolutionarily singular strategies and the adaptive growth and branching of the evolutionary tree. Evolutionary Ecology 12:35-57.
29. Grafen, A. 1984. Natural selection, kin selection and group selection. Pages 62-84 in J. Krebs and N. Davies, eds. Behavioural ecology: an evolutionary approach. 2d ed. Blackwell, London.
30. Haldane, J. B. S. 1932. The causes of evolution. Longmans, London.
31. Hamilton, W. D. 1963. The evolution of altruistic behavior. American Naturalist 97:354-356.
32. _. 1964a. The genetical evolution of social behavior. I. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7:1-16.
33. _. 1964b. The genetical evolution of social behavior. II. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7:17-52.
34. _. 1972. Altruism and related phenomena, mainly in social insects. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 3:193-232.
35. Hart, B. L., and L. Hart. 1992. Reciprocal allogrooming in impala. Animal Behaviour 44:1073-1083.
36. Hofbauer, J., and K. Sigmund. 1990. Adaptive dynamics and evolutionary stability. Applied Mathematics Letters 3:75-79
37. _. 1998. Evolutionary games and replicator dynamics. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
38. Killingback, T., and M. Doebeli. 1999. Raise-the-stakes evolves into a defector. Nature 400:518.
39. Killingback, T., M. Doebeli, and N. Knowlton. 1999. Variable investment, the continuous prisoner's dilemma, and the origin of cooperation. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, Biological Sciences 266:1723-1728.
40. Lande, R. 1982. A quantitative genetic theory of life history evolution. Ecology 63:607-615.
41. Lombardo, M. P. 1985. Mutual restraint in tree swallows: a test of the TIT FOR TAT model of reciprocity. Science (Washington, D.C.) 227:1363-1365.
42. Magurran, A. E., and A. Higgam. 1998. Information transfer across fish shoals under predator threat. Ethology 78:153-158.
43. Matessi, C., and S. D. Jayaka. 1976. Conditions for the evolution of altruism under Darwinian selection. Theoretical Population Biology 9:360-387.
44. May, R. M. 1981. The evolution of cooperation. Nature 292:291-292.
45. _. 1987. More evolution of cooperation. Nature 327: 15-17.
46. Maynard Smith, J. 1964. Group selection and kin selection. Nature 201:1145-1147.
47. _. 1976. Group selection. Quarterly Review of Biology 51:277-283.
48. _. 1982. Evolution and the theory of games. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
49. Maynard Smith, J., and E. Szathmary. 1995. The major transitions in evolution W. H. Freeman, Oxford.
50. Metz, J. A. J., S. A. H. Geritz, G. Meszena, F. J. A. Jacobs, and J. S. von Heerwaarden. 1996. Adaptive dynamics: a geometrical study of the consequences of nearly faithful reproduction. Pages 183-231 in S. J. von Schien and S. M. Verduyn Lunel, eds. Stochastic and spatial structures of dynamical systems. North Holland, Amsterdam.
51. Milinski, M. 1987. Tit for tat in sticklebacks and the evolution of cooperation. Nature 325:433-435.
52. _. 1990a. No alternative to TIT FOR TAT in sticklebacks. Animal Behaviour 39:989-991.
53. _. 1990b. On cooperation in sticklebacks. Animal Behaviour 40:1190-1191.
54. _. 1992. Predator inspection: cooperation or "safety in numbers"? Animal Behaviour 43:679-681.
55. Milinski, M., and C. Wedekind. 1998. Working memory constrains human cooperation in the prisoner's dilemma. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 95:13755-13758.
56. Mooring, M. S., and B. L. Hart. 1992. Reciprocal allogrooming in dam-reared and hand-reared impala fawns. Ethology 90:37-51.
57. Nowak, M. A., and R. M. May. 1992. Evolutionary games and spatial chaos. Nature 359:826-829.
58. Nowak, M. A., and K. Sigmund. 1990. The evolution of stochastic strategies in the prisoner's dilemma. Acta Applicandae Mathematicae 20:247-265.
59. _. 1992. Tit-for-tat in heterogeneous populations. Nature 355:250-252.
60. _. 1993. A strategy of win-stay, loose-shift that out-performs tit-for-tat in the prisoner's dilemma game. Nature 364:56-58.
61. _. 1994. The alternating prisoner's dilemma. Journal of Theoretical Biology 168:219-226.
62. _. 1998. Evolution of indirect reciprocity by image scoring. Nature 393:573-577.
63. Packer, C. 1977. Reciprocal altruism in Papio anubis. Nature 265:441-443.
64. Pitcher, T. J., D. A. Green, and A. E. Magurran. 1986. Dicing with death: predator inspection behavior in minnow shoals. Journal of Fish Biology 28:439-448.
65. Pusey, A. E., and C. Packer. 1994. Non-offspring nursing in social carnivores: minimizing the costs. Behavioural Ecology 5:362-374.
66. Roberts, G., and T. Sherratt. 1998. Development of cooperative relationships through increased investment. Nature 394:175-179.
67. Schulman, S. R., and D. I. Rubenstein. 1983. Kinship, need, and the distribution of altruism. American Naturalist 121:776-788.
68. Sella, G. 1985. Reciprocal egg trading and brood care in a hermaphroditic polychaete worm. Animal Behaviour 33:938-944.
69. _. 1988. Reciprocation, reproductive success and safeguards against cheating in a hermaphroditic polychaete worm. Biological Bulletin 175:212-217.
70. _. 1991. Evolution of biparental care in the hermaphroditic polychaete worm Ophryotrocha diadema. Evolution 45:63-68.
71. Sibly, R. M., and D. J. McFarland. 1976. On the fitness of behavior sequences. American Naturalist 110:601-617.
72. Smale, S. 1980. The prisoner's dilemma and dynamical systems associated to non-cooperative games. Econometrica 48:1617-1634.
73. Stephens, D. W., K. Nishimura, and K. B. Toyer. 1995. Error and discounting in the iterated prisoner's dilemma. Journal of Theoretical Biology 176:457-469.
74. Trivers, R. 1971. The evolution of reciprocal altruism. Quarterly Review of Biology 46:35-57.
75. Wahl, L. M., and M. A. Nowak. 1999a. The continuous prisoner's dilemma. I. Linear reactive strategies. Journal of Theoretical Biology 200:307-321.
76. _. 1999b. The continuous prisoner's dilemma. II. Linear reactive strategies with noise. Journal of Theoretical Biology 200:323-338.
77. Weigel, R. M. 1981. The distribution of altruism among kin: a mathematical model. American Naturalist 118: 191-201.
78. West-Eberhard, M. J. 1975. The evolution of social behavior by kin selection. Quarterly Review of Biology 50: 1-33.
79. Wilkinson, G. S. 1984. Reciprocal food-sharing in the vampire bat. Nature 308:181-184.
80. Williams, G. C. 1966. Adaptation and natural selection. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
81. Wilson, D. S. 1975. A general theory of group selection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 72:143-146.
82. _. 1980. The natural selection of populations and communities. Benjamin-Cummings, Menlo Park, Calif.
83. Wilson, D. S., and L. A. Dugatkin. 1997. Group selection and assortative interactions. American Naturalist 149: 336-351.
84. Wilson, E. O. 1971. The insect societies. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
85. Wynne Edwards, V. C. 1962. Animal behaviour in relation to social behaviour. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh.