Labour relations in an early colonial context: Madras, c. 1750-1800

Modern Asian Studies

Volumn 36, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 793-826

  Ahuja, Ravi ^a  

^a ZENTRUM MODERNER ORIENT   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COLONIALISM; ECONOMIC HISTORY; EIGHTEENTH CENTURY; LABOR RELATIONS;

INDIA;

EID: 0036792306     PISSN: 0026749X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0026749X0200402X     Document Type: Article

References (188)

1. See: Oswald Spengler, Der Untergang des Abendlandes: Umrisse einer Morphologie der Weltgeschichte (Munich, 1995; reprint of the revised 1922 edition). For an assessment and critique of Spengler's influence on contemporary historical thought see: András Gedö, 'Geschick versus Geschichte', Topos I (Weltgeschichte), pp. 77-100.
2. See: Oswald Spengler, Der Untergang des Abendlandes: Umrisse einer Morphologie der Weltgeschichte (Munich, 1995; reprint of the revised 1922 edition). For an assessment and critique of Spengler's influence on contemporary historical thought see: András Gedö, 'Geschick versus Geschichte', Topos I (Weltgeschichte), pp. 77-100.
3. For a specimen of a primordialist and harmonizing depiction of precolonial society in South India see: Chitra and S. S. Sivakumar, 'The Meaning of Social Order in the Tamil Country', in: Peter Robb, (ed.), Meanings of Agriculture, Essays in South Asian History and Economics (Delhi, 1996), pp. 332-89 and especially pp. 352, 367-71, 381-3.
4. Sarah Joseph, 'Politics of Contemporary Indian Communitarianism', EPW, XXXII/XL (1997), pp. 2517-23. See also: Sumit Sarkar, 'Indian Nationalism and the Politics of Hindutva', in: David Ludden (ed.), Making India Hindu (Delhi, 1996), pp. 292-3.
5. Sarah Joseph, 'Politics of Contemporary Indian Communitarianism', EPW, XXXII/XL (1997), pp. 2517-23. See also: Sumit Sarkar, 'Indian Nationalism and the Politics of Hindutva', in: David Ludden (ed.), Making India Hindu (Delhi, 1996), pp. 292-3.
6. Cf.: Marx Engels Werke, vol. IV (Berlin, 1959), pp. 134-5.
7. But see: Sergio Aiolfi, Calicos und gedrucktes Zeug: Die Entwicklung der englischen Textilveredelung und der Tuchhandel der East India Company, 1650-1750 (Stuttgart, 1987). Valuable information on South Indian commercial manufacture can also be obtained in: A. I. Chicherov, India: Economic Development in the 16th-18th Centuries: Outline History of Crafts and Trade (Moscow, 1971).
8. But see: Sergio Aiolfi, Calicos und gedrucktes Zeug: Die Entwicklung der englischen Textilveredelung und der Tuchhandel der East India Company, 1650-1750 (Stuttgart, 1987). Valuable information on South Indian commercial manufacture can also be obtained in: A. I. Chicherov, India: Economic Development in the 16th-18th Centuries: Outline History of Crafts and Trade (Moscow, 1971).
9. Dharma Kumar, 'The Forgotten Sector: Services in Madras Presidency in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century, IESHR, XXIV/IV (1987), pp. 367-93.
10. Cf.: Gyan Prakash, Bonded Histories: Genealogies of Labor Servitude in Colonial India (Cambridge South Asian Studies, vol. XLIV) (Cambridge/New York/Melbourne, 1990), pp. 1-12, 218-25.
11. Cf.: Marx Engels Werke, vol. XXIII (Berlin, 1983, first ed. 1947), pp. 181-3; ibid., vol. XLII (Berlin, 1983), pp. 371-421. See also: Max Weber, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft: Grundriß der verstehenden Soziologie (Tübingen, 1990, reprint of 5th rev. ed.), pp. 70-1, 86-7, 123, 439-40.
12. Cf.: Marx Engels Werke, vol. XXIII (Berlin, 1983, first ed. 1947), pp. 181-3; ibid., vol. XLII (Berlin, 1983), pp. 371-421. See also: Max Weber, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft: Grundriß der verstehenden Soziologie (Tübingen, 1990, reprint of 5th rev. ed.), pp. 70-1, 86-7, 123, 439-40.
13. Cf.: Marx Engels Werke, vol. XXIII (Berlin, 1983, first ed. 1947), pp. 181-3; ibid., vol. XLII (Berlin, 1983), pp. 371-421. See also: Max Weber, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft: Grundriß der verstehenden Soziologie (Tübingen, 1990, reprint of 5th rev. ed.), pp. 70-1, 86-7, 123, 439-40.
14. Occupational and spatial labour mobility in late eighteenth-century Madras are discussed at length in Ravi Ahuja, 'Labour Unsettled. Mobility and Protest in the Madras Region, 1750-1800', IESHR, XXXV/TV (1998), pp. 381-404.
15. See especially: Dharma Kumar, Land and Caste in South India (Cambridge, 1965) and Benedicte Hjejle, 'Slavery and Agricultural Bondage in South India in the Nineteenth Century', Scandinavian Economic History Review, II/I-II (1965), pp. 71-126.
16. See especially: Dharma Kumar, Land and Caste in South India (Cambridge, 1965) and Benedicte Hjejle, 'Slavery and Agricultural Bondage in South India in the Nineteenth Century', Scandinavian Economic History Review, II/I-II (1965), pp. 71-126.
17. David Washbrook, 'Land and Labour in Late Eighteenth-Century South India: The Golden Age of the Pariah?', in: Peter Robb (ed.), Dalit Movements and the Meanings of Labour in India (Delhi, 1993), pp. 69-70.
18. The denomination 'Paraiyan' is used in this article in spite of its discriminating connotations for reasons of historicity. Expressions like 'Adidravida' or 'Dalit', which symbolize present aspirations of emancipation, would be anachronistic when applied to the period under discussion.
19. Essential sources for these rights are: Lionel Place, Report on the Jagir, 1795 (hereafter: Report on Jagir 1795), Oriental and India Office Collections of the British Library (hereafter OIOC), Board's Collection F/4/31, esp. § 35, 37; Lionel Place, Report on the Jagir, 1799 (hereafter: Report on Jagir 1799), OIOC, Board's Collection, F/4/111, esp. § 448; Papers on Alirasi Right Selected from the Records of Government [. . .] (hereafter: Papers on Mirasi), Madras 1862, esp. pp. 308, 336-7 (F. W. Ellis in 1816). Inam land for Paraiyar village servants is mentioned in: OIOC, Madras Revenue Proc., P/274/17A, 12 July 1775, pp. 242, 245. See also: Tsukasa Mizushima, Nattar and the Socio-Economic Change in South India in the 18th-19th Centuries (Tokyo, 1986), pp. 214-31, 255-6; Hjejle, 'Slavery and Agricultural Bondage in South India', pp. 81; Chitra and S. S. Sivakumar, Peasants and Nabobs: Agrarian Radicalism in Late Eighteenth Century Tamil Country (Delhi, 1993), pp. 14, (for purakalam right: 54-5, 76); Paraiyar landownership in southern Tamil Nadu is noted by: David Ludden, Peasant History in South India (Delhi, 1989, 1st edition 1985), p. 82.
20. Essential sources for these rights are: Lionel Place, Report on the Jagir, 1795 (hereafter: Report on Jagir 1795), Oriental and India Office Collections of the British Library (hereafter OIOC), Board's Collection F/4/31, esp. § 35, 37; Lionel Place, Report on the Jagir, 1799 (hereafter: Report on Jagir 1799), OIOC, Board's Collection, F/4/111, esp. § 448; Papers on Alirasi Right Selected from the Records of Government [. . .] (hereafter: Papers on Mirasi), Madras 1862, esp. pp. 308, 336-7 (F. W. Ellis in 1816). Inam land for Paraiyar village servants is mentioned in: OIOC, Madras Revenue Proc., P/274/17A, 12 July 1775, pp. 242, 245. See also: Tsukasa Mizushima, Nattar and the Socio-Economic Change in South India in the 18th-19th Centuries (Tokyo, 1986), pp. 214-31, 255-6; Hjejle, 'Slavery and Agricultural Bondage in South India', pp. 81; Chitra and S. S. Sivakumar, Peasants and Nabobs: Agrarian Radicalism in Late Eighteenth Century Tamil Country (Delhi, 1993), pp. 14, (for purakalam right: 54-5, 76); Paraiyar landownership in southern Tamil Nadu is noted by: David Ludden, Peasant History in South India (Delhi, 1989, 1st edition 1985), p. 82.
21. Essential sources for these rights are: Lionel Place, Report on the Jagir, 1795 (hereafter: Report on Jagir 1795), Oriental and India Office Collections of the British Library (hereafter OIOC), Board's Collection F/4/31, esp. § 35, 37; Lionel Place, Report on the Jagir, 1799 (hereafter: Report on Jagir 1799), OIOC, Board's Collection, F/4/111, esp. § 448; Papers on Alirasi Right Selected from the Records of Government [. . .] (hereafter: Papers on Mirasi), Madras 1862, esp. pp. 308, 336-7 (F. W. Ellis in 1816). Inam land for Paraiyar village servants is mentioned in: OIOC, Madras Revenue Proc., P/274/17A, 12 July 1775, pp. 242, 245. See also: Tsukasa Mizushima, Nattar and the Socio-Economic Change in South India in the 18th-19th Centuries (Tokyo, 1986), pp. 214-31, 255-6; Hjejle, 'Slavery and Agricultural Bondage in South India', pp. 81; Chitra and S. S. Sivakumar, Peasants and Nabobs: Agrarian Radicalism in Late Eighteenth Century Tamil Country (Delhi, 1993), pp. 14, (for purakalam right: 54-5, 76); Paraiyar landownership in southern Tamil Nadu is noted by: David Ludden, Peasant History in South India (Delhi, 1989, 1st edition 1985), p. 82.
22. Essential sources for these rights are: Lionel Place, Report on the Jagir, 1795 (hereafter: Report on Jagir 1795), Oriental and India Office Collections of the British Library (hereafter OIOC), Board's Collection F/4/31, esp. § 35, 37; Lionel Place, Report on the Jagir, 1799 (hereafter: Report on Jagir 1799), OIOC, Board's Collection, F/4/111, esp. § 448; Papers on Alirasi Right Selected from the Records of Government [. . .] (hereafter: Papers on Mirasi), Madras 1862, esp. pp. 308, 336-7 (F. W. Ellis in 1816). Inam land for Paraiyar village servants is mentioned in: OIOC, Madras Revenue Proc., P/274/17A, 12 July 1775, pp. 242, 245. See also: Tsukasa Mizushima, Nattar and the Socio-Economic Change in South India in the 18th-19th Centuries (Tokyo, 1986), pp. 214-31, 255-6; Hjejle, 'Slavery and Agricultural Bondage in South India', pp. 81; Chitra and S. S. Sivakumar, Peasants and Nabobs: Agrarian Radicalism in Late Eighteenth Century Tamil Country (Delhi, 1993), pp. 14, (for purakalam right: 54-5, 76); Paraiyar landownership in southern Tamil Nadu is noted by: David Ludden, Peasant History in South India (Delhi, 1989, 1st edition 1985), p. 82.
23. For a more detailed discussion see: Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, ceh. 5.2.
24. Cf.: Kumar, Land and Caste in South India, pp. 41-5;
25. Eugene Irschick, Dialogue and History: Constructing South-India, 1795-1895 (Delhi, 1994, 1st Indian ed.), p. 33.
26. H. H. Wilson, A Glossary of the Judicial and Revenue Terms, and of Useful Words Occurring in Official Documents Relating to the Administration of the Government of British India (London, 1855), p. 386.
27. For the distinction between pannaiyals and padiyals see: Report on the Jagir 1795, § 22, 35-7; Report on the Jagir 1799, § 75-9; Papers on Mirasi, pp. 334-7 (see also: 304-9, 327-9); Kumar, Land and Caste in South India, pp. 41-5; Hjejle, 'Slavery and Agricultural Bondage in South India', p. 81; Irschick, Dialogue and History, p. 33.
28. For the distinction between pannaiyals and padiyals see: Report on the Jagir 1795, § 22, 35-7; Report on the Jagir 1799, § 75-9; Papers on Mirasi, pp. 334-7 (see also: 304-9, 327-9); Kumar, Land and Caste in South India, pp. 41-5; Hjejle, 'Slavery and Agricultural Bondage in South India', p. 81; Irschick, Dialogue and History, p. 33.
29. For the distinction between pannaiyals and padiyals see: Report on the Jagir 1795, § 22, 35-7; Report on the Jagir 1799, § 75-9; Papers on Mirasi, pp. 334-7 (see also: 304-9, 327-9); Kumar, Land and Caste in South India, pp. 41-5; Hjejle, 'Slavery and Agricultural Bondage in South India', p. 81; Irschick, Dialogue and History, p. 33.
30. Cf.: Hjejle, 'Slavery and Agricultural Bondage in South India', p. 93.
31. There is abundant evidence for this practice in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. See e.g.: Bericht der Königlich-Dänischen Missionarien in Ostindien (hereafter Hallische Berichte), 37-43 continuations, Halle (Saxony), 1735-6, pp. 448-9. See also: Sundaraj Manickam, Slavery in the Tamil Country: A Historical Overview (Madras, 1993, and revised and enlarged edition), pp. 42-3, 47-51.
32. There is abundant evidence for this practice in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. See e.g.: Bericht der Königlich-Dänischen Missionarien in Ostindien (hereafter Hallische Berichte), 37-43 continuations, Halle (Saxony), 1735-6, pp. 448-9. See also: Sundaraj Manickam, Slavery in the Tamil Country: A Historical Overview (Madras, 1993, and revised and enlarged edition), pp. 42-3, 47-51.
33. See esp.: Ramaswami Naidu, 'Remarks on the Revenue System and Landed Tenures of the Provinces under the Presidency of Fort St George', The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, I (1834), pp. 292-306. (The Ms. was apparently written in 1820 by a retired revenue official, cf.: Chitra and S. S. Sivakumar, Peasants and Nabobs, p. 102.) For samples of slave contracts see: Papers on Mirasi, pp. 332-9 and Manickam, Slavery in the Tamil Country, pp. 70-1, 117-24.
34. See esp.: Ramaswami Naidu, 'Remarks on the Revenue System and Landed Tenures of the Provinces under the Presidency of Fort St George', The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, I (1834), pp. 292-306. (The Ms. was apparently written in 1820 by a retired revenue official, cf.: Chitra and S. S. Sivakumar, Peasants and Nabobs, p. 102.) For samples of slave contracts see: Papers on Mirasi, pp. 332-9 and Manickam, Slavery in the Tamil Country, pp. 70-1, 117-24.
35. See esp.: Ramaswami Naidu, 'Remarks on the Revenue System and Landed Tenures of the Provinces under the Presidency of Fort St George', The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, I (1834), pp. 292-306. (The Ms. was apparently written in 1820 by a retired revenue official, cf.: Chitra and S. S. Sivakumar, Peasants and Nabobs, p. 102.) For samples of slave contracts see: Papers on Mirasi, pp. 332-9 and Manickam, Slavery in the Tamil Country, pp. 70-1, 117-24.
36. Cf.: Papers on Mirasi, pp. 335-6 (F. W. Ellis in 1816).
37. See: Tsukasa Mizushima, Nattar and the Socio-Economic Change, esp. pp. 255, 258. A similar explanation for the emergence of agrestic slavery (though as a marginal phenomenon) in fourteenth-century Tamil Nadu has been given by: Noboru Karashima, Towards a New Formation: South Indian Society under Vijayanagar Rule (Delhi, 1992), pp. 123-6.
38. See: Tsukasa Mizushima, Nattar and the Socio-Economic Change, esp. pp. 255, 258. A similar explanation for the emergence of agrestic slavery (though as a marginal phenomenon) in fourteenth-century Tamil Nadu has been given by: Noboru Karashima, Towards a New Formation: South Indian Society under Vijayanagar Rule (Delhi, 1992), pp. 123-6.
39. Cf.: Papers on Mirasi, p. 313; Wilson, A Glossary of the Judicial and Revenue Terms, pp. 18, 21; Noboru Karashima, Towards a New Formation, pp. 199-200.
40. Cf.: Papers on Mirasi, p. 313; Wilson, A Glossary of the Judicial and Revenue Terms, pp. 18, 21; Noboru Karashima, Towards a New Formation, pp. 199-200.
41. Cf.: Papers on Mirasi, p. 313; Wilson, A Glossary of the Judicial and Revenue Terms, pp. 18, 21; Noboru Karashima, Towards a New Formation, pp. 199-200.
42. See: ibid., pp. 211-12, 229; K. V. Raman, The Early History of the Madras Region (Madras, 1959), p. 270.
43. See: ibid., pp. 211-12, 229; K. V. Raman, The Early History of the Madras Region (Madras, 1959), p. 270.
44. This contract is reproduced in: Papers on Mirasi, pp. 311-13. For a similar contract of 1772 see: ibid., pp. 325-6.
45. Ibid., p. 313.
46. OIOC, Paterson Diaries, vol. 3, 28 July 1772, p. 226. See also ibid., 31 July 1772, pp. 229-30; 4 Aug. 1772, p. 231 (this volume was drawn up by Paterson as Admiral Harland's diary, cf.: OIOC-Handlist MSS.EUR.E.379).
47. For similar complaints see: ibid., vol. 4, 6 March 1773, p. 236 and: OIOC, Madras Public Proceedings (hereafter MPP), (P/240/33), 24 Jan 1772, p. 23.
48. Cf.: OIOC, MPP, P/240/13, 3 March 1755, pp. 112-14; Records of Fort St George (hereafter RFSG), Diaries and Consultation Books (hereafter DCB), 17 July 1758, p. 111; OIOC, MPP, P/240/26, 12 Jan. 1768, pp. 9, 28; OIOC, Letters to England, E/5/309, 30 Oct. 1781 (Select Committee to Court of Directors), § 34; TNSA, Military Consultations (hereafter: MC), vol. 766, 21 Sept. 1781, pp. 2624-5. For more evidence of military labour requirements see: Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, ch. 4.3.
49. Cf.: RFSG, DCB, 17 July 1761, p. 16. See also footnote 27.
50. See e.g.: TNSA, MC, vol. 736, 4 March 1781, pp. 637-9; ibid., vol. 76A, 9 Sept. 1781, p. 2436; OIOC, Mackenzie Collection General ('Extracts Chief Engineers Books Fort St George [. . .]', hereafter: Mackenzie), vol. 69, 'The humble Petition of Peanny Smith Mastry and Veerasamy Carpenter Mastry of Wallajahbad', undated, placed between extracts from documents dated 18 May 1788 and 9 June 1788; TNSA, Chingleput District Records, vol. 443, R. Dighton to Board of Revenue, Aug. 1788, and Vencatachella to R. Dighton, 5 Aug. 1788.
51. See e.g.: OIOC, Letters to England, E/5/309, 30 Oct. 1781 (Select Committee to Court of Directors), § 34; Irschick, Dialogue and History, pp. 38-9.
52. Cf.: OIOC, MPP, P/240/12, 4 Feb. 1754, pp. 133-4; RFSG, DCB, 20 Oct. 1758, pp. 212, 215.
53. For a brief overview see: B. Natarajan, 'Slave Trade in Madras', in: The Madras Tercentenary Commemoration Volume (London et al., 1939), pp. 247-55.
54. For further evidence see: Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, ch. 5.4.
55. Cf.: RFSG, DCB, 19 March 1749/50, p. 97; ibid., 13 Aug. 1750, p. 151; ibid., 1 Sept. 1752, pp. 164-5; ibid., 18 Sept. 1752, p. 168; ibid., 9 Oct. 1752, p. 183; ibid., 23 Oct. 1752, pp. 209-10; ibid., 30 Oct. 1752, p. 213.
56. Cf.: RFSG, DCB, 19 March 1749/50, p. 97; ibid., 13 Aug. 1750, p. 151; ibid., 1 Sept. 1752, pp. 164-5; ibid., 18 Sept. 1752, p. 168; ibid., 9 Oct. 1752, p. 183; ibid., 23 Oct. 1752, pp. 209-10; ibid., 30 Oct. 1752, p. 213.
57. Cf.: RFSG, DCB, 19 March 1749/50, p. 97; ibid., 13 Aug. 1750, p. 151; ibid., 1 Sept. 1752, pp. 164-5; ibid., 18 Sept. 1752, p. 168; ibid., 9 Oct. 1752, p. 183; ibid., 23 Oct. 1752, pp. 209-10; ibid., 30 Oct. 1752, p. 213.
58. Cf.: RFSG, DCB, 19 March 1749/50, p. 97; ibid., 13 Aug. 1750, p. 151; ibid., 1 Sept. 1752, pp. 164-5; ibid., 18 Sept. 1752, p. 168; ibid., 9 Oct. 1752, p. 183; ibid., 23 Oct. 1752, pp. 209-10; ibid., 30 Oct. 1752, p. 213.
59. Cf.: RFSG, DCB, 19 March 1749/50, p. 97; ibid., 13 Aug. 1750, p. 151; ibid., 1 Sept. 1752, pp. 164-5; ibid., 18 Sept. 1752, p. 168; ibid., 9 Oct. 1752, p. 183; ibid., 23 Oct. 1752, pp. 209-10; ibid., 30 Oct. 1752, p. 213.
60. Cf.: RFSG, DCB, 19 March 1749/50, p. 97; ibid., 13 Aug. 1750, p. 151; ibid., 1 Sept. 1752, pp. 164-5; ibid., 18 Sept. 1752, p. 168; ibid., 9 Oct. 1752, p. 183; ibid., 23 Oct. 1752, pp. 209-10; ibid., 30 Oct. 1752, p. 213.
61. Cf.: W. J. Wilson, History of the Madras Army (Madras, 1882), vol. I, p. 74; RFSG, DCB, 16 Sept. 1758, p. 170.
62. Cf.: TNSA, MC, vol. 73B, 9 Feb. 1781, p. 434; TNSA, MC, vol. 746, 15 April 1781, p. 968.
63. Cf.: OIOC, MPP, P/240/11, 1 Oct. 1753, pp. 599-600, 612; TNSA, Quarter Sessions (hereafter: QS), vol. 2, 11 Jan. 1769, pp. 25, 28; ibid., 29 April 1769, pp. 48-65.
64. See also: Henry Dodwell, The Nabobs of Madras (London, 1926), p. 174.
65. Wills of prominent Hindu merchants did, to my knowledge, include several bequests to domestic servants but no regulations concerning slaves. See, for instance: OIOC, Wills, L/AG/34/29/193, 1791 (part 2), pp. 639-46: will and admin. of Chokappa Chetti. However, a report referring to the early nineteenth-century situation admits that domestic servants were also held in Hindu households in some rare cases: British Parliamentary Papers. Minutes of Evidence before the Select Committee [. . .] 1831-2. Colonies. East India (Shannon, 1970, 6th reprint), pp. 572-3. Indrani Chatterjee has cautioned me from her experience with Fort William records that references to slavery could have been lost as the wills were translated.
66. Cf.: N. S. Ramaswami, Political History of the Carnatic Under the Nawabs (Delhi, 1984), p. 321.
67. Cf.: TNSA QS, vol. 12, 9 March 1796, pp. 64-9; ibid., vol. 13, 28 March 1798.
68. Cf.: TNSA QS, vol. 12, 9 March 1796, pp. 64-9; ibid., vol. 13, 28 March 1798.
69. See e.g.: TNSA, QS, vol. 8, 8 May 1788 & 3 July 1788, pp. 8-18; TNSA, Public Department, Miscellanies: vol. 1A (March-May 1791), no. 21, pp. 17-22; ibid., no. 185, pp. 83-6; ibid., vol. 3B (Jan.-March 1792), no. 267, 22 Feb. 1792, pp. 342-3.
70. See e.g.: TNSA, QS, vol. 8, 8 May 1788 & 3 July 1788, pp. 8-18; TNSA, Public Department, Miscellanies: vol. 1A (March-May 1791), no. 21, pp. 17-22; ibid., no. 185, pp. 83-6; ibid., vol. 3B (Jan.-March 1792), no. 267, 22 Feb. 1792, pp. 342-3.
71. See e.g. Mrs Kindersley's letter no. XIX from Teneriffe, reproduced in: Henry Davison Love, Vestiges of Old Madras (New York, 1968, reprint of 1913 ed.), vol. II, p. 617.
72. Cf.: Carsten Niebuhr, Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien und andern umliegenden Ländern (Zürich, 1993, 1st ed. 1774), p. 457.
73. There are numerous relevant reports by German missionaries, e.g.: Hallische Berichte, 37-43 Cont., 3 April 1733, p. 177; ibid., 26 Dec. 1734, p. 453; ibid., 62-6 Cont., 28 Aug. 1748, pp. 946-7; ibid., 67-72 Cont., 6 Dec. 1749, p. 1919; ibid., 73- 7 Cont., 25 Nov. 1750, p. 147; ibid., 23 Sept. 1751, p. 448; ibid., 7 June 1752, p. 802; ibid., 78-83 Cont., 21 March 1754, p. 1365; ibid., 26 March 1754, p. 1366; ibid., 104-8 Cont., July 1766, p. 1448.
74. There are numerous relevant reports by German missionaries, e.g.: Hallische Berichte, 37-43 Cont., 3 April 1733, p. 177; ibid., 26 Dec. 1734, p. 453; ibid., 62-6 Cont., 28 Aug. 1748, pp. 946-7; ibid., 67-72 Cont., 6 Dec. 1749, p. 1919; ibid., 73- 7 Cont., 25 Nov. 1750, p. 147; ibid., 23 Sept. 1751, p. 448; ibid., 7 June 1752, p. 802; ibid., 78-83 Cont., 21 March 1754, p. 1365; ibid., 26 March 1754, p. 1366; ibid., 104-8 Cont., July 1766, p. 1448.
75. There are numerous relevant reports by German missionaries, e.g.: Hallische Berichte, 37-43 Cont., 3 April 1733, p. 177; ibid., 26 Dec. 1734, p. 453; ibid., 62-6 Cont., 28 Aug. 1748, pp. 946-7; ibid., 67-72 Cont., 6 Dec. 1749, p. 1919; ibid., 73- 7 Cont., 25 Nov. 1750, p. 147; ibid., 23 Sept. 1751, p. 448; ibid., 7 June 1752, p. 802; ibid., 78-83 Cont., 21 March 1754, p. 1365; ibid., 26 March 1754, p. 1366; ibid., 104-8 Cont., July 1766, p. 1448.
76. There are numerous relevant reports by German missionaries, e.g.: Hallische Berichte, 37-43 Cont., 3 April 1733, p. 177; ibid., 26 Dec. 1734, p. 453; ibid., 62-6 Cont., 28 Aug. 1748, pp. 946-7; ibid., 67-72 Cont., 6 Dec. 1749, p. 1919; ibid., 73- 7 Cont., 25 Nov. 1750, p. 147; ibid., 23 Sept. 1751, p. 448; ibid., 7 June 1752, p. 802; ibid., 78-83 Cont., 21 March 1754, p. 1365; ibid., 26 March 1754, p. 1366; ibid., 104-8 Cont., July 1766, p. 1448.
77. There are numerous relevant reports by German missionaries, e.g.: Hallische Berichte, 37-43 Cont., 3 April 1733, p. 177; ibid., 26 Dec. 1734, p. 453; ibid., 62-6 Cont., 28 Aug. 1748, pp. 946-7; ibid., 67-72 Cont., 6 Dec. 1749, p. 1919; ibid., 73- 7 Cont., 25 Nov. 1750, p. 147; ibid., 23 Sept. 1751, p. 448; ibid., 7 June 1752, p. 802; ibid., 78-83 Cont., 21 March 1754, p. 1365; ibid., 26 March 1754, p. 1366; ibid., 104-8 Cont., July 1766, p. 1448.
78. There are numerous relevant reports by German missionaries, e.g.: Hallische Berichte, 37-43 Cont., 3 April 1733, p. 177; ibid., 26 Dec. 1734, p. 453; ibid., 62-6 Cont., 28 Aug. 1748, pp. 946-7; ibid., 67-72 Cont., 6 Dec. 1749, p. 1919; ibid., 73- 7 Cont., 25 Nov. 1750, p. 147; ibid., 23 Sept. 1751, p. 448; ibid., 7 June 1752, p. 802; ibid., 78-83 Cont., 21 March 1754, p. 1365; ibid., 26 March 1754, p. 1366; ibid., 104-8 Cont., July 1766, p. 1448.
79. There are numerous relevant reports by German missionaries, e.g.: Hallische Berichte, 37-43 Cont., 3 April 1733, p. 177; ibid., 26 Dec. 1734, p. 453; ibid., 62-6 Cont., 28 Aug. 1748, pp. 946-7; ibid., 67-72 Cont., 6 Dec. 1749, p. 1919; ibid., 73- 7 Cont., 25 Nov. 1750, p. 147; ibid., 23 Sept. 1751, p. 448; ibid., 7 June 1752, p. 802; ibid., 78-83 Cont., 21 March 1754, p. 1365; ibid., 26 March 1754, p. 1366; ibid., 104-8 Cont., July 1766, p. 1448.
80. There are numerous relevant reports by German missionaries, e.g.: Hallische Berichte, 37-43 Cont., 3 April 1733, p. 177; ibid., 26 Dec. 1734, p. 453; ibid., 62-6 Cont., 28 Aug. 1748, pp. 946-7; ibid., 67-72 Cont., 6 Dec. 1749, p. 1919; ibid., 73- 7 Cont., 25 Nov. 1750, p. 147; ibid., 23 Sept. 1751, p. 448; ibid., 7 June 1752, p. 802; ibid., 78-83 Cont., 21 March 1754, p. 1365; ibid., 26 March 1754, p. 1366; ibid., 104-8 Cont., July 1766, p. 1448.
81. There are numerous relevant reports by German missionaries, e.g.: Hallische Berichte, 37-43 Cont., 3 April 1733, p. 177; ibid., 26 Dec. 1734, p. 453; ibid., 62-6 Cont., 28 Aug. 1748, pp. 946-7; ibid., 67-72 Cont., 6 Dec. 1749, p. 1919; ibid., 73- 7 Cont., 25 Nov. 1750, p. 147; ibid., 23 Sept. 1751, p. 448; ibid., 7 June 1752, p. 802; ibid., 78-83 Cont., 21 March 1754, p. 1365; ibid., 26 March 1754, p. 1366; ibid., 104-8 Cont., July 1766, p. 1448.
82. There are numerous relevant reports by German missionaries, e.g.: Hallische Berichte, 37-43 Cont., 3 April 1733, p. 177; ibid., 26 Dec. 1734, p. 453; ibid., 62-6 Cont., 28 Aug. 1748, pp. 946-7; ibid., 67-72 Cont., 6 Dec. 1749, p. 1919; ibid., 73- 7 Cont., 25 Nov. 1750, p. 147; ibid., 23 Sept. 1751, p. 448; ibid., 7 June 1752, p. 802; ibid., 78-83 Cont., 21 March 1754, p. 1365; ibid., 26 March 1754, p. 1366; ibid., 104-8 Cont., July 1766, p. 1448.
83. Sinnappah Arasaratnam, 'Society, Power and Factionalism and Corruption in Early Madras 1640-1746', Indica, XXIII/I-II (1986), p. 117.
84. For implications of the South Indian Wars for the labour force see: Ahuja, 'Labour Unsettled'. See also: Henry Dodwell, Sepoy Recruitment in the Old Madras Army (Studies in Indian Records, publ. by IHRC) (Calcutta, 1922).
85. For implications of the South Indian Wars for the labour force see: Ahuja, 'Labour Unsettled'. See also: Henry Dodwell, Sepoy Recruitment in the Old Madras Army (Studies in Indian Records, publ. by IHRC) (Calcutta, 1922).
86. M. S. Anderson, War and Society in Europe of the Old Regime, 1618-1789 (London, 1988), pp. 115, 122-3. See also: Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte. Vol. I: Vom Feudalismus des Alten Reiches bis zur Defensiven Modernisierung der Reformära, 1700-1815 (Frankfurt/Vienna, 1987), pp. 252-3.
87. M. S. Anderson, War and Society in Europe of the Old Regime, 1618-1789 (London, 1988), pp. 115, 122-3. See also: Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte. Vol. I: Vom Feudalismus des Alten Reiches bis zur Defensiven Modernisierung der Reformära, 1700-1815 (Frankfurt/Vienna, 1987), pp. 252-3.
88. Cf.: Linda Colley, Britons. Forging the Nation 1707-1837 (London/Sydney, 1994), pp. 126-32.
89. Tanika Sarkar, 'Bondage in the Colonial Context', In: Utsa Patnaik/Manjari Dingwaney (eds), Chains of Servitude. Bondage and Slavery in India (Madras, 1985), p. 97.
90. See e.g.: TNSA, QS, vol. 12, 2 March 1796, pp. 24-46; ibid., 3 March 1796, pp. 50-1; ibid., 12 March 1796, pp. 85-6; ibid., 26 Oct. 1796, pp. 162-79, 181.
91. See e.g.: TNSA, QS, vol. 12, 2 March 1796, pp. 24-46; ibid., 3 March 1796, pp. 50-1; ibid., 12 March 1796, pp. 85-6; ibid., 26 Oct. 1796, pp. 162-79, 181.
92. See e.g.: TNSA, QS, vol. 12, 2 March 1796, pp. 24-46; ibid., 3 March 1796, pp. 50-1; ibid., 12 March 1796, pp. 85-6; ibid., 26 Oct. 1796, pp. 162-79, 181.
93. See e.g.: TNSA, QS, vol. 12, 2 March 1796, pp. 24-46; ibid., 3 March 1796, pp. 50-1; ibid., 12 March 1796, pp. 85-6; ibid., 26 Oct. 1796, pp. 162-79, 181.
94. Cf.: TNSA, QS, vol. 6, 7 April 1784, pp. 61-72.
95. OIOC, MPP, P/240/56, 6 June 1783, p. 738.
96. For further evidence see: Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeil, chs 3.4., 3.7. and 6.4.
97. Cf.: OIOC, MPP, P/241/70, 24 Feb. 1797, pp. 581-5; OIOC, MPP, P/241/73, 22 June 1797, pp. 2082-3; ibid., 24 June 1797, pp. 2113-14.
98. See e.g.: OIOC, MPP, P/240/48, 29 May 1779, p. 152; ibid., 20 Aug. 1779, p. 443; OIOC, MPP, P/240/55, 3 Dec. 1782, pp. 1322-7; OIOC, MPP, P/240/56, 6 June 1783, pp. 738-9; TNSA, Public Consultations (hereafter: PC), 188B, 10 Jan. 1794, p. 66; TNSA, PC, 1896, 21 Jan. 1794, p. 659; OIOC, MPP, P/241/68, 17 Dec. 1796, pp. 4234-45, 4238-9; OIOC, MPP, P/241/73, 22 June 1797, pp. 2082-3; ibid., 24 June 1797, pp. 2113-14; OIOC, MPP, P/241/75, 29 Sept. 1797, pp. 3180-1.
99. For a discussion of early colonial labour jurisdiction see: Ravi Ahuja, 'The Origins of Colonial Labour Policy in Late Eighteenth-century Madras', International Review of Social History, 44 (1999), pp. 159-95.
100. Hallische Berichte, 37-43 cont., 11 Sept. 1734, p. 447 (my translation, R. A.).
101. See also: ibid., 67-72 cont., 15 April 1747, p. 1227; Francis Buchanan, A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar (London, 1807, vol. I), pp. 124-5; Hjejle, 'Slavery and Agricultural Bondage in South India', pp. 121-4.
102. See also: ibid., 67-72 cont., 15 April 1747, p. 1227; Francis Buchanan, A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar (London, 1807, vol. I), pp. 124-5; Hjejle, 'Slavery and Agricultural Bondage in South India', pp. 121-4.
103. See also: ibid., 67-72 cont., 15 April 1747, p. 1227; Francis Buchanan, A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar (London, 1807, vol. I), pp. 124-5; Hjejle, 'Slavery and Agricultural Bondage in South India', pp. 121-4.
104. For the following paragraph see: OIOC, MPP, P/240/59, 27 June 1784, pp. 764-5; ibid., 13 Nov. 1784, pp. 1143-5; ibid., 31 Dec. 1784, pp. 1355-9.
105. For the following paragraph see: OIOC, MPP, P/240/59, 27 June 1784, pp. 764-5; ibid., 13 Nov. 1784, pp. 1143-5; ibid., 31 Dec. 1784, pp. 1355-9.
106. Ibid., 7 Dec. 1784, pp. 1229-31.
107. Cf.: Hjejle, 'Slavery and Agricultural Bondage in South India', pp. 100-2, 115-16, 122-3; Sarkar, 'Bondage in the Colonial Context', pp. 110-11.
108. Cf.: Hjejle, 'Slavery and Agricultural Bondage in South India', pp. 100-2, 115- 16, 122-3; Sarkar, 'Bondage in the Colonial Context', pp. 110-11.
109. See e.g.: OIOC, MPP, P/240/20, 5 Oct. 1762, pp. 457-8; Hallische Berichte, 37-43 cont., 9 Sept. 1734, p. 446; ibid., 67-72 com., 15 April 1747, p. 1227.
110. See e.g.: OIOC, MPP, P/240/20, 5 Oct. 1762, pp. 457-8; Hallische Berichte, 37- 43 cont., 9 Sept. 1734, p. 446; ibid., 67-72 com., 15 April 1747, p. 1227.
111. Cf.: Sarkar, 'Bondage in the Colonial Context', p. 113.
112. See next section.
113. Kumar, 'The Forgotten Sector', p. 45.
114. See Ahuja, 'Labour Unsettled' and the following section of this essay.
115. Prasannan Parthasarathi, 'Rethinking Wages and Competitiveness in the Eighteenth Century: Britain and South India', Past and Present 158 (1998), pp. 85, 89, 92, 101.
116. Evidence for dearth or famine is documented for: 1748, 1750, 1759, 1763, 1769, 1773-74, 1779-83, 1789, 1792 and 1798. Cf. Figure 6.2. in Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit. See also: Roland Lardinois, 'Deserted Villages and Depopulation in Rural Tamil Nadu c. 1780-c. 1830', In: Tim Dyson (ed.), India's Historical Demography. Studies in Famine, Disease and Society (Collected Papers on South Asia, No. 8) (London, 1989), pp. 16-48.
117. Evidence for dearth or famine is documented for: 1748, 1750, 1759, 1763, 1769, 1773-74, 1779-83, 1789, 1792 and 1798. Cf. Figure 6.2. in Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit. See also: Roland Lardinois, 'Deserted Villages and Depopulation in Rural Tamil Nadu c. 1780-c. 1830', In: Tim Dyson (ed.), India's Historical Demography. Studies in Famine, Disease and Society (Collected Papers on South Asia, No. 8) (London, 1989), pp. 16-48.
118. Cf.: Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, ch. 3 and 6.3.
119. Cf.: Dodwell, Sepoy Recruitment in the Old Madras Army, pp. 6-10. However, irregular units commanded by Indian condottiere were at times mustered as auxiliary troops even in later decades. See e.g.: TNSA, MC, vol. 79A, 19 March 1782, p. 810.
120. Cf.: Henry Yule/A. C. Burnell, Hobson-Jobson (New Delhi, 1984, 1st ed. 1903), pp. 538-9.
121. See e.g.: OIOC, Mackenzie, vol. 69, The humble Petition of Peanny Smith Mastry & Veerasamy Carpenter Mastry of Wallajahbad (see footnote 31).
122. Cf.: OIOC, MPP, P/240/32, 20 Sept. 1771, p. 637.
123. See e.g.: OIOC, MPP, P/240/41, 4 May 1776, p. 247.
124. See footnote 74.
125. For a detailed case study on the relations of various groups involved in the stevedoring business see: ch. 3 of Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit. See also: Ravi Ahuja, 'Subcontractors in Early Colonial South Asia: The Case of the Madras Maistries', in: Jan Lucassen/Ratna Saptari (eds), Subcontracted Labour in Asia, (Richmond/Surrey, forthcoming).
126. For a detailed case study on the relations of various groups involved in the stevedoring business see: ch. 3 of Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit. See also: Ravi Ahuja, 'Subcontractors in Early Colonial South Asia: The Case of the Madras Maistries', in: Jan Lucassen/Ratna Saptari (eds), Subcontracted Labour in Asia, (Richmond/Surrey, forthcoming).
127. Cf: Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, chs. 3.5-3.7.
128. Cf.: OIOC, MPP, P/240/59, 7 Dec. 1784, pp. 1229-31.
129. For the double meaning of the Tamil term kuli ('wage labourer' and 'wages', 'pay') see- Wilson, A Glossary of the Judicial and Revenue Terms, p. 301; L. Winslow/L. Spaulding/C. Appasami Pillai, Window's English and Tamil Dictionary (New Delhi, 1980, reprint of 1888 ed.), p. 770.
130. For the double meaning of the Tamil term kuli ('wage labourer' and 'wages', 'pay') see- Wilson, A Glossary of the Judicial and Revenue Terms, p. 301; L. Winslow/L. Spaulding/C. Appasami Pillai, Window's English and Tamil Dictionary (New Delhi, 1980, reprint of 1888 ed.), p. 770.
131. Cf.: OIOC, MPP, P/240/48, 29 May 1779, p. 151; ibid., 20 Aug. 1779, pp. 441-2; OIOC, MPP, P/240/56, 6 June 1783, p. 738.
132. Cf.: Naidu 'Remarks on the Revenue System', p. 299; Tsukasa Mizushima, Nattar and the Socio-Economic Change, pp. 215-18, 229. For a detailed description of these rights in the tax farm of 'Trivendaporam' see: OIOC, Madras Revenue Proceedings, P/274/17A, 12 July 1775, p. 242.
133. Cf.: Naidu 'Remarks on the Revenue System', p. 299; Tsukasa Mizushima, Nattar and the Socio-Economic Change, pp. 215-18, 229. For a detailed description of these rights in the tax farm of 'Trivendaporam' see: OIOC, Madras Revenue Proceedings, P/274/17A, 12 July 1775, p. 242.
134. Cf.: OIOC, MPP, P/240/33, 15 May 1772, pp. 293, 296, 305-6, 319-32. See also: OIOC, MPP, P/240/63, 12 May 1786, p. 646.
135. Cf.: Report on Jagir 1795, § 36; Papers on Mirasi, p. 337.
136. OIOC MPP, P/240/33, 15 May 1772, p. 321. For 'presents of betel and other goods demanded by well diggers see: OIOC, MPP, P/240/63, 26 May 1786, p. 765.
137. TNSA, QS, vol. 12, 2 March 1796, p. 43.
138. On these shifts see: Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, chs 3.1. and 4.3. See also: RFSG, DCB, 22 Aug. 1758, pp. 136-7. Though the present author would not refute all parts of Parthasarathi's argument, his assertion that eighteenth-century South Indian labourers enjoyed a high level of financial security is clearly untenable (as is his claim that they experienced neither poverty nor oppression). Cf.: Parthasarathi, 'Rethinking Wages and Competitiveness in the Eighteenth Century', esp. pp. 85, 101.
139. On these shifts see: Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, chs 3.1. and 4.3. See also: RFSG, DCB, 22 Aug. 1758, pp. 136-7. Though the present author would not refute all parts of Parthasarathi's argument, his assertion that eighteenth-century South Indian labourers enjoyed a high level of financial security is clearly untenable (as is his claim that they experienced neither poverty nor oppression). Cf.: Parthasarathi, 'Rethinking Wages and Competitiveness in the Eighteenth Century', esp. pp. 85, 101.
140. Cf.: Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, chs 3.3., 3.4., 3.7. and table 8.5. A table of batta to be paid to palanquin bearers in long-distance journeys can be found in: TNSA, Public Sundries (hereafter: PS), vol. 64, pp. 34-6, see also p. 45.
141. 90 See e.g.: OIOC, MPP, P/240/56, 6 June 1783, pp. 739-40.
142. Cf.: TNSA, Revenue Sundries (hereafter: RS), vol. 27, 8 Jan. 1792, ibid., 3 Feb. 1800; ibid., 15 Sept. 1800.
143. Cf.: TNSA, Revenue Sundries (hereafter: RS), vol. 27, 8 Jan. 1792, ibid., 3 Feb. 1800; ibid., 15 Sept. 1800.
144. Washbrook, 'Land and Labour in Late Eighteenth-Century South India', p. 74.
145. For detailed references see tables 8.3.-8.13. in: Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit.
146. Cf.: RFSG, DCB. 5 Sept. 1759, pp. 213-14; TNSA, Military Sundries, vol. 120, 'Tables of Pay & Allowances to the Madras Army, and to His Majesty's Troops Serving upon the Madras Establishment, in Garrison and in the Field [. . .]', Madras, 1803, printed.
147. See: Tsukasa Mizushima, Nattar and the Socio-Economic Change, pp. 282-90; Lardinois, 'Deserted Villages and Depopulation'; Ludden, Peasant History in South India, p. 112; Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, ch. 5.6., tables 8.1.-8.2. and figures 8.1.-8.5.
148. See: Tsukasa Mizushima, Nattar and the Socio-Economic Change, pp. 282-90; Lardinois, 'Deserted Villages and Depopulation'; Ludden, Peasant History in South India, p. 112; Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, ch. 5.6., tables 8.1.-8.2. and figures 8.1.-8.5.
149. See: Tsukasa Mizushima, Nattar and the Socio-Economic Change, pp. 282-90; Lardinois, 'Deserted Villages and Depopulation'; Ludden, Peasant History in South India, p. 112; Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, ch. 5.6., tables 8.1.-8.2. and figures 8.1.-8.5.
150. See: Tsukasa Mizushima, Nattar and the Socio-Economic Change, pp. 282-90; Lardinois, 'Deserted Villages and Depopulation'; Ludden, Peasant History in South India, p. 112; Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, ch. 5.6., tables 8.1.-8.2. and figures 8.1.-8.5.
151. The hypothesis of a long-term agricultural crisis in the Tamil region is convincingly developed in: Lardinois, 'Deserted Villages and Depopulation'.
152. For paddy prices between 1730 and 1760 see: Tsukasa Mizushima, Nattar and the Socio-Economic Change, pp. 282-90 and Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, figure 8.2. For mid-1790s prices see: Madras Courier, vols. IX-XI (1793-95) or Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, figure 8.4. See e.g.: Madras Courier, vol. XI, No. 507, 24 June 1795.
153. For paddy prices between 1730 and 1760 see: Tsukasa Mizushima, Nattar and the Socio-Economic Change, pp. 282-90 and Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, figure 8.2. For mid-1790s prices see: Madras Courier, vols. IX-XI (1793-95) or Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, figure 8.4. See e.g.: Madras Courier, vol. XI, No. 507, 24 June 1795.
154. For paddy prices between 1730 and 1760 see: Tsukasa Mizushima, Nattar and the Socio-Economic Change, pp. 282-90 and Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, figure 8.2. For mid-1790s prices see: Madras Courier, vols. IX-XI (1793-95) or Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, figure 8.4. See e.g.: Madras Courier, vol. XI, No. 507, 24 June 1795.
155. For paddy prices between 1730 and 1760 see: Tsukasa Mizushima, Nattar and the Socio-Economic Change, pp. 282-90 and Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, figure 8.2. For mid-1790s prices see: Madras Courier, vols. IX-XI (1793-95) or Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, figure 8.4. See e.g.: Madras Courier, vol. XI, No. 507, 24 June 1795.
156. For paddy prices between 1730 and 1760 see: Tsukasa Mizushima, Nattar and the Socio-Economic Change, pp. 282-90 and Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, figure 8.2. For mid-1790s prices see: Madras Courier, vols. IX-XI (1793-95) or Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, figure 8.4. See e.g.: Madras Courier, vol. XI, No. 507, 24 June 1795.
157. See Ahuja, 'The Origins of Colonial Labour Policy'.
158. For a recent study presenting many new sources on weavers in the late eighteenth-century Madras region see: Sinnappah Arasaratnam, Maritime Commerce and English Power. Southeast India 1750-1800 (New Delhi, 1996).
159. For weavers and weaving settlements in Madras City see: Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, chs 2.1., 2.7. and 4.2.
160. For bleachers in Madras before 1750 see: Aiolfi, Calicos und gedrucktes Zeug, pp. 304-21, 337-45.
161. Cf.: Chicherov, India: Economic Development in the 16th-18th Centuries, pp. 68, 176. For the problem of protection see e.g.: TNSA, MC, vol. 78B, 29 Jan. 1782, pp. 237-9.
162. Cf.: Aiolfi, Calicos und gedrucktes Zeug, pp. 314-21.
163. Cf.: OIOC, MPP, P/240/22, 3 Jan. 1764, p. 3; ibid., 24 Jan. 1764, p. 56; ibid., 7 Feb. 1764, p. 109; TNSA, MC, vol. 78B, 29 Jan. 1782, pp. 237-9.
164. Cf.: OIOC, MPP, P/240/22, 3 Jan. 1764, p. 3; ibid., 24 Jan. 1764, p. 56; ibid., 7 Feb. 1764, p. 109; TNSA, MC, vol. 78B, 29 Jan. 1782, pp. 237-9.
165. Cf.: RFSG, DCB, 17 Sept. 1744, pp. 177-8. See also: RFSG, DCB, 30 April 1736, pp. 77-9; OIOC, MPP, P/240/53, 14 Sept. 1781, pp. 826-8; OIOC, MPP, P/ 241/32, 18 May 1792, pp. 1339-40, 1343-4.
166. Cf.: OIOC, MPP, P/241/32, 18 May 1792, pp. 1339-40; sec also: OIOC, MPP, P/241/75, 7 Nov. 1797, pp. 3577-8.
167. OIOC, Mackenzie, vol. 68, Patrick Ross, Chief Engineer, to President and Council, 14 June 1786; TNSA, MC, vol. 74D, 24 May 1781, pp. 1297-8; TNSA, RS, vol. 27, 8 Jan. 1792, 14 May 1792, 20 May 1792.
168. Cf.: OIOC, MPP, P/241/32, 18 May 1792, pp. 1339-40, 1342.
169. For seasonal patterns and the Company's efforts to encourage permanent residence of bleachers in Madras see: Aiolfi, Calicos und gedrucktes Zeug, pp. 337-45.
170. Cf.: OIOC, MPP, P/240/11, 10 Sept. 1753, pp. 547-9.
171. Chicherov, India: Economic Development in the 16th-18th Centuries, pp. 64, 67-8.
172. See especially: OIOC, Paterson Diaries, vol. 2, 23 Nov. 1770, pp. 98-9; ibid., vol. 7, 6 Feb. 1774, p. 220. For more information on this occupational group see: Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, chs 4.4., 5.7.
173. See especially: OIOC, Paterson Diaries, vol. 2, 23 Nov. 1770, pp. 98-9; ibid., vol. 7, 6 Feb. 1774, p. 220. For more information on this occupational group see: Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, chs 4.4., 5.7.
174. For the Madras mint see: Davison Love, Vestiges of Old Madras, vol. III, p. 223, 375-7, 426; OIOC, MPP, P/242/6, 22 Aug. 1798, pp. 2356-60; K. N. Chaudhuri, The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company 1660-1760 (Cambridge et al., 1978), pp. 187-9. For a report on an accident in the powder mill that killed about fifty labourers see: Neuere Geschichte der Evangelischen Missions-Anstalten zu Bekehrung 'der Heiden in Ostindien (Halle, 1782), 25. Stück, p. 42 (report for 1780). For the Master Attendant's workshops: OIOC, MPP, P/240/51, 12 Aug. 1780, p. 678; OIOC, MPP, P/241/64, 29 April 1796, pp. 1596-7; TNSA, PS, vol. 16, 10 April 1770, pp. 28-9.
175. For the Madras mint see: Davison Love, Vestiges of Old Madras, vol. III, p. 223, 375-7, 426; OIOC, MPP, P/242/6, 22 Aug. 1798, pp. 2356-60; K. N. Chaudhuri, The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company 1660-1760 (Cambridge et al., 1978), pp. 187-9. For a report on an accident in the powder mill that killed about fifty labourers see: Neuere Geschichte der Evangelischen Missions-Anstalten zu Bekehrung 'der Heiden in Ostindien (Halle, 1782), 25. Stück, p. 42 (report for 1780). For the Master Attendant's workshops: OIOC, MPP, P/240/51, 12 Aug. 1780, p. 678; OIOC, MPP, P/241/64, 29 April 1796, pp. 1596-7; TNSA, PS, vol. 16, 10 April 1770, pp. 28-9.
176. For the Madras mint see: Davison Love, Vestiges of Old Madras, vol. III, p. 223, 375-7, 426; OIOC, MPP, P/242/6, 22 Aug. 1798, pp. 2356-60; K. N. Chaudhuri, The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company 1660-1760 (Cambridge et al., 1978), pp. 187-9. For a report on an accident in the powder mill that killed about fifty labourers see: Neuere Geschichte der Evangelischen Missions-Anstalten zu Bekehrung 'der Heiden in Ostindien (Halle, 1782), 25. Stück, p. 42 (report for 1780). For the Master Attendant's workshops: OIOC, MPP, P/240/51, 12 Aug. 1780, p. 678; OIOC, MPP, P/241/64, 29 April 1796, pp. 1596-7; TNSA, PS, vol. 16, 10 April 1770, pp. 28-9.
177. Cf.: Board of Revenue (proper), Miscellaneous Records, vol. 101; OIOC, MPP, P/240/26, 11 April 1768, pp. 311-12. See also: OIOC, MPP, P/240/19, 25 July 1761, pp. 313, 315-16.
178. Cf.: Chicherov, India: Economic Development in the 10th-18th Centuries, pp. 190-208.
179. Cf.: Frank Perlin, 'Proto-Industrialisation and Pre-Colonial South-Asia', Past and Present, 98 (1983), pp. 69-79; Frank Perlin, 'State Formation Reconsidered. Part Two', MAS, IXX/III (1985), pp. 134-7, 150, 155, 176-7, 183, 189, 212-13; for the Madras region see: Tsukasa Mizushima, Nattar and the Socio-Economic Change, esp. pp. 257-9.
180. Cf.: Frank Perlin, 'Proto-Industrialisation and Pre-Colonial South-Asia', Past and Present, 98 (1983), pp. 69-79; Frank Perlin, 'State Formation Reconsidered. Part Two', MAS, IXX/III (1985), pp. 134-7, 150, 155, 176-7, 183, 189, 212-13; for the Madras region see: Tsukasa Mizushima, Nattar and the Socio-Economic Change, esp. pp. 257-9.
181. Cf.: Frank Perlin, 'Proto-Industrialisation and Pre-Colonial South-Asia', Past and Present, 98 (1983), pp. 69-79; Frank Perlin, 'State Formation Reconsidered. Part Two', MAS, IXX/III (1985), pp. 134-7, 150, 155, 176-7, 183, 189, 212-13; for the Madras region see: Tsukasa Mizushima, Nattar and the Socio-Economic Change, esp. pp. 257-9.
182. Cf.: Ahuja, Die Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, appendix 8.1.
183. I borrow these terms for characterizing the early colonial state in South India from: C. A. Bayly, Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire (Cambridge, 1993), p. 162 and C. A. Bayly, Imperial Meridian. The British Empire and the World, 1780-1830 (London/New York, 1993), p. 86.
184. I borrow these terms for characterizing the early colonial state in South India from: C. A. Bayly, Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire (Cambridge, 1993), p. 162 and C. A. Bayly, Imperial Meridian. The British Empire and the World, 1780-1830 (London/New York, 1993), p. 86.
185. For a similar application of the term 'militarization' cf.: C. A. Bayly, Imperial Meridian, p. 74.
186. Cf.: footnotes 68 and 70.
187. See e.g.: Lionel Place, Report on Jagir 1799, § 79.
188. Rhoads Murphey, 'Traditionalism and Colonialism: Changing Urban Roles in Asia', JAS IXXX/I (1969), p. 83.