The origins of colonial labour policy in late eighteenth-century Madras

International Review of Social History

Volumn 44, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 159-195

  Ahuja, Ravi ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0033442441     PISSN: 00208590     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0020859099000462     Document Type: Review

References (201)

1. For an excellent introduction to the relevant literature up to the late 1980s see the bibliographical essay in C. A. Bayly, Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire, The New Cambridge History of India, vol. 2.1 (third ed., Cambridge, 1993), pp. 212-223 [hereafter, Bayly, Indian Society and British Empire].
2. For an excellent introduction to the relevant literature up to the late 1980s see the bibliographical essay in C. A. Bayly, Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire, The New Cambridge History of India, vol. 2.1 (third ed., Cambridge, 1993), pp. 212-223 [hereafter, Bayly, Indian Society and British Empire].
3. Susan Neild, "Colonial Urbanism: The Development of Madras City in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries", Modern Asian Studies, 13 (1979), p. 218. For an earlier description of Madras in similar terms see Imperial Gazetteer of India, Provincial Series: Madras, vol. 1 (1908; New Delhi, 1985), p. 498.
4. Susan Neild, "Colonial Urbanism: The Development of Madras City in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries", Modern Asian Studies, 13 (1979), p. 218. For an earlier description of Madras in similar terms see Imperial Gazetteer of India, Provincial Series: Madras, vol. 1 (1908; New Delhi, 1985), p. 498.
5. Susan Neild-Basu, "Madras in 1800: Perceiving the City", in Howard Spodek and Doris Meth Srinivasan (eds), Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia: The Shaping of Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times, Studies in the History of Art, vol. 31: Centre for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts, Symposium Papers 15 (Hanover, New Hampshire and London, 1993), pp. 236, 238.
6. Robert E. Frykenberg, "The Socio-Political Morphology of Madras: An Historical Interpretation", Indo-British Review, 2 (1985), pp. 5-6, 10, 15, 22.
7. Cf. Roland Lardinois, "Deserted Villages and Depopulation in Rural Tamil Nadu c. 1780-c. 1830", in Tim Dyson (ed.), India's Historical Demography, Studies in Famine, Disease and Society, Collected Papers on South Asia, no. 8 (London, 1989), pp. 16-48; [hereafter, Lardinois, "Depopulation in Tamil Nadu"]. See also Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, chs 2.1, 4.2, 4.3, 6.7, 6.8, and "Labour Unsettled: Mobility and Conflict in the Madras Region, 1750-1800", Indian Economic and Social History Review, 35 (1998), pp. 381-404.
8. Cf. Roland Lardinois, "Deserted Villages and Depopulation in Rural Tamil Nadu c. 1780-c. 1830", in Tim Dyson (ed.), India's Historical Demography, Studies in Famine, Disease and Society, Collected Papers on South Asia, no. 8 (London, 1989), pp. 16-48; [hereafter, Lardinois, "Depopulation in Tamil Nadu"]. See also Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, chs 2.1, 4.2, 4.3, 6.7, 6.8, and "Labour Unsettled: Mobility and Conflict in the Madras Region, 1750-1800", Indian Economic and Social History Review, 35 (1998), pp. 381-404.
9. Cf. Roland Lardinois, "Deserted Villages and Depopulation in Rural Tamil Nadu c. 1780-c. 1830", in Tim Dyson (ed.), India's Historical Demography, Studies in Famine, Disease and Society, Collected Papers on South Asia, no. 8 (London, 1989), pp. 16-48; [hereafter, Lardinois, "Depopulation in Tamil Nadu"]. See also Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, chs 2.1, 4.2, 4.3, 6.7, 6.8, and "Labour Unsettled: Mobility and Conflict in the Madras Region, 1750-1800", Indian Economic and Social History Review, 35 (1998), pp. 381-404.
10. Cf. Roland Lardinois, "Deserted Villages and Depopulation in Rural Tamil Nadu c. 1780-c. 1830", in Tim Dyson (ed.), India's Historical Demography, Studies in Famine, Disease and Society, Collected Papers on South Asia, no. 8 (London, 1989), pp. 16-48; [hereafter, Lardinois, "Depopulation in Tamil Nadu"]. See also Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, chs 2.1, 4.2, 4.3, 6.7, 6.8, and "Labour Unsettled: Mobility and Conflict in the Madras Region, 1750-1800", Indian Economic and Social History Review, 35 (1998), pp. 381-404.
11. Lardinois, "Depopulation in Tamil Nadu", pp. 32-33.
12. For a full account see Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, ch. 6.8.
13. For an analysis of labour relations see ibid. ch. 5. also presented an English summary of this chapter ("Labour Relations in an Early Colonial Context: Madras 1750-1800") to the First Conference on Indian Labour History, New Delhi, in March 1998.
14. For an analysis of labour relations see ibid. ch. 5. also presented an English summary of this chapter ("Labour Relations in an Early Colonial Context: Madras 1750-1800") to the First Conference on Indian Labour History, New Delhi, in March 1998.
15. David Washbrook, "Land and Labour in late Eighteenth-Century South India: The Golden Age of the Pariah?", in Peter Robb (ed.), Dalit Movements and the Meanings of Labour in India (Delhi, 1993) [hereafter, Robb, Dalit Movements and Labour], p. 68.
16. David Washbrook, "Land and Labour in late Eighteenth-Century South India: The Golden Age of the Pariah?", in Peter Robb (ed.), Dalit Movements and the Meanings of Labour in India (Delhi, 1993) [hereafter, Robb, Dalit Movements and Labour], p. 68.
17. The most useful starting point for research on other groups of artisans is still A. I. Chicherov, India. Economic Development in the Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries. Outline History of Crafts and Trade (Moscow, 1971).
18. See Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, chs 3-5 and the articles mentioned in nn. 4 and 7 above. The following paragraph presents the main argument in a nutshell.
19. Cf. Michael R. Anderson, "Work Constructed: Ideological Origins of Labour Law in British India to 1918", in Robb, Dalit Movements and Labour, pp. 90-91.
20. Cf. Dharma Kumar, "The Forgotten Sector: Services in Madras Presidency in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century", Indian Economic and Social History Review, 24 (1987), pp. 367-393.
21. Oriental and India Office Collections, British Library, London [hereafter OIOC], Madras Public Proceedings [hereafter MPP] (P/240/14), September 6, 1756, p. 496.
22. Ibid., (P/240/39), March 24 1775, pp. 335-336.
23. Ibid., (P/241/72), May 26 1797, p. 1779 and ibid., (P/242/1), December 22 1797, pp. 4028-4029.
24. Ibid., (P/241/72), May 26 1797, p. 1779 and ibid., (P/242/1), December 22 1797, pp. 4028-4029.
25. Ibid., (P/240/37), January 21 1774, p. 55.
26. Ibid., (P/240/63), May 12 1786, pp. 655, 664.
27. Members of the largest community of "untouchables" in this region who were mainly employed as agricultural labourers but also constituted a large section of the urban labour force.
28. OIOC, Mackenzie Collection General, vol. 69 ("Extracts Chief Engineer's Books Fort St. George Relating to some Principal Points of the Survey & the Engineer's Department [...]"), Major Maule to Governor Sir Charles Oakeley, undated, probably April 1792.
29. Madras Courier, no. 463, August 22 1794. The adjective "sturdy" had a distinctly criminalizing connotation in this period. In England those who were "unwilling" to work though in good bodily health were classified as "sturdy beggars" and could be confined in bedlams or work houses. Cf. Joanna Innes, "Prisons for the Poor: English Bridewells, 1555-1800", in Francis Snyder and Douglas Hay (eds), Labour, Law, and Crime. An Historical Perspective (London and New York, 1987), pp. 49-50; [hereafter, Innes, "English Bridewells 1555-1800"]. See also The Compact Oxford English Dictionary, photomechanically reproduced ed. of Oxford English Dictionary (second ed., London, 1989; 1994), pp. 1938-1939.
30. Madras Courier, no. 463, August 22 1794. The adjective "sturdy" had a distinctly criminalizing connotation in this period. In England those who were "unwilling" to work though in good bodily health were classified as "sturdy beggars" and could be confined in bedlams or work houses. Cf. Joanna Innes, "Prisons for the Poor: English Bridewells, 1555-1800", in Francis Snyder and Douglas Hay (eds), Labour, Law, and Crime. An Historical Perspective (London and New York, 1987), pp. 49-50; [hereafter, Innes, "English Bridewells 1555-1800"]. See also The Compact Oxford English Dictionary, photomechanically reproduced ed. of Oxford English Dictionary (second ed., London, 1989; 1994), pp. 1938-1939.
31. Madras Courier, no. 463, August 22 1794. The adjective "sturdy" had a distinctly criminalizing connotation in this period. In England those who were "unwilling" to work though in good bodily health were classified as "sturdy beggars" and could be confined in bedlams or work houses. Cf. Joanna Innes, "Prisons for the Poor: English Bridewells, 1555-1800", in Francis Snyder and Douglas Hay (eds), Labour, Law, and Crime. An Historical Perspective (London and New York, 1987), pp. 49-50; [hereafter, Innes, "English Bridewells 1555-1800"]. See also The Compact Oxford English Dictionary, photomechanically reproduced ed. of Oxford English Dictionary (second ed., London, 1989; 1994), pp. 1938-1939.
32. Madras Courier, no. 463, August 22 1794. The adjective "sturdy" had a distinctly criminalizing connotation in this period. In England those who were "unwilling" to work though in good bodily health were classified as "sturdy beggars" and could be confined in bedlams or work houses. Cf. Joanna Innes, "Prisons for the Poor: English Bridewells, 1555-1800", in Francis Snyder and Douglas Hay (eds), Labour, Law, and Crime. An Historical Perspective (London and New York, 1987), pp. 49-50; [hereafter, Innes, "English Bridewells 1555-1800"]. See also The Compact Oxford English Dictionary, photomechanically reproduced ed. of Oxford English Dictionary (second ed., London, 1989; 1994), pp. 1938-1939.
33. The term devadasi (literally: "female servant of god") denotes temple servant as well as temple prostitute.
34. Some of these aspects are discussed in Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, chs 3-5.
35. Records of Fort St George, Madras, Diary and Consultation Book, 30 May 1758, p. 98; [Benjamin Schultze], "The large and reknowned town of the English Nation in the East-Indies upon the coast of Coromandel, Madras or Fort St George [...]", (Halle, Saxony, 1750), p. 4 and OIOC, MPP (P/240/26), April 11, 1768, p. 312.
36. Christopher Hill, Change and Continuity in Seventeenth-Century England (rev. ed., New Haven and London, 1991), p. 100; see also Thompson, Customs in Common, pp. 38-42.
37. Christopher Hill, Change and Continuity in Seventeenth-Century England (rev. ed., New Haven and London, 1991), p. 100; see also Thompson, Customs in Common, pp. 38-42.
38. Roy Porter, English Society in the Eighteenth Century in J. H. Plumb (ed.), The Pelican Social History of Britain (Harmondsworth 1982; 1986), p. 145. See also: ibid. pp. 105-106, 146; John Rule, The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth-Century Industry (London, 1981), pp. 52-57; Innes, "English Bridewells 1555-1800", p. 42 and Thompson, Customs in Common, p. 37. For a contemporary statement of the matter see also Frederic Morton Eden, The State of the Poor (London 1797; 1966), vol. 1 (p. 387 and passim) and 3, p. ccclxxxii.
39. Roy Porter, English Society in the Eighteenth Century in J. H. Plumb (ed.), The Pelican Social History of Britain (Harmondsworth 1982; 1986), p. 145. See also: ibid. pp. 105-106, 146; John Rule, The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth-Century Industry (London, 1981), pp. 52-57; Innes, "English Bridewells 1555-1800", p. 42 and Thompson, Customs in Common, p. 37. For a contemporary statement of the matter see also Frederic Morton Eden, The State of the Poor (London 1797; 1966), vol. 1 (p. 387 and passim) and 3, p. ccclxxxii.
40. Roy Porter, English Society in the Eighteenth Century in J. H. Plumb (ed.), The Pelican Social History of Britain (Harmondsworth 1982; 1986), p. 145. See also: ibid. pp. 105-106, 146; John Rule, The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth-Century Industry (London, 1981), pp. 52-57; Innes, "English Bridewells 1555-1800", p. 42 and Thompson, Customs in Common, p. 37. For a contemporary statement of the matter see also Frederic Morton Eden, The State of the Poor (London 1797; 1966), vol. 1 (p. 387 and passim) and 3, p. ccclxxxii.
41. Roy Porter, English Society in the Eighteenth Century in J. H. Plumb (ed.), The Pelican Social History of Britain (Harmondsworth 1982; 1986), p. 145. See also: ibid. pp. 105-106, 146; John Rule, The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth-Century Industry (London, 1981), pp. 52-57; Innes, "English Bridewells 1555-1800", p. 42 and Thompson, Customs in Common, p. 37. For a contemporary statement of the matter see also Frederic Morton Eden, The State of the Poor (London 1797; 1966), vol. 1 (p. 387 and passim) and 3, p. ccclxxxii.
42. Roy Porter, English Society in the Eighteenth Century in J. H. Plumb (ed.), The Pelican Social History of Britain (Harmondsworth 1982; 1986), p. 145. See also: ibid. pp. 105-106, 146; John Rule, The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth-Century Industry (London, 1981), pp. 52-57; Innes, "English Bridewells 1555-1800", p. 42 and Thompson, Customs in Common, p. 37. For a contemporary statement of the matter see also Frederic Morton Eden, The State of the Poor (London 1797; 1966), vol. 1 (p. 387 and passim) and 3, p. ccclxxxii.
43. Roy Porter, English Society in the Eighteenth Century in J. H. Plumb (ed.), The Pelican Social History of Britain (Harmondsworth 1982; 1986), p. 145. See also: ibid. pp. 105-106, 146; John Rule, The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth-Century Industry (London, 1981), pp. 52-57; Innes, "English Bridewells 1555-1800", p. 42 and Thompson, Customs in Common, p. 37. For a contemporary statement of the matter see also Frederic Morton Eden, The State of the Poor (London 1797; 1966), vol. 1 (p. 387 and passim) and 3, p. ccclxxxii.
44. Robert Orme, Of the Govt. and People of Indostan. Extracts from the Author's Work Entitled Historical Fragments of the Mogul Empire [First ed. London, 1805], N. Hassan et al. (eds), pp. 6-9.
45. See e. g. August Hennings, Gegenwärtiger Zustand der Besitzungen der Europäer in Ostindien, vol. 2 (Hamburg and Kiel, 1785), pp. 478-479.
46. Innes Munro, A Narrative of the Military Operations on the Coromandel Coast Against the Combined Forces of the French, Dutch, and Hyder Ally Cawn from the Year 1780 to the Peace in 1784 in a Series of Letters (London, 1789), p. 67.
47. Lionel Place, Report on the Jagir (1799), in OIOC, Board's Collection (F/4/III), § 685, p. 411.
48. Madras Courier, no. 496, April 8, 1794 and no. 490, February 25, 1795. See also ibid., no. 475, November 14, 1794.
49. Madras Courier, no. 496, April 8, 1794 and no. 490, February 25, 1795. See also ibid., no. 475, November 14, 1794.
50. Madras Courier, no. 496, April 8, 1794 and no. 490, February 25, 1795. See also ibid., no. 475, November 14, 1794.
51. Cf. Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, p. 249, n. 40.
52. Hennings, Besitzungen der Europäer in Ostindien, pp. 485, 487-488.
53. OIOC, MPP (P/240/46), June 12 1778, pp. 703-716. Elements of an early racism can also be found in Innes Munro, Military Operations on the Coromandel Coast, pp. 49-51 (written in about 1780).
54. Place, Report on the Jagir (1799), § 356-7, pp. 128-229.
55. Maurice Dobb, Wert- und Verteilungstheorien seit Adam Smith. Eine nationalökonomische Dogmengeschichte (Frankfurt a. M, 1977), p. 61, n. 34.
56. Here John Rule's observation is relevant that both wage theories reflected different aspects of the contemporary world of labour - in Smith's case a less predominant one. Rule, The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth-Century Industry, p. 57.
57. R. H. Campbell and A. S. Skinner (eds), The Glasgow Edition of the Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith (Oxford, 1979), vol. 2.1, pp. 85-91, 113-114, 266.
58. Ibid., p. 99.
59. Ibid., pp. 99-100. See also Eden, The State of the Poor, vol. 1, pp. 438-447.
60. Ibid., pp. 99-100. See also Eden, The State of the Poor, vol. 1, pp. 438-447.
61. Campbell and Skinner, Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith, vol. 2.1, p. 138.
62. Ibid., pp. 95, 157-158.
63. Possibly a corruption of Hindustani chitti (letter, certificate); cf. Henry Yule and A. C. Burnell, Hobson-Jobson (Delhi 1903; 1984), p. 203.
64. Lionel Place, Report on the Jagir, October 6 1795, in OIOC, Board's Collection (F/4/31), § 51-54.
65. E. P. Thompson argued that while unfree labour relations disappeared from England in the course of the eighteenth century the related ideas concerning "service" proved to be more enduring among the "masters": "They clung to the image of the labourer as an unfree man, a 'servant': a servant in husbandry, in the workshop, in the house. (They clung simultaneously to the image of the free or masterless man as a vagabond, to be disciplined, whipped and compelled to work.)" Thompson, Customs in Common, p. 36.
66. Bishop Butler, quoted in Porter, English Society in the Eighteenth Century, p. 310. On religious motivations of contemporary English policy concerning the poor see also: ibid., pp. 308-316; Innes, "English Bridewells 1555-1800", pp. 49-52, 60, 84, 101, and Nicholas Rogers, "Policing the Poor in Eighteenth Century London: The Vagrancy Laws and Their Administration", Histoire social/Social History, 24/47 (1991), p. 128. For a graphic illustration of contemporary gentlemen's inclination to preach morals to the plebeian classes see William Hogarth's series of engravings "Industry and Idleness".
67. Bishop Butler, quoted in Porter, English Society in the Eighteenth Century, p. 310. On religious motivations of contemporary English policy concerning the poor see also: ibid., pp. 308-316; Innes, "English Bridewells 1555-1800", pp. 49-52, 60, 84, 101, and Nicholas Rogers, "Policing the Poor in Eighteenth Century London: The Vagrancy Laws and Their Administration", Histoire social/Social History, 24/47 (1991), p. 128. For a graphic illustration of contemporary gentlemen's inclination to preach morals to the plebeian classes see William Hogarth's series of engravings "Industry and Idleness".
68. Bishop Butler, quoted in Porter, English Society in the Eighteenth Century, p. 310. On religious motivations of contemporary English policy concerning the poor see also: ibid., pp. 308-316; Innes, "English Bridewells 1555-1800", pp. 49-52, 60, 84, 101, and Nicholas Rogers, "Policing the Poor in Eighteenth Century London: The Vagrancy Laws and Their Administration", Histoire social/Social History, 24/47 (1991), p. 128. For a graphic illustration of contemporary gentlemen's inclination to preach morals to the plebeian classes see William Hogarth's series of engravings "Industry and Idleness".
69. Bishop Butler, quoted in Porter, English Society in the Eighteenth Century, p. 310. On religious motivations of contemporary English policy concerning the poor see also: ibid., pp. 308-316; Innes, "English Bridewells 1555-1800", pp. 49-52, 60, 84, 101, and Nicholas Rogers, "Policing the Poor in Eighteenth Century London: The Vagrancy Laws and Their Administration", Histoire social/Social History, 24/47 (1991), p. 128. For a graphic illustration of contemporary gentlemen's inclination to preach morals to the plebeian classes see William Hogarth's series of engravings "Industry and Idleness".
70. Bishop Butler, quoted in Porter, English Society in the Eighteenth Century, p. 310. On religious motivations of contemporary English policy concerning the poor see also: ibid., pp. 308-316; Innes, "English Bridewells 1555-1800", pp. 49-52, 60, 84, 101, and Nicholas Rogers, "Policing the Poor in Eighteenth Century London: The Vagrancy Laws and Their Administration", Histoire social/Social History, 24/47 (1991), p. 128. For a graphic illustration of contemporary gentlemen's inclination to preach morals to the plebeian classes see William Hogarth's series of engravings "Industry and Idleness".
71. Eden, The State of the Poor, vol. 1, p. 307. See also: ibid., pp. 308-310; ibid., vol. 3, p. cclvi and Nicholas Rogers, "Vagrancy, Impressment and the Regulation of Labour in Eighteenth-Century Britain", Slavery and Abolition, 15 (1994), pp. 104-105 [hereafter, Rogers, "Regulation of Labour in Britain"].
72. Eden, The State of the Poor, vol. 1, p. 307. See also: ibid., pp. 308-310; ibid., vol. 3, p. cclvi and Nicholas Rogers, "Vagrancy, Impressment and the Regulation of Labour in Eighteenth-Century Britain", Slavery and Abolition, 15 (1994), pp. 104-105 [hereafter, Rogers, "Regulation of Labour in Britain"].
73. Eden, The State of the Poor, vol. 1, p. 307. See also: ibid., pp. 308-310; ibid., vol. 3, p. cclvi and Nicholas Rogers, "Vagrancy, Impressment and the Regulation of Labour in Eighteenth-Century Britain", Slavery and Abolition, 15 (1994), pp. 104-105 [hereafter, Rogers, "Regulation of Labour in Britain"].
74. Eden, The State of the Poor, vol. 1, p. 307. See also: ibid., pp. 308-310; ibid., vol. 3, p. cclvi and Nicholas Rogers, "Vagrancy, Impressment and the Regulation of Labour in Eighteenth-Century Britain", Slavery and Abolition, 15 (1994), pp. 104-105 [hereafter, Rogers, "Regulation of Labour in Britain"].
75. Eden, The State of the Poor, vol. 1, p. 307. See also: ibid., pp. 308-310; ibid., vol. 3, p. cclvi and Nicholas Rogers, "Vagrancy, Impressment and the Regulation of Labour in Eighteenth-Century Britain", Slavery and Abolition, 15 (1994), pp. 104-105 [hereafter, Rogers, "Regulation of Labour in Britain"].
76. Quoted from Eden, The State of the Poor, vol. 1, p. 322.
77. For example, in a 1786 petition of the idangai (i.e. left hand) caste division (dominated by Chettiar merchants), it was still claimed that the petitioner's ancestors had been "by Encouragement and good treatment aforesaid Employed to provide, which they performed not only with fidelity and truth, but also with an Immense trouble and pains, especially, in the Collecting and procuring of workmen [...] from different quarters". OIOC, MPP (P/240/64), August 5 1786, pp. 1358-1359.
78. Most aspects touched upon in this paragraph are discussed in detail in chs 3-5 of Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit. Problems of military labour would, however, merit another study.
79. Tamil Nadu State Archives, Chennai [hereafter, TNSA], Quarter Sessions, vol. 1, July 11 1764, pp. 161-162. See also ibid., July 18 1765, p. 183.
80. Tamil Nadu State Archives, Chennai [hereafter, TNSA], Quarter Sessions, vol. 1, July 11 1764, pp. 161-162. See also ibid., July 18 1765, p. 183.
81. OIOC, MPP (P/240/29), March 2 1770, pp. 173-177.
82. TNSA, Public Sundries, vol. 16, April 18 1770, pp. 34-35. See also The Compact Oxford English Dictionary, pp. 1378-1379, entry "police".
83. TNSA, Public Sundries, vol. 16, April 18 1770, pp. 34-35. See also The Compact Oxford English Dictionary, pp. 1378-1379, entry "police".
84. OIOC MPP (P/240/29), March 2 1770, p. 177. The Board consisted of the Governor and five Council members including Warren Hastings, later Governor-General. TNSA: Public Sundries, vol. 16, March 8 1770, p. 4.
85. Cf. John Shaw (ed.), Charters Relating to the East India Company from 1600 to 1761 [...] (Madras, 1887), p. 46.
86. OIOC, Madras Despatches (E/4/865), November 30 1770, pp. 43-46. The last record entry is dated March 18 1771. TNSA: Public Sundries, vol. 16, pp. 90-91.
87. Cf.: ibid. April 18 1770, pp. 38-39; ibid., April 25 1770, p. 41 and ibid., April 27 1770, p. 43. The committee members were Nicholas Morse, John De Fries, George Smith, Stephen Briggs and John Hollond. For prosopogrophical detailes see: OIOC, Letters and Papers of Robert Palk (IOR Neg 4381), nos 51, 70, 179; Henry Davidson Love, Vestiges of Old Madras (1913; New York, 1968), vol. 2, p. 336; ibid., vol. 3 pp. 14, 402, 554; Historical Manuscripts Commission, Report on the Palk Manuscripts in the Possession of Mrs. Bannatyne of Haldon (London, 1922), pp. xxii, xxxiii; Henry Dodwell, The Nabobs of Madras (London, 1926), pp. 29-30; J. D. Gurney, "The Debts of the Nawab of Arcot, 1763-1778" (unpublished Ph.D., Oxford, 1968), pp. 40, 63, 98 and Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, subch. 2.4.
88. Cf.: ibid. April 18 1770, pp. 38-39; ibid., April 25 1770, p. 41 and ibid., April 27 1770, p. 43. The committee members were Nicholas Morse, John De Fries, George Smith, Stephen Briggs and John Hollond. For prosopogrophical detailes see: OIOC, Letters and Papers of Robert Palk (IOR Neg 4381), nos 51, 70, 179; Henry Davidson Love, Vestiges of Old Madras (1913; New York, 1968), vol. 2, p. 336; ibid., vol. 3 pp. 14, 402, 554; Historical Manuscripts Commission, Report on the Palk Manuscripts in the Possession of Mrs. Bannatyne of Haldon (London, 1922), pp. xxii, xxxiii; Henry Dodwell, The Nabobs of Madras (London, 1926), pp. 29-30; J. D. Gurney, "The Debts of the Nawab of Arcot, 1763-1778" (unpublished Ph.D., Oxford, 1968), pp. 40, 63, 98 and Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, subch. 2.4.
89. Cf.: ibid. April 18 1770, pp. 38-39; ibid., April 25 1770, p. 41 and ibid., April 27 1770, p. 43. The committee members were Nicholas Morse, John De Fries, George Smith, Stephen Briggs and John Hollond. For prosopogrophical detailes see: OIOC, Letters and Papers of Robert Palk (IOR Neg 4381), nos 51, 70, 179; Henry Davidson Love, Vestiges of Old Madras (1913; New York, 1968), vol. 2, p. 336; ibid., vol. 3 pp. 14, 402, 554; Historical Manuscripts Commission, Report on the Palk Manuscripts in the Possession of Mrs. Bannatyne of Haldon (London, 1922), pp. xxii, xxxiii; Henry Dodwell, The Nabobs of Madras (London, 1926), pp. 29-30; J. D. Gurney, "The Debts of the Nawab of Arcot, 1763-1778" (unpublished Ph.D., Oxford, 1968), pp. 40, 63, 98 and Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, subch. 2.4.
90. Cf.: ibid. April 18 1770, pp. 38-39; ibid., April 25 1770, p. 41 and ibid., April 27 1770, p. 43. The committee members were Nicholas Morse, John De Fries, George Smith, Stephen Briggs and John Hollond. For prosopogrophical detailes see: OIOC, Letters and Papers of Robert Palk (IOR Neg 4381), nos 51, 70, 179; Henry Davidson Love, Vestiges of Old Madras (1913; New York, 1968), vol. 2, p. 336; ibid., vol. 3 pp. 14, 402, 554; Historical Manuscripts Commission, Report on the Palk Manuscripts in the Possession of Mrs. Bannatyne of Haldon (London, 1922), pp. xxii, xxxiii; Henry Dodwell, The Nabobs of Madras (London, 1926), pp. 29-30; J. D. Gurney, "The Debts of the Nawab of Arcot, 1763-1778" (unpublished Ph.D., Oxford, 1968), pp. 40, 63, 98 and Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, subch. 2.4.
91. Cf.: ibid. April 18 1770, pp. 38-39; ibid., April 25 1770, p. 41 and ibid., April 27 1770, p. 43. The committee members were Nicholas Morse, John De Fries, George Smith, Stephen Briggs and John Hollond. For prosopogrophical detailes see: OIOC, Letters and Papers of Robert Palk (IOR Neg 4381), nos 51, 70, 179; Henry Davidson Love, Vestiges of Old Madras (1913; New York, 1968), vol. 2, p. 336; ibid., vol. 3 pp. 14, 402, 554; Historical Manuscripts Commission, Report on the Palk Manuscripts in the Possession of Mrs. Bannatyne of Haldon (London, 1922), pp. xxii, xxxiii; Henry Dodwell, The Nabobs of Madras (London, 1926), pp. 29-30; J. D. Gurney, "The Debts of the Nawab of Arcot, 1763-1778" (unpublished Ph.D., Oxford, 1968), pp. 40, 63, 98 and Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, subch. 2.4.
92. Cf.: ibid. April 18 1770, pp. 38-39; ibid., April 25 1770, p. 41 and ibid., April 27 1770, p. 43. The committee members were Nicholas Morse, John De Fries, George Smith, Stephen Briggs and John Hollond. For prosopogrophical detailes see: OIOC, Letters and Papers of Robert Palk (IOR Neg 4381), nos 51, 70, 179; Henry Davidson Love, Vestiges of Old Madras (1913; New York, 1968), vol. 2, p. 336; ibid., vol. 3 pp. 14, 402, 554; Historical Manuscripts Commission, Report on the Palk Manuscripts in the Possession of Mrs. Bannatyne of Haldon (London, 1922), pp. xxii, xxxiii; Henry Dodwell, The Nabobs of Madras (London, 1926), pp. 29-30; J. D. Gurney, "The Debts of the Nawab of Arcot, 1763-1778" (unpublished Ph.D., Oxford, 1968), pp. 40, 63, 98 and Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, subch. 2.4.
93. Cf.: ibid. April 18 1770, pp. 38-39; ibid., April 25 1770, p. 41 and ibid., April 27 1770, p. 43. The committee members were Nicholas Morse, John De Fries, George Smith, Stephen Briggs and John Hollond. For prosopogrophical detailes see: OIOC, Letters and Papers of Robert Palk (IOR Neg 4381), nos 51, 70, 179; Henry Davidson Love, Vestiges of Old Madras (1913; New York, 1968), vol. 2, p. 336; ibid., vol. 3 pp. 14, 402, 554; Historical Manuscripts Commission, Report on the Palk Manuscripts in the Possession of Mrs. Bannatyne of Haldon (London, 1922), pp. xxii, xxxiii; Henry Dodwell, The Nabobs of Madras (London, 1926), pp. 29-30; J. D. Gurney, "The Debts of the Nawab of Arcot, 1763-1778" (unpublished Ph.D., Oxford, 1968), pp. 40, 63, 98 and Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, subch. 2.4.
94. Cf.: ibid. April 18 1770, pp. 38-39; ibid., April 25 1770, p. 41 and ibid., April 27 1770, p. 43. The committee members were Nicholas Morse, John De Fries, George Smith, Stephen Briggs and John Hollond. For prosopogrophical detailes see: OIOC, Letters and Papers of Robert Palk (IOR Neg 4381), nos 51, 70, 179; Henry Davidson Love, Vestiges of Old Madras (1913; New York, 1968), vol. 2, p. 336; ibid., vol. 3 pp. 14, 402, 554; Historical Manuscripts Commission, Report on the Palk Manuscripts in the Possession of Mrs. Bannatyne of Haldon (London, 1922), pp. xxii, xxxiii; Henry Dodwell, The Nabobs of Madras (London, 1926), pp. 29-30; J. D. Gurney, "The Debts of the Nawab of Arcot, 1763-1778" (unpublished Ph.D., Oxford, 1968), pp. 40, 63, 98 and Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, subch. 2.4.
95. Cf.: ibid. April 18 1770, pp. 38-39; ibid., April 25 1770, p. 41 and ibid., April 27 1770, p. 43. The committee members were Nicholas Morse, John De Fries, George Smith, Stephen Briggs and John Hollond. For prosopogrophical detailes see: OIOC, Letters and Papers of Robert Palk (IOR Neg 4381), nos 51, 70, 179; Henry Davidson Love, Vestiges of Old Madras (1913; New York, 1968), vol. 2, p. 336; ibid., vol. 3 pp. 14, 402, 554; Historical Manuscripts Commission, Report on the Palk Manuscripts in the Possession of Mrs. Bannatyne of Haldon (London, 1922), pp. xxii, xxxiii; Henry Dodwell, The Nabobs of Madras (London, 1926), pp. 29-30; J. D. Gurney, "The Debts of the Nawab of Arcot, 1763-1778" (unpublished Ph.D., Oxford, 1968), pp. 40, 63, 98 and Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, subch. 2.4.
96. Cf.: ibid. April 18 1770, pp. 38-39; ibid., April 25 1770, p. 41 and ibid., April 27 1770, p. 43. The committee members were Nicholas Morse, John De Fries, George Smith, Stephen Briggs and John Hollond. For prosopogrophical detailes see: OIOC, Letters and Papers of Robert Palk (IOR Neg 4381), nos 51, 70, 179; Henry Davidson Love, Vestiges of Old Madras (1913; New York, 1968), vol. 2, p. 336; ibid., vol. 3 pp. 14, 402, 554; Historical Manuscripts Commission, Report on the Palk Manuscripts in the Possession of Mrs. Bannatyne of Haldon (London, 1922), pp. xxii, xxxiii; Henry Dodwell, The Nabobs of Madras (London, 1926), pp. 29-30; J. D. Gurney, "The Debts of the Nawab of Arcot, 1763-1778" (unpublished Ph.D., Oxford, 1968), pp. 40, 63, 98 and Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, subch. 2.4.
97. For this type of argument see D. Sadasivan, "People's Committee for Regulating Prices in Madras Two Centuries Ago", Journal of the Madras University, Section A, Humanities, 40/1 (1968), pp. 115-120, and the same author's "The Police and the Civic Functions in Madras in Early Days", Journal of the Madras University, Section A, Humanities, 50/1 (1978), pt. 2, pp. 1-8.
98. For this type of argument see D. Sadasivan, "People's Committee for Regulating Prices in Madras Two Centuries Ago", Journal of the Madras University, Section A, Humanities, 40/1 (1968), pp. 115-120, and the same author's "The Police and the Civic Functions in Madras in Early Days", Journal of the Madras University, Section A, Humanities, 50/1 (1978), pt. 2, pp. 1-8.
99. I have further developed this argument in Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, ch. 2.
100. Cf.: TNSA, Public Sundries, vol. 16, July 4 1770, pp. 56-61 and ibid., September 5 1770, p. 70.
101. Cf.: TNSA, Public Sundries, vol. 16, July 4 1770, pp. 56-61 and ibid., September 5 1770, p. 70.
102. Ibid., July 4 1770, p. 57.
103. OIOC, MPP (P/240/43), March 11 1777, p. 187. See also ibid., pp. 184-190 and ibid., April 18 1777, p. 289.
104. OIOC, MPP (P/240/43), March 11 1777, p. 187. See also ibid., pp. 184-190 and ibid., April 18 1777, p. 289.
105. Ibid. (P/240/44), November 1 1777, p. 1168-1170.
106. Ibid. (P/240/51), October 27 1780, pp. 939-942. See also ibid. (P/240/52), March 15 1781, pp. 255-256.
107. Ibid. (P/240/59, June 21 1784, pp. 745-747.
108. Ibid. (P/240/64), August 5 1786, p. 1346.
109. This plan, dated January 12 1782, was entered into the council's records only in 1786: ibid. (P/24063), May 12 1786, pp. 638-663; excerpts were published in Love, Vestiges of Old Madras, vol. 3, pp. 309-313.
110. This plan, dated January 12 1782, was entered into the council's records only in 1786: ibid. (P/24063), May 12 1786, pp. 638-663; excerpts were published in Love, Vestiges of Old Madras, vol. 3, pp. 309-313.
111. OIOC, MPP (P/240/63), May 12 1786, p. 639.
112. Ibid. (P/240/62), May 12 1786, pp. 582, 577, 554 (Popham to Governor-in-Council, December 16, 1785) and ibid. (P/240/63), May 12 1786, pp. 638-639.
113. Ibid., pp. 663-670.
114. Ibid., May 18 1786, pp. 697-699. The designation "Committee of Police" appears ibid., July 13 1786, pp. 1124, 1133.
115. Ibid., May 18 1786, pp. 697-699. The designation "Committee of Police" appears ibid., July 13 1786, pp. 1124, 1133.
116. Ibid., pp. 1127, 1138-1139.
117. Ibid. (P/140/64), August 5 1786, p. 1346.
118. Ibid., August 21 1786, p. 1570.
119. For the size of that occupational group cf. Neuere Geschichte der Evangelischen Missions-Anstalten zu Bekehrung der Heiden in Ostindien, 38th Stueck (Halle, Saxony, 1791), p. 173.
120. OIOC, MPP (P/240/64), October 20 1786, pp. 1994-1997.
121. Ibid., pp. 1998-1999.
122. The boyis' oral epic Kamamma Katha also deals with conflicts between the community and the East India Company on matters of caste status. Cf. Velcheru Narayana Rao, "Epics and Ideologies: Six Telugu Folk Epics", in Stuart H. Blackburn and A. K. Ramanujan (eds), Another Harmony, New Essays on the Folklore of India (Berkeley etc., 1986), p. 139.
123. OIOC, MPP (P/240/64), October 20 1786, pp. 1998-2005, 2008 and ibid., November 3 1786, p. 2010.
124. Cf. OIOC, Despatches to Madras (E/4/873), July 31 1787, §57, p. 681 and IOC, MPP (P/ 241/4), February 3 1788, p. 447.
125. Cf. OIOC, MP (P/241/7), September 23 1788, pp. 2365-2366 and ibid., (P/241/10), January 2 1789, pp. 47-48, 51-53. However, H. D. Love assumed that the implementation of Popham's "Police Plan" ended only in 1791 when the office of kotwal was discontinued for some years; Love, Vestiges of Old Madras, vol. 3, p. 481.
126. Cf. OIOC, MP (P/241/7), September 23 1788, pp. 2365-2366 and ibid., (P/241/10), January 2 1789, pp. 47-48, 51-53. However, H. D. Love assumed that the implementation of Popham's "Police Plan" ended only in 1791 when the office of kotwal was discontinued for some years; Love, Vestiges of Old Madras, vol. 3, p. 481.
127. Cf. OIOC, MP (P/241/7), September 23 1788, pp. 2365-2366 and ibid., (P/241/10), January 2 1789, pp. 47-48, 51-53. However, H. D. Love assumed that the implementation of Popham's "Police Plan" ended only in 1791 when the office of kotwal was discontinued for some years; Love, Vestiges of Old Madras, vol. 3, p. 481.
128. Cf. Love, Vestiges of Old Madras, vol. 3, p. 486. See also TNSA, Public Consultations, vol. 238B, August 27 1799, p. 3053.
129. Cf. Love, Vestiges of Old Madras, vol. 3, p. 486. See also TNSA, Public Consultations, vol. 238B, August 27 1799, p. 3053.
130. The preceding paragraph refers to: OIOC, MPP (P/242/1), December 1 1797, pp. 3744-3748, 3752-3753; ibid., December 22 1797, pp. 4059-4061; ibid., December 29 1797, pp. 4146-4159 and TNSA, Public Sundries, vol. 61, December 20 1797, pp. 5-13.
131. Cf. TNSA, Public Sundries, vols. 61 and 64, passim. See also OIOC, MPP (P/242/4), May 18 1798, pp. 1319-1330, 1338-1342 and ibid. (P/242/5), June 15 1798, pp. 1782-1807.
132. Cf. TNSA, Public Sundries, vol. 64, pp. 33-40. See also ibid., vol. 61, p. 19.
133. Cf. TNSA, Public Sundries, vol. 64, pp. 33-40. See also ibid., vol. 61, p. 19.
134. TNSA, Public Consultations, vol. 238B, August 27 1799, p. 3054.
135. TNSA, Public Sundries, vol. 64, p. 33-37.
136. Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, ch. 3.
137. Bayly, Indian Society and British Empire, pp. 79, 84-89.
138. Anderson, "Work Constructed", pp. 90-91.
139. Cf. Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, ch. 5.
140. For a discussion of these issues see ibid., chs 4, 5.
141. Madras Courier, vols 1793-1795.
142. For the legal background of these regulations see Shaw, Charters Relating to the East India Company, p. 80.
143. Systematic research is necessary in this field. A promising comparative project seems to be under way; cf. Paul Craven and Douglas Hay, "Master and Servant in England and the Empire: A Comparative Study", Labour/Le Travail, 31 (1993), pp. 175-184 and "The Criminalization of 'Free' Labour: Master and Servant in Comparative Perspective", Slavery and Abolition, 15 (1994), pp. 71-101.
144. Systematic research is necessary in this field. A promising comparative project seems to be under way; cf. Paul Craven and Douglas Hay, "Master and Servant in England and the Empire: A Comparative Study", Labour/Le Travail, 31 (1993), pp. 175-184 and "The Criminalization of 'Free' Labour: Master and Servant in Comparative Perspective", Slavery and Abolition, 15 (1994), pp. 71-101.
145. TNSA, Military Sundries, vol. 139, "Police Regulation, No. 1".
146. Cf. Rogers, "Regulation of Labour in Britain", pp. 104-106.
147. Cf. Rogers, "Policing the Poor in London", pp. 131, 145.
148. Cf. Rogers, "Regulation of Labour in Britain", p. 102.
149. Cf. Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, pp. 297-299.
150. TNSA, Military Sundries vol. 139. "Police Regulation, No. 3".
151. Craven and Hay, "Master and Servant in England and the Empire", p. 175. See also Daphne Simon, "Master and Servant" in John Saville (ed.), Democracy and the Labour Movement (London, 1954), p. 198.
152. Craven and Hay, "Master and Servant in England and the Empire", p. 175. See also Daphne Simon, "Master and Servant" in John Saville (ed.), Democracy and the Labour Movement (London, 1954), p. 198.
153. Cf. Simon, "Master and Servant", pp. 160, 195-199; Craven and Hay, "Criminalization of 'Free' Labour", p. 82 and "Master and Servant in England and the Empire", pp. 178-180.
154. Cf. Simon, "Master and Servant", pp. 160, 195-199; Craven and Hay, "Criminalization of 'Free' Labour", p. 82 and "Master and Servant in England and the Empire", pp. 178-180.
155. Cf. Simon, "Master and Servant", pp. 160, 195-199; Craven and Hay, "Criminalization of 'Free' Labour", p. 82 and "Master and Servant in England and the Empire", pp. 178-180.
156. TNSA, Public Consultations vol. 238B, August 27 1799, p. 3053.
157. Cf. Craven and Hay, "Criminalization of 'Free' Labour", p. 88.
158. OIOC, MPP (P/240/29), March 2, 1770, p. 174.
159. Craven and Hay, "Master and Servant in England and the Empire", p. 180 and "Criminalization of 'Free' Labour", p. 72.
160. Craven and Hay, "Master and Servant in England and the Empire", p. 180 and "Criminalization of 'Free' Labour", p. 72.
161. TNSA, Quarter Sessions, vols 1-3, 6, 8, 12, 13. (These unique and invaluable sources of social history were in a state of decay and urgently required restoration early in 1997.)
162. Craven and Hay, "Criminalization of 'Free' Labour", pp. 83-89.
163. Examples are given in Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, subchs 3.4, 3.6, 3.7, 5.4, 5.5.
164. TNSA, Quarter Sessions, March 12 1796, pp. 85-86.
165. For a contemporary case of torture in the Madras hinterland by one of the nawab's Hindu tax-collectors see OIOC, MPP (P/240/50), May 19, 1780, p. 286. For South Indian torture techniques see also Edgar Thurston, Ethnographic Notes in Southern India (Madras, 1906), pp. 407-432. For a study of a pre-colonial "culture of punishment" see Sumit Guha, "An Indian Penal Regime: Maharashtra in the Eighteenth Century", Past and Present, 147 (1995), pp. 101-126.
166. For a contemporary case of torture in the Madras hinterland by one of the nawab's Hindu tax-collectors see OIOC, MPP (P/240/50), May 19, 1780, p. 286. For South Indian torture techniques see also Edgar Thurston, Ethnographic Notes in Southern India (Madras, 1906), pp. 407-432. For a study of a pre-colonial "culture of punishment" see Sumit Guha, "An Indian Penal Regime: Maharashtra in the Eighteenth Century", Past and Present, 147 (1995), pp. 101-126.
167. For a contemporary case of torture in the Madras hinterland by one of the nawab's Hindu tax-collectors see OIOC, MPP (P/240/50), May 19, 1780, p. 286. For South Indian torture techniques see also Edgar Thurston, Ethnographic Notes in Southern India (Madras, 1906), pp. 407-432. For a study of a pre-colonial "culture of punishment" see Sumit Guha, "An Indian Penal Regime: Maharashtra in the Eighteenth Century", Past and Present, 147 (1995), pp. 101-126.
168. TNSA, Military Sundries, vol. 139, "Police Regulation, No. 7".
169. A conflict of this type is recorded for 1782 between "boat maistries" (superiors of stevedores) belonging to different communities. See esp. OIOC, MPP (P/240/55), December 3 1782, p. 1332. See also Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, subch. 3.6.
170. A conflict of this type is recorded for 1782 between "boat maistries" (superiors of stevedores) belonging to different communities. See esp. OIOC, MPP (P/240/55), December 3 1782, p. 1332. See also Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, subch. 3.6.
171. TNSA, Military Sundries, vol. 139, "Police Regulation, No. 5".
172. The role of maistries as recruitment entrepreneurs is discussed in Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, ch. 3, which is a detailed case study of the labour relations of stevedores in late eighteenth-century Madras harbour.
173. TNSA, Military Sundries, vol. 139, "Police Regulation, No. 8".
174. OIOC, MPP (P/241/70), February 24 1797, p. 585; ibid. (P/241/73), June 22 1797, pp. 2082-2083 and ibid., June 24 1797, pp. 2113-2114.
175. Cf. Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, subchs 3.4, 3.5, 3.7.
176. C. G. Armstrong, "Madras Harbour. Its History and Development", The Journal of the Madras Geographical Association, 5/1 (1930), pp. 18-19.
177. Cf.: Peter D'Sena, "Perquisites and Casual Labour on the London Wharfside in the Eighteenth Century", London Journal, 14/2 (1989), pp. 130-147.
178. Cf. Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, subchs 3.4, 3.5.
179. See ibid., subchs 5.2, 5.6.
180. For the quoted passages of Popham's legal opinion see OIOC, MPP (P/240/63), May 12 1786, pp. 634-636.
181. See also for this law Eden, The State of the Poor, vol. 1, pp. 292-294.
182. See also ibid., vol. 3, p. cclx.
183. See also ibid., vol. 3, p. ccxliv and John V. Orth, "The English Combination Acts Reconsidered", in Snyder and Hay, Labour, Law, and Crime, p. 134, nn. 39, 41; p. 144.
184. See also ibid., vol. 3, p. ccxliv and John V. Orth, "The English Combination Acts Reconsidered", in Snyder and Hay, Labour, Law, and Crime, p. 134, nn. 39, 41; p. 144.
185. See also ibid., vol. 3, p. ccxliv and John V. Orth, "The English Combination Acts Reconsidered", in Snyder and Hay, Labour, Law, and Crime, p. 134, nn. 39, 41; p. 144.
186. This law is summarized in Eden, The State of the Poor, vol. 1, pp. 306-310.
187. See also ibid., vol. 1, pp. 124-125 and ibid., vol. 3, pp. clvii-clviii.
188. See also ibid., vol. 1, pp. 124-125 and ibid., vol. 3, pp. clvii-clviii.
189. For the exact wording of that law see ibid., vol. 3, pp. cliii-clxvii. For its importance in the context of English master and servant law see: Simon, "Master and Servant", pp. 195-197.
190. For the exact wording of that law see ibid., vol. 3, pp. cliii-clxvii. For its importance in the context of English master and servant law see: Simon, "Master and Servant", pp. 195-197.
191. Cf.: Rogers, "Regulation of Labour in Britain", pp. 103-104.
192. Campbell and Skinner, Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith, p. 157.
193. Eden, The State of the Poor, vol. 1, p. 295.
194. Cf. Rule, The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth-Century Industry, pp. 176-178; Orth, "The English Combination Acts Reconsidered", esp. p. 13.
195. Cf. Rule, The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth-Century Industry, pp. 176-178; Orth, "The English Combination Acts Reconsidered", esp. p. 13.
196. Rogers, "Regulation of Labour in Britain", p. 105.
197. OIOC, MPP (P/140/63), July 13, 1786, pp. 1143-1144.
198. "Copy of a Letter from Mr. Popham to the Governor in Council of Madras; dated the 31st December 1783; on the Mode of administering Justice among the Natives of the Settlement of Madras. Ordered to be printed 5th July 1797", OIOC, Early Parliamentary Papers Relating to India (L/PAR/2/32), p. 4.
199. I borrow this metaphor from Bayly, Indian Society and British Empire, p. 46.
200. Peter J. Marshall, "The Company and the Coolies: Labour in Early Calcutta", in Pradip Sinha (ed.), The Urban Experience: Calcutta; Essays in Honour of Nisith R. Ray (Calcutta, 1987), p. 31. This otherwise instructive article is a rare attempt to deal with this topic.
201. See Ahuja, Erzeugung kolonialer Staatlichkeit, ch. 5.