Visceral leishmaniasis: Clinical features, pathology, diagnosis and chemotherapeutic developments

Drug News and Perspectives

Volumn 15, Issue 7, 2002, Pages 417-431

  Kumari, Seema ^a   Ram, Vishnu Ji ^a  

^a CENTRAL DRUG RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (India)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALLOPURINOL; AMPHOTERICIN B; ANTIMONY; GAMMA INTERFERON; IMIDAZOLE DERIVATIVE; LICOCHALCONE A; MEGLUMINE ANTIMONATE; MILTEFOSINE; PAROMOMYCIN; STIBOGLUCONATE SODIUM;

ABDOMINAL PAIN; ARTHRALGIA; CARDIOTOXICITY; CHILL; CHRONIC DISEASE; CLINICAL FEATURE; DRUG EFFECT; ENZYME LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY; FATIGUE; HEADACHE; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; HYPOCALCEMIA; HYPOGLYCEMIA; IMMUNE RESPONSE; LATEX AGGLUTINATION TEST; LEISHMANIA DONOVANI; LEUKOPENIA; LIVER TOXICITY; MUSCLE WEAKNESS; MYALGIA; NAUSEA; NEPHROTOXICITY; OTOTOXICITY; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; REVIEW; VISCERAL LEISHMANIASIS; VOMITING;

EID: 0036757806     PISSN: 02140934     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1358/dnp.2002.15.7.840077     Document Type: Review

References (154)

1. Desjeux, P. Leishmaniasis. Public health aspects and control. Clin Dermatol 1996, 14: 417-23.
2. Kumar, R., Kumar, P., Chowdhary, R.K., Pai, K., Mishra, C.P., Kumar, K., Pandey, H.P., Singh, V.P. and Sundar, S. Kala-azar epidemic in Varanasi district, India. Bull World Health Organ 1999, 77: 371-4.
3. Stephenson, R.W. An epidemic of kalaazar in the upper Nile Province of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1940, 34: 175-9.
4. Hashim, F.A., Ali, M.S., Satti, M., El-Hassan, A.M., Ghalib, H.W., El-Safi, S. and El Hag, I.A. An outbreak of acute kalaazar in a nomadic tribe in Western Sudan: Features of the disease in a previously non-immune population. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1994, 88: 431-2.
5. Siddig, M., Ghalib, H.W., Shillington, D.C., Petersen, E.A and Khidir, S. Visceral leishmaniasis in Sudan. Trop Geog Med 1990, 42: 107-12.
6. Zijlstra, E.E., Siddig, A.M., El-Hassan, A., ElToum, I.A., Satti, M., Ghalib, H.W., Sondorp, E. and Winkler, A. Kala-azar in displaced people from southern Sudan: Epidemiological, clinical and therapeutic findings. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1991, 85: 365-9.
7. Willcocks, C. and Manson-Bahr, P.E.C. Leishmaniasis. In: Manson's Tropical Disease, Ed. 17. Bailliere and Tindall: London, 1972, pp. 117-47.
8. El-Hassan, A.M., Khalil, E.A.G., el Sheikh, E.A., Zijlstra, E.E., Osman, A. and Ibrahim, M.E. Post kala-azar ocular leishmaniasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1998, 92: 177-9.
9. El-Hassan, A.M. and Zijlastra, E.E. Leishmaniasis in Sudan. Mucosal leishmaniasis. Trans R Soc Tran Med Hyg 2001, 94(suppl 1): 19-26.
10. Zijlstra, E.E. and El-Hassan, A.M. Leishmaniasis in Sudan: Post kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2001, 95: 59-76.
11. Thomas, P.K. and Harding, A.E. Peripheral neuropathies. In: Principle and Practice of Medical Genetics. A.E.H. Emary and D.L. Rimoin (Eds.). Churchill Livingstone: Edinburgh, 1982: 413-33.
12. El-Hassan, A.M., Hashim, F.A., Khalil, E.A.G., Abd-Elgadir, A. and Kadaru, A. Neurological manifestations of visceral leishmaniasis (kala-azar): A review and presentation of new findings. Lab Medica Int 1996, 13: 8-11.
13. Ridley, D. Pathology. In: The Leishmaniases in Biology and Medicine. Vol. 2. W. Peters and R. Killick-Kendrick (Eds.) Academic Press: London, 1987, pp. 685-90.
14. Veress, B., Omer, A., Satir, A.A. and El-Hassan, A.M. Morphology of spleen and lymph nodes in fatal visceral leishmaniasis. Immunology 1977, 33: 605-10.
15. El Hag, I.A., Hashim, F.A., El-Toum, I.A., Homeida, H., El-Khalifa, M. and El-Hassan, A.M. Liver morphology and function in visceral leishmaniasis (kala azar). J Clin Pathol 1994, 47: 547-51.
16. Zijlstra, E.E., Ali, M.S., El-Hassan, A.M., El-Toum, I.A., Satti, M. Ghalib, H.W. and Kager P.A. Kala-azar: A comparative study of parasitological methods and the direct agglutination test in diagnosis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1992, 86: 505-7.
17. El-Hassan, A.M., Ahmed, M.A., Abdul Rahim, A.G. et al. Visceral leishmaniasis in the Sudan: Clinical and hematological features. Ann Saudi Med 1990, 10: 51-6.
18. Niggli, F., Halle, F. and Seger, R.A. Immunologic complications of visceral leishmaniasis. Monatsschr Kinderheilkd 1991, 139: 772-4 [German].
19. Sati, M.H. Leishmanial enteritis as a cause of intractable diarrhoea and death. Sudan Med J 1952, 1: 216-8.
20. Muigai, R., Catei, D.G., Shannak, S., Wozniak A. and Bryceson, A.D. Jejunal function and pathology in visceral leishmaniasis. Lancet 1983, 2: 476-9.
21. Eltoum, I.A., Zijlstra, E.E., Ali, M.S., Ghalib, H.W., Satti, M., Eltoum, B. and El-Hassan, A.M. Congenital kala-azar and leishmaniasis of placenta. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1992, 46: 57-62.
22. Abbas, K., El-Toum, I.A. and El-Hassan, A.M. Oral leishmaniasis associated with kala-azar: A case report. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1992, 73: 583.
23. Hashim, F.A., Ahmed, A.E., El-Hassan, M. et al. Neurologic changes in visceral leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med and Hyg 1995, 52: 149-54.
24. Desmedt, M., Rottiers, P., Dooms, H., Fiers, W. and Grooten, J. Macrophages induce cellular immunity by activating Th1 cell responses and suppressing Th2 cell responses. J Immunol 1998, 160: 5300-3.
25. Heinzel, F.P., Sadick, M.D., Mutha, S.S. and Locksley, R.M. Production of IFN-gamma, IL-2, IL-4, and IL-10 by CD4+ lymphocytes in vivo during healing and progressive murine leishmaniasis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1991, 88: 7011-5.
26. Nabors, G.S., Afonso, L.C.C., Farrell, J.P. and Scott, P. Switch from a type2 to a type1 T helper cell response and cure of established Leishmania major infection in mice is induced by combination therapy with interleukin12 and Pentostam. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995, 92: 3142-6.
27. Mossmann, T.R and Coffman, R.L. Th1 and Th2 cells: Different patterns of lymphokine secretion lead to different functional properties. Annu Rev Immunol 1989, 7: 145-73.
28. Baker, J.R and Muller, R. Advances in Parasitology. Vol 32. Academic Press Ltd.: London, 1993, p. 162.
29. Bogdan, C., Vodovotz, Y. and Nathan, C. Macrophage deactivation by interleukin-10. J Exp Med 1991, 174: 1549-55.
30. D'Andrea, A., Aste-Amezaga, M., Valiante, N.M., Ma, X., Kubin, M. and Trinchieri, G. Interleukin-10 (IL-10) inhibits human lymphocyte interferon gamma-production by suppressing natural killer cell stimulatory factor/IL-12 synthesis in accessory cells. J Exp Med 1993, 178: 1041-8.
31. Trinchieri, G. Interleukin-12 and its role in the generation of Th1 cells. Immunol Today 1993, 14: 335-7.
32. Park, A.Y., Hondowicz, B.D. and Scott, P. IL-12 is required to maintain a Th1 response during leishmania major infection. J Immunol 2000, 165: 896-902.
33. Chan, S.H., Perussia, B., Gupta, J.W. et al. Induction of interferon-gamma production by natural killer cell stimulatory factor: Characterization of the responder cells and synergy with other inducers. J Exp Med 1991, 173: 869-79.
34. Ghalib, H.W., Whittle, J.A., Kubin, M., Hashim F.A., El-Hassan, A.M., Grabstein, K.H., Trinchieri, G. and Reed, S.G. IL-12 enhances Th1-type response in human Leishmania donovani infections. J Immunol 1995, 154: 4623-9.
35. Carvalho, E.M., Badaro, R., Reed, S.G., Johnson, W.D. and Jones, T.C. Absence of gamma interferon and interleukin-2-production during active visceral leishmaniasis. J Clin Invest 1985, 76: 2066-9.
36. Sacks, D.L., Lata Lal, S., Shrivastava, S.N., Blackwell, J. and Neva, F.A. An analysis of T-cell responses in Indian kalaazar. J Immunol 1987, 138: 908-13.
37. Ghalib, H.W., Piuvezam, M.R., Sheiky, Y.A. et al. Interleukin-10 production correlates with pathology in human Leishmania donovani infections. J Clin Invest 1993, 92: 324-9.
38. Hsieh, C.S., Macatonia, S.E., Tripp, C.S., Wolf, S.F., O'Garra, A. and Murphy, K.M. Development of Th1 CD+ T cells through IL-12 produced by Listeria-induced macrophages. Science 1993, 260: 547-9.
39. Brewer, J.M., Richmond, J. and Alexander, J. The demonstration of an essential role for macrophages in the in vivo generation of IgG2a antibodies. Clin Exp Immunol 1994, 97: 164.
40. Manetti, R., Parronchi, P., Gludizi, M.G., Piccini, M.P., Maggi, E., Trinchieri, G. and Romagnani, S. Natural killer cell stimulatory factor (interleukin 12 [IL-12]) induces T helper type 1 (Th1) specific immune responses and inhibits the development of IL-4 producing Th cells. J Exp Med 1993, 177: 1199-204
41. Heinzel, F.P., Schoenhaut, D.S., Rerko, R.M., Rosser, L.E. and Gately, M.K. Recombinant IL-12 cures mice infected with Leishmania major: J Exp Med 1993, 177: 1505-9
42. Sypek, J.P., Chung, C.L., Mayor, S.E.H., Subramanyam, J.M., Goldman, S.I., Sieburth, D.S., Wolf, S.F and Chaub, R.G. Resolution of cutaneous leishmaniasis: Interleukin-12 initiates a protective T helper type 1 immune response. J Exp Med 1993, 177: 1797-802.
43. Ohkusu, K., Yoshimoto, T., Takeda, K., Ogura, T. and Kashiwamura, S.I. Potentiality of interleukin-18 as a useful reagent for treatment and prevention of Leishmania major infection. Infect Immun 2000, 68: 2449-56.
44. Nashleanas, M. and Scott, P. Activated T cells induce macrophages to produce NO and control Leishmania major in the absence of tumor necrosis factor receptor p55. Infect Immun 2000, 68: 1428-34.
45. Zijlstra, E.E., Van der Poll, T. and Meuvissen, M. Soluble receptors for tumor necrosis factor as markers of disease activity in visceral leishmaniasis. J Infect Disease 1995, 171: 498-501.
46. Van der Poll, T., Zijlstra, E.E. and Meuvissen, M. Interleukin-6 during active visceral leishmaniasis and after treatment. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 1995, 77: 111-4.
47. Control of the leishmaniases. Report of a WHO Expert Committee. World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser 1990, 793: 1-158.
48. Thakur, C.P. A comparison of intercostals and abdominal routes of splenic aspiration and bone marrow aspiration in the diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1997, 91: 668-70.
49. Harith, A.E., Kolk, A.H.J., Kager, P.A.K. et al. A simple and economical direct agglutination test for serodiagnosis and sero-epidemiological studies of visceral leishmaniasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1986, 80: 583-7.
50. Zijlstra, E.E., Osman, O.F., Hofland, H.W.C., Oskam, L., Ghalib, H.W. and El-Hassan, A.M. The direct agglutination test for diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis under field conditions in Sudan: Comparison of aqueous and freeze-dried antigens. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1997, 91: 671-3.
51. Schoone, G.J., Hailu, A., Kroon, C.C., Nieuwenhuygs, J.L., Schallig H.D. and Oskam, L. A fast agglutination screening test (FAST) for the detection of antileishmania antibodies. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2001, 95: 400-1.
52. Boelaert, M., El-Safi, S., Mousa, H. et al. Multi-centre evaluation of repeatability and reproducibility of the direct agglutination test for visceral leishmaniasis. Trop Med Inter Health 1999, 4: 31-7.
53. Zijlstra, E.E., Siddig, A.M., El-Hassan, A.M., El-Toum, I.A., Satti, M., Ghalib, H.W. and Kager, P.A. Direct agglutination test for diagnosis and seroepidemiological survey of Kala-azar in the Sudan. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1991, 85: 474-6.
54. Cummins, A.J., Moody, A.H., Lalloo, K. and Chiodini, P.L. Development of a rapid latex agglutination test for the detection of visceral leishmaniasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1994, 88: 300.
55. Bagchi, A.K., Tiwari, S., Gupta, S. and Katiyar, J.C. The latex agglutination test: Standardization and comparison with direct agglutination and dot-ELISA in the diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis in India. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1998, 92: 159-63.
56. Attar, Z.J., Chance, M.L., El-Safi, S., Carney, J., Azazy, A., El-Hadi, M., Dourado, C. and Hommel, M. Latex agglutination test for the detection of urinary antigens in visceral leishmaniasis. Acta Tropica 2001, 78: 11-6.
57. Srivastava, L. and Singh, V.K. Diagnosis of Indian Kala-azar by dot-enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (dot-ELISA). Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1988, 82: 331-4.
58. Lepay, D.A., Nogueira, N. and Cohn, Z. Surface antigens of Leishmania donovani promastigotes. J Exp Med 1983, 157: 1562-72.
59. Colomer-Gould, V., Glvao Quintao, L., Keithly, J. and Nogueira, N. A common major surface antigen on amastigotes and promastigotes of Leishmania species. J Exp Med 1985, 162: 902-16.
60. Shreffler, W.G., Burns, J.M., Badaro, R., Ghalib, H.W., Button, L.L., McMaster, W.R. and Reed, S.G. Antibody responses of visceral leishmaniasis patients to rgp63, a recombinant major surface glycoprotein of leishmania species. J Infec Dis 1993, 167: 426-30.
61. Raj, V.S., Ghosh, A., Dole, V.S., Madhubala, R., Myler, P.J. and Stuart, K.D. Serodiagnosis of Leishmaniasis with recombinant ORFF antigen. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1999, 61: 482-7.
62. Reed, S.G., Shreffler, W.G., Burns, J.M. et al. All improved semdiagnostic procedure for visceral leishmaniasis. J Trop Med Hyg 1990, 43: 632-9.
63. Qu, J.-Q., Zhong, L., Masoom-Yasinzai, M., Abdur-Rab, M., Aksu, H.S.Z, Reed, S.G., Chang, K.-P. and Gilman-Sachs, A. Serodiagnosis of Asian leishmaniasis with a recombinant antigen from repetitive domain of a leishmania kinesin. Trans R Soc Med Hyg 1994, 88: 543-5.
64. Scott, M., Shreffler, W.G., Ghalib, H.W., Asad, A.E., Siddig, M., Badaro, R. and Reed, S.G. A rapid and simple diagnostic test for active visceral leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1991, 44: 272-7.
65. Smyth, A.J., Ghosh, A., Hassan, M.Q. et al. Rapid and sensitive detection of leishmania kinetoplast DNA from spleen and blood samples of kala-azar patients. Parasitology 1992, 105: 183-92.
66. Nuzum, E., White, F., III, Thakur, C., Dietze, R., Wages, J., Grogl, M. and Berman, J. Diagnosis of symptomatic visceral leishmaniasis by use of the polymerase chain reaction on patient blood. J Infect Dis 1995, 171: 751-4.
67. Andresen, K., Gasim, S., Elhassan, A.M., Khalil, E.A. and Barker, D.C. Diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis by the polymerase chain reaction using blood, bone marrow and lymph node samples from patients from the Sudan. Trop Med Int Health 1997, 2: 440-4.
68. Osman, O.F., Oskam, L., Zijlstra, E.E., Kroon, N.C.M., Schoone, G.J., Khalil, E.A.G., El-Hassan, A.M. and Kager, P.A. Evaluation of PCR for diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis. J Clin Microb 1997, 35: 2454-7.
69. Osman, O.F., Oskam, L., Zijlstra, E.E., El-Hassan, A.M, El-Naeim, D.A. and Kager, P.A. Use of the polymerase chain reaction to assess the success of visceral leishmaniasis treatment. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1998, 92: 397-400.
70. Lightner, L.K., Chulay, J.D. and Bryceson, A.D.M. Comparison of microscopy and culture in the detection of Leishmania donovani from splenic aspirates. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1983, 32: 296-9.
71. Siddig, M., Ghalib, H., Shillington, D.C. and Petersen, E.A. Visceral leishmaniasis in the Sudan: Comparative parasitological methods of diagnosis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1988, 82: 66-8.
72. Bardaro, R., Benson, D., Freire, M. et al. rK39: A cloned antigen of Leishmania chagasi that predicts active visceral leishmaniasis. J Infect Dis 1996, 173: 758-61.
73. Burns, J.M., Shreffler, W.G., Benson, D.R., Ghalib, H.W., Badaro, R. and Reed, S.G. Molecular characterization of a kinesin-related antigen of Leishmania chagasi that detects specific antibody in African and American visceral leishmaniasis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993, 90: 775-9.
74. Singh, S., Gilman-Sachs, A., Chang, K.-P. and Reed, S.G. Diagnostic and prognostic value of K39 recombinant antigen in Indian Leishmaniasis. J Parasitol 1995, 81: 1000-3.
75. Sundar, S., Reed, S.G., Singh, V.P., Kumar, P.C.K. and Murray, H.W. Rapid accurate field diagnosis of Indian visceral leishmaniasis. Lancet 1998, 35: 563-5.
76. Sundar, S., Pai, K., Sahu, M., Kumar, V. and Murray, H.W. Immunochromatographic strip test detection of anti-K39 antibody in Indian visceral leishmaniasis. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 2002, 96: 19-23.
77. H from the hemolymph of Achatina fulica snail. Biochem Biophys Res Comm 1987, 148: 795-801.
78. Sen, G. and Mandal, C. The specificity of the binding site of Achatinin-H, a sialic acid binding lectin from Achatina fulica. Carbohydr Res 1995, 268: 115-25.
79. Kar, K. Serodiagnosis of Leishmania. Crit Rev Microbiol 1995, 21: 129-52.
80. Sharma, V., Chatterjee, M., Mandal, C., Sen, S. and Basu, D. Rapid diagnosis of Indian visceral leishmaniasis using AchatininH, A 9-o-Acetylated sialic acid binding lectin. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1998, 58: 551-4.
81. Frezard, F., Demicheli, C., Ferreira, C.S. and Costa, M.A.P. Glutathione-induced conversion of pentavalent antimony to trivalent antimony in meglumine antimoniate. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001, 45: 913-6.
82. Berman, J.D., Gallalee, J.V. and Best, J.M. Sodium stibogluconate (Pentostam) inhibition of glucose catabolism via the glycolytic pathway and fatty acid beta-oxidation in Leishmania mexicana amastigotes. Biochem Pharmacol 1987, 36: 197-201.
83. Berman, J.D., Waddell, D. and Hanson, B.D. Biochemical mechanisms of the antileishmanial activity of sodium stibogluconate. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1985, 27: 916-20.
84. Ephros, M.A., Bitnum, A., Shaked, P., Waldman, E and Zilberstein, D. Stage specific activity of pentavalent antimony against L. donovani axenic amastigotes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999, 43: 278-88.
85. Roberts, W.L. and Rainey, P.M. Antileishmanial activity of sodium stibogluconate fractions. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993, 37: 1842-6.
86. Sereno, D., Cavaleyra, M., Zemzoumi, K., Maquaire, S., Ouaissi, A. and Lemesre, J.L. Axenically grown amastigotes of Leishmania infantum used as an in vitro model to investigate the pentavalent antimony mode of action. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998, 42: 3097-102.
87. Veeken, H., Ritmeijer, K., Seaman, J and Davidson, R. A randomized comparison of branded sodium stibogluconate and generic sodium stibogluconate for the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis under field conditions in Sudan. Trop Med and Inter Health 2000, 5: 312-7.
88. Thakur, C.P., Kumar, M., Kumar, P., Mishra, B.N. and Pandey, A.K. Rationalisation of regimens of treatment of Kala-azar with sodium stibogluconate in India: A randomised study. Br Med J 1988, 296: 1557-61.
89. Thakur, C.P., Kumar, M. and Pandey, A.K. Evaluation of efficacy of longer duration of therapy of fresh cases of kala-azar with sodium stibogluconate. Indian J Med Res 1993, 93: 103-10.
90. Lira, R., Sunder, S., Makharia, A., Kenney, R., Gam, A., Saraiva, E. and Sacks, D. Evidence that the high incidence of treatment failures in Indian kala-azar is due to the emergence of antimony resistant strains of Leishmania donovani. J Infect Dis 1999, 180: 564-7.
91. Thakur, C.P., Sinha, G.P., Pandey, A.K., Kumar, N., Kumar, P., Hassan, S.M., Narain, S. and Roy, R.K. Do the diminishing efficacy and increasing toxicity of sodium stibogluconate in the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis bi Bihar, India, justify its continued use as a first line drug? An observational study of 80 cases. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1998, 92: 561-9.
92. Sundar, S., More, D.K., Singh, M.K., Singh, V.P., Sharma, S., Makharia, A., Kumar, P.C.K. and Murray, H.W. Failure of pentavalent antimony in visceral leishmaniasis in India: Report from the center of the Indian epidemic. Clinc Infect Dis 2000, 31: 1104-7.
93. Khalil, E.A.G., El-Hassan, A.M., Zijlstra, E.E., Hashim, F.A., Ibrahim, M.E., Ghalib, H.W. and Ali, M.S. Treatment of visceral leishmaniasis with sodium stibogluconate in Sudan: Management of those who do not respond. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1993, 92: 151-8.
94. Karki, P., Koirala, S., Parija, S.C., Hansdak, S.G and Das, M.L. A thirty day course of sodium stibogluconate for treatment of kala-azar in Nepal. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 1998, 29: 154-8.
95. Gasser, R.A., Magill, A.J., Oster, C., Franke, E., Grögl, M. and Bermann, J.D. Pancreatitis induced by pentavalent antimonial agents during treatment of leishmaniasis. Clin Infect Dis 1994, 18: 83-90.
96. Aronson, N.E., Wortmann, G.W., Johnson, S.C. et al. Safety and efficacy of intravenous sodium stibogluconate in the treatment of leishmaniasis: Recent U.S. military experience. Clin Infect Dis 1998, 27: 1457-64.
97. Zijlstra, E.E., Siddig, A.M., El-Hassan, A.M., Hofland, H.W.C., El-Toum, I.A., Satti, M and Ghalib, H.W. The treatment of kala-azar with sodium stibogluconate in the Sudan: A randomized trial of three dosage regimens. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1993, 87: 307-9.
98. Iyer, R.N. Perspective in Parasitology. A.B. Sen, J.C. Katiyar and P.Y. Guru (Eds.). Print House: Lucknow, 1985, p. 275.
99. Streak, E.A. Progress in Drug Research. E. Jucker and A.G. Sandoz (Eds.). Basel Birkhauser Verlag: Basel/Stuttgart, 1974, p. 289.
100. Thakur, C.P., Kumar, M. and Pandey, A.K. Comparison of regimens of treatment of antimony-resistant kala-azar patients: A randomized study. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1991, 45: 435-41.
101. Jha, T.K. Evaluation of diamidine compounds (pentamidine isethionate) in the treatment of resistant cases of kala-azar occurring in North Bihar, India. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1983, 77: 167-70.
102. Hentzer, B. and Kobayasi, T. The ultrastructural changes of Leishmania tropica after treatment with pentamidine. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1977, 71: 157-66.
103. Langreth, S.G., Berman, J.D., Riordan, G.P. and Lee, L.S. Fine-structural alterations in Leishmania tropica within human macrophages exposed to antileishmanial drugs in vitro. J Protozool 1983, 30: 555-61.
104. Schnur, L.F., Baehrach, U., Greenblatt, C.L. and Ben-Joseph, M. Polyamine synthesis and levels during the growth and replication of Leishmania tropica minor and Leishmania aethiopica. FEBS Lett 1979, 1066: 202-6.
105. Ram, V.J. and Nath, M. Progress in chemotherapy of leishmaniasis. Curr Med Chem 1996, 3: 303-16.
106. Nelson, D.J., LaFon, S.W., Tuttle, J.V., Miller, W.H., Miller, R.L., Krenitsky, T.A., Berens, R.L. and Marr, J.J. Allopurinol ribonucleoside as an antileishmanial agent. Biological effects, metabolism, and enzymatic phosphorylation. J Biol Chem 1979, 254: 11544-9.
107. Berens, R.L., Marr, J.J., Nelson, D.J. and LaFon, S.W. Antileishmanial effect of allopurinol and allopurinol ribonucleoside on intracellular forms of leishmania donovani. Biochem Pharmacol 1980, 29: 2397-8.
108. Hande, K., Reed, E. and Chabner, R. Allopurinol kinetics. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1978, 23: 598-605.
109. Kager, P.A., Rees, P.H., Wellde, B.T., Hockmeyer, W.W. and Lyerly, W.H. Allopurinol in the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1981, 75: 556-9.
110. Chung, C.N., Gachihi, G., Muigai, R. and Wassunna, K. Visceral leishmaniasis unresponsive to antimonial drugs III. Successful treatment using a combination of sodium stibogluconate plus allopurinol. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1985, 79: 715-8.
111. Kager, P.A., Rees, P.H., Manguyu, F.M., Bhatt, K.M., Wellde, B.T., Hockmeyer, W.T and Lyerly, W.H. Clinical, haematological and parasitological response to treatment of visceral leishmaniasis in Kenya. A study of 64 patients. Trop Georg Med 1984, 36: 21-35.
112. Prata, A. Treatment of Kala-azar with amphotericin B. Tran R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1963, 57: 266-8.
113. Thakur, C.P., Sinha, G.P., Pandey, A.K., Barat, D. and Sinha, RK. Amphotericin B in resistant kala-azar in Bihar. Natl Med J India 1993, 6: 57-60.
114. Thakur, C.P., Sinha, G.P., Pandey, A.K., Barat, D. and Singh, R.K. Daily versus alternate day regimen of amphotericin B in the treatment of Kala-azar: A randomized comparison. Bull World Health Organ 1994, 72: 931-6.
115. Thakur, C.P., Sinha, G.P., Barat, D. and Sinha, R.K. Are incremental doses of amphotericin B required for the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis? Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1994, 88: 365-70.
116. Thakur, C.P., Sinha, G.P., Sharma, V., Pandey, A.K., Sinha, P.K. and Barat, D. Efficacy of amphotericin B in multidrug resistant kala-azar in children in first decade of life. Indian J Pediatr 1993, 60: 29-36.
117. Hiemenz, J.W. and Walsh, T.J. Lipid formulations of amphotericin B: Recent progress and future directions. Clinc Infect Dis 1996, 22(Suppl 2): S133-44.
118. Sundar, S. and Murray, H.W. Cure of antimony-unresponsive Indian visceral leishmaniasis with amphotericin B lipid complex. J Infect Dis 1996, 173: 762-5.
119. Thakur, C.P., Pandey, A.K., Sinha, G.P., Ray, S., Behbehani, K. and Olliaro, P. Comparison of three treatment regimens with liposomal amphotericin B (AmBisome) for visceral leishmaniasis in India: A randomized dose-finding study: Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1996, 90: 319-22.
120. Thakur, C.P. A single high dose treatment of kala-azar with AmBisome(amphotericin B lipid complex): A pilot study. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2001, 17: 67-70.
121. Kobayashi, G.S. and Medoff, G. Antifungal agents: Recent developments. Ann Rev Microbiol 1977, 31: 291-308.
122. Cohen, B.E., Ramos, H., Gamargo, M. and Urbina, J. The water and ionic permeability induced by polyene antibiotics across plasma membrane vesicles from leishmania species. Biochem Biophys Acta 1986, 860: 57-65.
123. Rashid, J.R., Wasunna, K.M., Gachihi, G.S., Nyakundi, A.M., Mbugua, J. and Kirigi, G. The efficacy and safety of ketoconazole in visceral leishmaniasis. East Afr Med J 1994, 71: 392-5.
124. Weinrauch, L., Livishin, R. and El-On, J. Ketoconazole in cutaneous leishmaniasis. Br J Dermatol 1987, 117: 666-7.
125. Jolliffe, D.S. Cutaneous leishmaniasis from Belize-treatment with ketoconazole. Clin Exp Dermatol 1986, 11: 62-6.
126. Wali, J.S., Aggarwal, P., Gupta, U., Saluja, S. and Singh, S. Ketoconazole in treatment of visceral leishmaniasis. Lancet 1990, 336: 810-1.
127. Sundar, S., Kumar, K. and Singh, U.P. Ketoconazole in visceral leishmaniasis. Lancet 1990, 336: 1582-3.
128. Van der Bossche, H., Willemsens, G., Cools, W., Marichal, P., and Lauwers, W. Hypothesis on the molecular basis of the antifungal activity of N-substituted imidazoles and triazoles. Biochem Soc Trans 1983, 11: 665-7.
129. Bloch, K. Sterol structure and membrane function. CRC Crit Rev Biochem 1983, 14: 47-92.
130. Sundar, S., Singh, V.P., Agarwal, N.K., Gibbs, D.L. and Murray, H.W. Treatment of kala-azar with oral fluconazole. Lancet 1996, 348: 614.
131. Sundar, S., Rosenkaimer, F. and Murray, H.W. Successful treatment of refractory visceral leishmaniasis in India using antimony plus interferon-gamma. J Infect Dis 1994, 170: 659-62.
132. Sundar, S., Rosenkaimer, F., Lesser, M.L. and Murray, H.W. Immunochemotherapy for a systemic intracellular infection: Accelerated response using interferongamma in visceral leishmaniasis. J Infect Dis 1995, 171: 992-6.
133. Badaro, R., Falcoff, E., Badaro, F.S. et al. Treatment of visceral leishmaniasis with pentavalent antimony and interferon gamma. N Eng J Med 1990, 322: 16-21.
134. Sundar, S. and Murray, H.W. Effect of treatment with interferon-gamma alone in visceral leishmaniasis. J Infect Dis 1995, 172: 1627-9.
135. Berman, J.D. Human leishmaniasis: Clinical, diagnostic, and chemotherapeutic developments in the last 10 years. Clin Infect Dis 1997, 24: 684-703.
136. Croft, S.L., Neal, R.A., Pendergast, W., and Chang, J.H. The activity of alkyl phosphorylcholines and related derivatives against Leishmania donovani. Biochem Pharmacol 1987, 36: 2633-6.
137. Kuhlencord, A., Maniera, T., Eibl, H. and Unger, C. Hexadecylphosphocholine: Oral treatment of visceral leishmaniasis in mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992, 36: 1630-4.
138. Sundar, S., Rosenkaimer, F., Makharia, M.K., Goyal, A.K., Mandal, A.K., Voss, A., Hilgard, P. and Murray, H.W. Trial of oral miltefosine for visceral leishmaniasis. Lancet 1998, 352: 1821-3.
139. Jha, T.K., Sundar, S., Thakur, C.P., Bachmann, P., Karbwang, J., Fischer, C., Voss, A. and Berman, J. Miltefosine an oral agent for the treatment of Indian visceral leishmaniasis. N Engl J Med 1999, 341: 1795-823.
140. Sundar, S., Makharia, A., More, D.K., Agarwal, G., Voss, A., Fischer, C., Bachmann, P. and Murray, H.W. Short course of oral miltefosine for treatment of visceral leishmaniasis. Clin Infect Dis 2000, 31: 1110-3.
141. Verweij, J., Planting, A., Vander, B.M. and Stoter, G. A dose finding study of miltefosine (hexadecylphosphocholine) in patients with metastatic tumors. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 1992, 118: 606-8.
142. Danhauser-Riedl, S., Drozd, A., Zafferani, M. et al. Phase I study of weekly oral miltefosine (hexadecyle-phosphocholine) in cancer patients. Onkologie 1991, 14: 392-400.
143. Hochhuth, C.H., Vehmeyer, K., Eibl, H. and Unger, C. Hexadecylphosphocholine induces interferon-gamma secretion and expression of GM-CSF mRNA in human mononuclear cells. Cell Immunol 1992, 141: 161-8.
144. Zeisig, R., Rudolf, M., Eue, I. and Arndt, D. Influence of hexadecylphosphocholine on the release of tumor necrosis factor and nitroxide from peritoneal macrophages in vitro. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 1995, 121: 69-75.
145. Investigators Brochure. Miltex (INN miltefosine). ASTA Medica, 1995.
146. Breiser, A., Kim D.-J., Fleer, E.A.M. et al. Distribution and metabolism of hexadecylphosphocholine in mice. Lipids 1987, 22: 925-6.
147. Chunge, C.N., Owate, J., Pamba, H.O. and Donno, L. Treatment of visceral leishmaniasis in Kenya by aminosidine alone or combination with sodium stibogluconate. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1990, 84: 221-5.
148. Jha, T.K., Olliaro, P., Thakur, C.P.N., Kanyok, T.P., Sighania, B.L., Singh, I.J., Singh, N.K.P., Akhoury, S. and Jha, S. Randomised controlled trial of aminosidine (paromomycin) v sodium stibogluconate for treating visceral leishmaniasis in North Bihar, India. Br Med J 1998, 316: 1200-5.
149. Cheng, M., Christensen, S.B., Blom, J., Limmich, E., Nadelmann, L., Fich, K., Theander, T.G. and Kharazmi, A. Licochalcone A, a novel antiparasitic agent with potent activity against human pathogenic protozoan species of leishmania. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993, 37: 2550-6.
150. Zhai, L., Blom, J., Cheng, M., Christensen, S.B. and Kharazmi, A. The antileishmanial agent. Licochalcone A interferon with the function of parasite mitochondria. Antimicrob Agent Chemother 1995, 39: 2742-8.
151. Boelaert, M., Criel, B., Leeuwenburg, J., Damme, W.V., Ray, D.L. and Stuyft, P.V. Visceral leishmaniasis control: A public health perspective. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2000, 94: 465-71.
152. Squires, K.E., Rosenkaimer, F., Sherwood, J.A., Forni, A.L., Were, J.B. and Murray, H.W. Immonochemotherapy for visceral leishmaniasis: A controlled pilot trial of antimony versus antimony plus interferongamma. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1993, 48: 666-9.
153. Modabber, F. Leishmaniasis: Will new technology provide a break through? WHO Drug Inf 1999, 13: 150-2.
154. Robert, L.J., Handman, E. and Foote, S. J. Clinical review: Leishmaniasis. Br Med J 2000, 321: 801-4.