Differences between children and adults: Implications for risk assessment at California EPA

International Journal of Toxicology

Volumn 21, Issue 5, 2002, Pages 403-418

  Miller, Mark D ^a   Marty, Melanie A ^a   Arcus, Amy ^a   Brown, Joseph ^a   Morry, David ^a   Sandy, Martha ^a  

^a CALIFORNIA ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY   (United States)

Author keywords

Air pollutants; California; Children; Environmental toxicology; Infant; Risk assessment

Indexed keywords

AFLATOXIN; ALCOHOL; ALKYLBENZENE; ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; CARBON MONOXIDE; CARCINOGEN; CHLORPYRIFOS; CYTOCHROME P450; DIETHYLSTILBESTROL; DRINKING WATER; ESTRAGOLE; LEAD; METHYLAZOXYMETHANOL; METHYLMERCURY; NICOTINE; NITROGEN DIOXIDE; NITROSOUREA DERIVATIVE; OZONE; PARATHION; PESTICIDE; PHENYTOIN; POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYL; SAFROLE; SULFUR DIOXIDE; TAMOXIFEN; THALIDOMIDE; THEOPHYLLINE DERIVATIVE; TRIETHYLTIN; UNINDEXED DRUG; VINYL CHLORIDE;

ADULT; AIR POLLUTANT; AIR POLLUTION; AIR QUALITY STANDARD; AMBIENT AIR; AUTISM; CANCER RISK; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM TUMOR; CHILD; CONFERENCE PAPER; DRUG ALCOHOL INTERACTION; ENZYME SUBSTRATE; FETUS; GERM CELL TUMOR; HEALTH HAZARD; HODGKIN DISEASE; HUMAN; IMMUNOTOXICITY; INFANT; IONIZING RADIATION; LEUKEMIA; NEUROTOXICITY; NEWBORN; RISK ASSESSMENT; TOXICOKINETICS; UNITED STATES; X IRRADIATION;

ADULT; AIR POLLUTANTS; CALIFORNIA; CHILD; CHILD WELFARE; DECISION MAKING; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH; HUMANS; INFANT; INHALATION EXPOSURE; RISK ASSESSMENT;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 0036756604     PISSN: 10915818     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10915810290096630     Document Type: Article

References (131)

1. Adams, W. C. 1993. Measurement of Breathing Rate and Volume in Routinely Performed Daily Activities. Final Report. Human Performance Laboratory, Physical Education Department, University of California, Davis. Prepared for the California Air Resources Board, Contract No. A033-205, April 1993
2. Agunod, M., N. Yamaguchi, R. Lopez, A. L. Luhby, and G. B. J. Glass. 1969. Correlative study of hydrochloric acid, pepsin, and intrinsic factor secretion in newborns and infants. Am. J. Digest. Dis. 14:400-414
3. Anthony, A., J. Caldwell, A. J. Hutt, and R. L. Smith. 1987. Metabolism of estragole in rat and mouse and influence of dose size on excretion of the proximate carcinogen 1′-hydroxyestragole. Food Chem. Toxicol. 25:799-806
4. Aranda, J. V., S. M. MacLeod, K. W. Renton, and N. R. Eade. 1974. Hepatic microsomal drug metabolism and electron transport in newborn infants. J. Pediatr. 85:534-542
5. Arant, B. S. 1978. Developmental patterns of renal functional maturation compared in the human neonate. J. Pediatr. 92:705-712
6. Avery, G. B., J. G. Randolph, and T. Weaver. 1966. Gastric acidity in the first day of life. Pediatrics 37:1005-1007
7. Ballatori, N., and T. W. Clarkson. 1982. Developmental changes in the biliary excretion of methylmercury and glutathione. Science 216:61-63
8. Baltrop, D. 1996. The prevalence of pica. Am. J. Dis. Child 112:116-123
9. Bearer, C. 1995. How are children different from adults? Environ. Health Perspect. 103 (Suppl. 6):7-12
10. Bennett, W. D., K. L. Zeman, and C. Kimi. 1996. Variability of fine particle deposition in healthy adults: Effect of age and gender. Am. J. Respir Crit. Care Med. 153:1641-1647
11. Besunder, J., M. Reed, and J. Blumer. 1988. Principles of drug biodisposition in the neonate - A critical evaluation of the pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic interface (Part 1). Clin. Pharmacokinet. 14:189-216
12. Brodersen, R., B. Friis-Hansen, and L. Stern. 1983. Drug-induced displacement of bilirubin from albumin in the newborn. Dev. Pharmacol. Ther. 6:217-229
13. CancerChem. 2000. Version 3.0. Electronic database of U.S. Public Health Service Publication No. 149. Survey of compounds which have been tested for carcinogenic activity; covers literature from 1900 to 1998. Annapolis, MD: GMA Industries, Inc
14. Carthew, P., R. E. Edwards, B. M. Nolan, E. A. Martin, R. T. Heydon, I. N. White, and M. J. Tucker. 2000. Tamoxifen induces endometrial and vaginal cancer in rats in the absence of endometrial hyperplasia. Carcinogenesis 21:793-797
15. Centers for Disease Control. 1990. Mercury exposure from interior latex paint - Michigan. MMWR Morb. Mort. Wkly. Rep. 39:125-126
16. Chen, Y. C., Y. L. Guo, C. C. Hsu, and W. J. Rogan. 1992. Cognitive development of Yu-Cheng ("oil disease") children prenatally exposed to heat-degraded PCBs. JAMA 268:3213-3218
17. Cogliano, V. J., G. F. Hiatt, and A. Den. 1996. Quantitative cancer assessment for vinyl chloride: Indications of early-life sensitivity. Toxicology 111:21-28
18. Couse, J. F., V. L. Davis, R. B. Hanson, W. N. Jefferson, J. A. McLachlan, B. C. Bullock, R. R. Newbold, and K. S. Korach. 1997. Accelerated onset of uterine tumors in transgenic mice with aberrant expression of the estrogen receptor after neonatal exposure to diethylstilbestrol. Mol. Carcinog. 19:236-242
19. Cresteil, T. 1998. Onset of xenobiotic metabolism in children: Toxicological implications. Food Additives Contam. 15 (Suppl.):45-51
20. Dalu, A., P. S. Rao, and H. M. Mehendale. 1998. Colchicine antimitosis abolishes resiliency of postnatally developing rats to chlordecone-amplified carbon tetrachloride hepatotoxicity and lethality. Environ. Health Perspect. 106:596-606
21. Diwan, B. A., L. M. Anderson, and J. M. Ward. 1997. Proliferative lesions of oviduct and uterus in CD-1 mice exposed prenatally to tamoxifen. Carcinogenesis 18:2009-2014
22. Dobbing, J., and J. Sands. 1979. The brain growth spurt in various mammalian species. Early Human Dev. 3:79-84
23. Drew, R. T., G. A. Boorman, J. K. Haseman, E. E. McConnell, W. M. Busey, and J. A. Moore. 1983. The effect of age and exposure duration on cancer induction by a known carcinogen in rats, mice, and hamsters. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 68:120-130
24. Drinkwater, N. R., E. C. Miller, J. A. Miller, and H. C. Pitot. 1976. Hepatocarcinogenicity of estragole (1-allyl-4-methoxybenzene) and 1′-hydroxyestragole in the mouse and mutagenicity of 1′-acetoxyestragole in bacteria. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 57:1323-1331
25. Dutton, G. J. 1978. Developmental aspects of drug conjugation, with special reference to glucuronidation. Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 18:17-35
26. Ecobichon, D. J., and D. S. Stephens. 1973. Perinatal development of human blood esterases. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 14:11-14
27. Ershow, A. G., and K. P. Cantor. 1989. Total Water and Tapwater Intake in the United States: Population-Based Estimates of Quantities and Sources. National Cancer Institute order no. 263-MD-810264. Bethesda, MD: Life Sciences Research Office, Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology
28. Findlay, J. W. A. 1983. The distribution of some commonly used drugs in human breast milk. Drug Metab. Rev. 14:653-684
29. Fleishaker, J. C., N. Desai, and P. J. McNamara. 1987. Factors affecting the milk-to-plasma drug concentration ratio in lactating women: Physical interactions with protein and fat. J. Pharm. Sci. 76:189-193
30. Friis-Hansen, B. 1961. Body water compartments in children: Changes during growth and related changes in body composition. Pediatrics 28:169-181
31. Friis-Hansen, B. 1971. Body composition during growth. In vivo measurements and biochemical data correlated to differential anatomical growth. Pediatrics 47:264-274
32. Gebremichael, A., A. M. Chang, A. R. Buchpitt, C. G. Plopper, and K. E. Pinkerton. 1995. Postnatal development of cytochrome P450 1A1 and 2B1 in rat lung and liver: Effect of aged and diluted sidestream cigarrette smoke. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 135:246-253
33. Ginsberg, G. 2000. Xenobiotic metabolism and chemical fate from early childhood onward. Presented at the Children's Environmental Health Symposium, May 2, Oakland, CA
34. Gladen, B. C., N. B. Ragan, and W. J. Rogan. 2000. Pubertal growth and development and prenatal and lactational exposure to polychlorinated biphenyl and dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethene. J. Pediatr. 136:490-496
35. Gladen, B. C., and W. J. Rogan. 1995. DDE and shortened duration of lactation in a northern Mexican town. Am. J. Public Health 85:504-508
36. Glaubiger, D. L., D. D. von Hoff, J. S. Holcenberg, B. Kamen, C. Pratt, and R. S. Ungerleider. 1981. The relative tolerance of children and adults to anticancer drugs. Front Radiat. Ther. Oncol. 16:42-49
37. Golub, M. 2000. Adolescent health and the environment. Environ. Health Perspect, 108:355-362
38. Guignard, J. P., A. Torrado, O. Da Cunha, and E. Gautier. 1975. Glomerular filtration rate in the first three weeks of life. J. Pediatr. 87:268-272
39. Gurunathan, S., M. Robson, N. Freeman, B. Buckley, A. Roy, R. Meyer, J. Bukowski, and P. J. Lioy. 1998. Accumulation of chlorpyrifos on residential surfaces and toys accessible to children. Environ. Health Perspect. 106:9-16
40. Hakkola, J., E. Tanaka, and O. Pelkonen. 1998. Developmental expression of cytochrome P450 enzymes in human liver. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 82:209-217
41. Heimann, G. 1980. Enteral absorption and bioavailability in children in relation to age. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 18:43-50
42. Herngren, L., M. Ehrnebo, and L. O. Boreus. 1983. Drug binding to plasma proteins during human pregnancy and in the perinatal period. Studies on cloxacillin and alprenolol. Dev. Pharmacol. Ther. 6:110-124
43. Holladay, S. D., and R. J. Smialowicz. 2000. Development of the murine and human immune system: Differential effects of immunotoxicants depend on time of exposure. Environ. Health Perspect. 108 (Suppl. 3):463-473
44. Hook, J. B., and W. R. Hewitt. 1977. Development of mechanisms for drug excretion. Am. J. Med. 62:497-506
45. Horner, P. J., and F. H. Gage. 2000. Regenerating the damaged central nervous system. Nature 407:963-970
46. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). 1996. Some pharmaceutical drugs. In IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, Vol. 66, 253-365. Lyon, France: IARC
47. Ivankovic, S. 1979. Teratogenic and carcinogenic effects of some chemicals during perinatal life in rats, Syrian golden hamsters, and minipigs. Natl. Cancer Inst. Monogr. 51:103-115
48. Jacobson, J. L., and S. W. Jacobson. 1996. Intellectual impairment in children exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls in utero. N. Engl. J. Med. 335:783-789
49. Kavlock, R. J., G. P. Daston, C. DeRosa, P. Fenner-Crisp, L. E. Gray, and S. Kaattari. 1996. Research needs for the risk assessment of health and environmental effects of endocrine disruptors: A report of the U.S. EPA-sponsored workshop. Environ. Health Perspect. 104:1-20
50. Kaye, A. M., and N. Trainin. 1966. Urethan carcinogenesis and nucleic acid metabolism: Factors influencing lung adenoma induction. Cancer Res. 26:2206-2212
51. Klaassen, C. D. 1972. Immaturity of the newborn rat's hepatic excretory function for ouabain. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 183:520-526
52. Klaassen, C. D. 1973. Comparison of the toxicity of chemicals in newborn rats to bile duct-ligated and sham-operated rats and mice. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 24:37-44
53. Lacroix, D., M. Sonnier, A. Moncion, G. Cheron, and T. Cresteil. 1997. Expression of CYP3A in the human liver - Evidence that the shift between CYP3A7 and CYP3A4 occurs immediately after birth. Eur. J. Biochem. 247:625-634
54. Lai, Z. W., N. C. Fiore, P. J. Hahn, T. A. Gasiewicz, and A. E. Silverstone. 2000. Differential effects of diethylstilbestrol and 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin on thymocyte differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis in bcl-2 transgenic mouse fetal thymus organ culture. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 168:15-24
55. Laib, R. J., H. M. Bolt, R. Cartier, and H. Bartsch. 1989. Increased alkylation of liver DNA and cell turnover in young versus old rats exposed to vinyl chloride correlates with cancer susceptibility. Toxicol. Lett. 45:231-239
56. Lash, T. L., and A. Aschengrau. 1999. Active and passive cigarette smoking and the occurrence of breast cancer. Am. J. Epidemiol. 149:5-12
57. Layton, D. 1993. Metabolically consistent breathing rates for use in dose assessment. Health Phys. 64:23-36
58. Levy, G., N. N. Khanna, D. M. Soda, O. Tsuzuki, and L. Stem. 1975. Pharmacokinetics of acetaminophen in the human neonate: Formation of acetaminophen glucuronide and sulfate in relation to plasma bilirubin concentration and d-glucaric acid excretion. Pediatrics 55:818-825
59. Linet, M. S., L. A. Ries, M. A. Smith, R. E. Tarone, and S. S. Devesa. 1999. Cancer surveillance series: Recent trends in childhood cancer incidence and mortality in the United States. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 91:1051-1058
60. Maekawa, A., and K. Mitsumori. 1990. Spontaneous occurrence and chemical induction of neurogenic tumors in rats - Influence of host factors and specificity of chemical structure. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 20:287-310
61. Makris, S. 2000. The use of the developmental neurotoxicity study in the regulation of pesticides by US EPA: Hot issues and fascinating opportunities. Presented at the 18th International Neurotoxicology Conference, Sept 26, 2000. Colorado Springs, CO
62. Makris, S., K. Raffaele, W. Sette, and J. Seed. 1998. A Retrospective Analysis of Twelve Developmental Neurotoxicity Studies Submitted to the US EPA Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances (OPPTS). Presentation to the FIFRA Scientific Advisory Panel, December 9, 1998. SAP Report No. 99-01B. http://www.epa.gov/scipoly/sap/1998/december/final.htm; http://www.epa.gov/scipoly/sap/1998/december/final2.pdf
63. Maltoni, C., G. Lefemine, A. Ciliberti, G. Cotti, and D. Carretti. 1981. Carcinogenicity bioassays of vinyl chloride monomer: A model of risk assessment on an experimental basis. Environ. Health Perspect. 41:3-29
64. Marcus, P. M., B. Newman, R. C. Millikan, P. G. Moorman, D. D. Baird, and B. Qaqish. 2000. The associations of adolescent cigarette smoking, alcoholic beverage consumption, environmental tobacco smoke, and ionizing radiation with subsequent breast cancer risk (United States). Cancer Causes Control 11:271-278
65. Marsoni, S., R. S. Ungerleider, S. B. Hurson, R. M. Simon, and L. D. Hammershaimb. 1985. Tolerance to antineoplastic agents in children and adults. Cancer Treat. Rep. 69:1263-1269
66. McFadden, S. W., and J. E. Haddow. 1969. Coma produced by topical application of isopropanol. Pediatrics 43:622-623
67. Mende, P., B. Spiegelhalder, and R. Preussmann. 1991. Trace analysis of nitrosated foodstuffs for nitrosamides. Food Chem. Toxicol. 29:167-172
68. Miller, E. C., A. B. Swanson, D. H. Phillips, T. L. Fletcher, A. Liem, and J. A. Miller. 1983. Structure-activity studies of the carcinogenicities in the mouse and rat of some naturally occurring and synthetic alkenylbenzene derivatives related to safrole and estragole. Cancer Res. 43:1124-1134
69. Miller, R. A. 1941. Observations on the gastric acidity during the first month of life. Arch. Dis. Child. 16:22-30
70. Milsap, R. L., and W. J. Jusko. 1994. Pharmacokinetics in the infant. Environ. Health Perspect. 102 (Suppl. 11):107-110
71. Morabia, A., M. S. Bernstein, I. Bouchardy, J. Kurtz, and M. A. Morris. 2000. Breast cancer and active and passive smoking: The role of the N-acetyltransferase 2 genotype. Am. J. Epidemiol. 152:226-232
72. Morselli, P. L. 1976. Clinical pharmacokinetics in neonates. Clin. Pharamcokinet. 1:81-98
73. Morselli, P. L. 1989. Clinical pharmacology of the perinatal period and early infancy. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 17 (Suppl. 1):13-28
74. Morselli, P. L., R. Franco-Morselli, and L. Bossi. 1980. Clinical pharmacokinetics in newborns and infants. Age-related differences and therapeutic implications. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 5:485-527
75. Muller, G., M. Spassovski, and D. Henschler. 1972. Trichloroethylene exposure and trichloroethylene metabolites in urine and blood. Arch. Toxicol. 29:335-340
76. Murphy, G. M., and E. Signer. 1974. Progress report: Bile acid metabolism in infants and children. Gut 15:151-163
77. National Research Council. 1990. Health Effects of Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation. BEIR V, Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation. Washington, DC: National Academy Press
78. National Research Council. 1993. Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press
79. Neims, A. H., M. Warner, P. M. Loughnan, and J. V. Aranda. 1976. Developmental aspects of the hepatic cytrochrome P450 monooxygenase system. Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 16:427-445
80. Newbold, R. R., R. B. Hanson, W. N. Jefferson, B. C. Bullock, J. Haseman, and J. A. McLachlan. 1998. Increased tumors but uncompromised fertility in the female descendants of mice exposed developmentally to diethylstilbestrol. Carcinogenesis 19:1655-1663
81. Newbold, R. R., W. N. Jefferson, E. Padilla-Burgos, and B. C. Bullock. 1997. Uterine carcinoma in mice treated neonatally with tamoxifen. Carcinogenesis 18:2293-2298
82. Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA), California Environmental Protection Agency (Cal/EPA). 1999a. Air Toxics Hot Spots Program Risk Assessment Guidelines Part 1: Technical Support Document for the Determination of Acute Reference Exposure Levels for Airborne Toxicants. Oakland, CA: author. March, 1999. Available at www.oehha.ca.gov
83. OEHHA, Cal/EPA. 1999b. Air Toxics Hot Spots Program Risk Assessment Guidelines Part II. Technical Support Document for Describing Available Cancer Potency Factors. Oakland, CA: author. April, 1999. Available at www.oehha.ca.gov
84. OEHHA, Cal/EPA. 2000a. Air Toxics Hot Spots Program Risk Assessment Guidelines Part III: Technical Support Document for the Determination of Noncancer Chronic Reference Exposure Levels. Oakland, CA: author. April, 2000. Available at www.oehha.ca.gov
85. OEHHA, Cal/EPA. 2000b. Air Toxics Hot Spots Program Risk Assessment Guidelines Part IV: Technical Support Document for Exposure Assessment and Stochastic Analysis. Oakland, CA: author. September, 2000. Available at ww.oehha.ca.gov
86. Olivera, O. A., L. M. Anderson, B. A. Diwan, C. Haines, and S. W. Harbaugh. 1997. Transplacental effects of 3′-azido-3′-dideoxythymidine (AZT): Tumorigenicity in mice and genotoxicity in mice and monkeys. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 89:1602-1609
87. Olney, J. W., N. B. Farber, D. F. Wozniak, V. Jevtovic-Todorovic, and C. Ikonomidou. 2000. Environmental agents that have the potential to trigger massive apoptotic neurodegeneration in the developing brain. Environ. Health Perspect. 108 (Suppl. 3):383-388
88. Patandin, S., P. C. Dagnelie, P. G. Mulder, E. Op de Coul, J. E. van der Veen, N. Weisglas-Kuperus, and P. J. Sauer. 1999. Dietary exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins from infancy until adulthood: A comparison between breast-feeding, toddler, and long-term exposure. Environ. Health Perspect. 107:45-51
89. Paus, T., A. Zijdenbos, K. Worsley, D. L. Collins, J. Blumenthal, J. N. Giedd, J. L. Rapoport, and A. C. Evans. 1999. Structural maturation of neural pathways in children and adolescents: In vivo study. Science 283:1908-1911
90. Perera, F., W. Jedrychowski, V. Rauh, and R. M. Whyatt. 1999. Molecular epidemiologic research on the effects of environmental pollutants on the fetus. Environ. Health Perspect. 107 (Suppl. 3):451-460
91. Perkins, C. I., R. Cohen, J. L. Young, R. Schlag, and W. E. Wright. 1997. Cancer in California: Detailed Site and Histology, 1990-1994. Sacramento, CA: California Department of Health Service, Cancer Surveillance Section, December, 1997
92. Phalen, R. F., M. J. Oldham, C. B. Beaucage, T. T. Crocker, and J. D. Mortensen. 1985. Postnatal enlargement of human tracheobronchial airways and implications for particle deposition. Anat. Rec. 212:368-380
93. Phillips, D. H. 1994. DNA adducts derived from safrole, estragole and related compounds, and from benzene and its metabolites. IARC Sci. Publ. (125):131-140
94. Plunkett, L. M., D. Tumbull, and J. V. Rodericks. 1992. Differences between adults and children affecting exposure assessment. In Similarities and Differences Between Children and Adults. Implications for Risk Assessment, eds. P. S. Guzelian, C. J. Henry, and S. S. Olin, 79-94. Washington, DC: ILSI Press
95. Porterfield, S. P. 2000. Thyroidal dysfunction and environmental chemicals - Potential impact on brain development. Environ. Health Perspect. 108 (Suppl. 3):433-438
96. Preston-Martin, S. 1989. Epidemiological studies of perinatal carcinogenesis. In Perinatal and Multigenerational Carcinogenesis, eds. N. P. Napalkov, J. M. Rice, L. Tomatis, and H. Yamasaki, 289-314. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer
97. Rane, A., and J. T. Wilson. 1976. Clinical pharmacokinetics in infants and children. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 1:2-24
98. Reed, M. 1996. Principles of drug therapy. In Nelson's Textbook of Pediatrics, 15th Ed., eds. R. E. Behrman, R. M. Kliegman, and A. M. Arvin, 290-298. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders
99. Reis, L. A. G., M. A. Smith, J. G. Gurney, M. Linet, T. Tamra, J. L. Young, and G. R. Bunin. 1999. Cancer Incidence and Survival Among Children and Adolescents: United States SEER Program 1975-1995. NIH Publication 99-4649. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute
100. Renwick, A. G. 1998. Toxicokinetics in infants and children in relation to the ADI and TDI. Food Addit. Contam. 15:17-35
101. Renwick, A. G., J. L. Dome, and K. Walton. 2000. An analysis of the need for an additional uncertainty factor for infants and children. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 31:286-296
102. Rice, D., and S. Barone. 2000. Critical periods of vulnerability for the developing nervous system: Evidence from humans and animals. Environ. Health Perspect. 108 (suppl. 3):511-533
103. Roberts, R. J. 1984. Drug Therapy in Infants: Pharmacologic Principles and Clinical Experience. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders
104. Rodier, P. 1994. Vulnerable periods and processes during central nervous system development. Environ. Health Perspect. 102 (Suppl. 2):121-124
105. Rodier, P. 1995. Developing brain as a target of toxicity. Environ. Health Perspect. 103 (Suppl. 6):73-76
106. Rodier, P. M., J. L. Ingram, B. Tisdale, and V. J. Croog. 1997. Linking etiologies in humans and animal models: Studies of autism. Reprod. Toxicol. 11:417-422
107. Rogan, W. 1995. Environmental poisoning of children - Lessons from the past. Environ. Health Perspect. 103 (Suppl. 6):19-23
108. Rogan, W. J., B. C. Gladen, J. D. McKinney, N. Cerreras, P. Hardy, J. D. Thullen, J. Tingelstad, and M. Tully. 1987. PCBs and DDE in human milk: Effects on growth, morbidity and duration of lactation. Am. J. Public Health 77:1294-1297
109. Rogers, S. 1951. Age of the host and other factors affecting the production with urethane of pulmonary adenomas in mice. J. Exp. Med. 93:427-449
110. Rozman, K. K., and C. D. Klaassen. 1996. Absorption, distribution, and excretion of toxicants. In Casarett and Doull's Toxicology. The Basic Science of Poisons, 5th Ed., eds. C. D. Klaassen, M. O. Amdur, and J. Doull, 91-112. New York: McGraw-Hill
111. Salmon, A. G., and L. Zeise, eds. 1991. Risks of Carcinogenesis from Urethane Exposure. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press
112. 14C]-labeled trans-anethole, estragole and p-propylanisole in human volunteers. Xenobiotica 17:1223-1232
113. Siegel, M., E. Lebenthal, and B. Krantz. 1984. Effect of caloric density on gastric emptying in premature infants. J. Pediatr. 104:118-122
114. Siegner, E., and R. Fridrich. 1975. Gastric emptying in newborns and young infants. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 64:525-530
115. Snodgrass, W. R. 1992. Physiological and biochemical differences between children and adults as determinants of toxic response to environmental pollutants. In Similarities and Differences Between Children and Adults. Implications for Risk Assessment, eds. P. S. Guzelian, C. J. Henry, and S. S. Olin, 35-42. Washington, DC: ILSI Press
116. Smiley-Jewell, S. M., F. J. Liu, A. Weir, and C. G. Plopper. 2000. Acute injury to differentiating Clara cells in neonatal rabbits results in age-related failure of bronchiolar epithelial repair. Toxicol. Pathol. 28:267-276
117. Smiley-Jewell, S. M., S. J. Nishio, A. Weir, and C. G. Plopper. 1998. Neonatal Clara cell toxicity by 4-ipomeanol alters bronchiolar organization in adult rabbits. Am. J. Physiol. 274:L485-L498
118. Sonnier, M., and T. Cresteil. 1998. Delayed ontogenesis of CYP1A2 in the human liver. Eur. J. Biochem. 251:893-898
119. Swenberg, J. A., N. Fedtke, and L. Fishbein. 1992. Age-related differences in DNA adduct formation and carcinogenesis of vinyl chloride in rats. In Similarities and Differences Between Children and Adults. Implications for Risk Assessment, eds. P. S. Guzelian, C. J. Henry, and S. S. Olin, 163-171. Washington, DC: ILS1 Press
120. Ten Eick, A. P., H. Nakamura, and M. D. Reed. 1998. Drug-drug interactions in pediatric psychopharmacology. Pediatr Clin. North Am. 45:1233-1264
121. Treluyer, J. M., G. Gueret, G. Cheron, M. Sonnier, and T. Cresteil. 1997. Developmental expression of CYP2C and CYP2C-dependent activities in the human liver: In vivo/in vitro correlation and inducibility. Pharmacogenetics 7:441-452
122. Treluyer, J. M., E. Jacqz-Aigrain, F. Alvarez, and T. Cresteil. 1991. Expression of CYP2D6 in developing human liver. Eur. J. Biochem. 202:583-588
123. Tyrala, E. E., L. S. Hillman, R. E. Hillman, and W. E. Dodson. 1977. Clinical pharmacology of hexachlorophene in newborn infants. J. Pediatr. 91:481-486
124. United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). 2000. Strategy for Research on Environmental Risks to Children. EPA/600/R-00/068. Washington, DC: Office of Research and Development
125. Vesselinovitch, S. D. 1983. Perinatal hepatocarcinogenesis. Biol. Res. Pregnancy Perinatol. 4:22-25
126. Vesselinovitch, S. D., K. V. Rao, and N. Mihailovich. 1979. Transplacental and lactational carcinogenesis by safrole. Cancer Res. 39:4378-4380
127. Vieira, I., M. Sonnier, and T. Cresteil. 1996. Developmental expression of CYP2E1 in human liver. Hypermethylation control of gene expression during the neonatal period. Eur. J. Biochem. 238:476-483
128. Watzka, M., F. Bildiingmaier, J. Schramm, D. Klingmuller, and B. Stoffel-Wagner. 1999. Sex- and age-specific differences in human brain CYP1A1 mRNA expression. J. Neuroendocrinol. 11:901-905
129. Wiley, J. A., J. P. Robinson, T. Cheng, T. Piazza, L. Stork, and K. Pladsen. 1991. Study of Children's Activity Patterns. Contract Number A733-149. Final Report. California Environmental Protection Agency, Air Resources Board
130. Wilson, J. T., R. D. Brown, J. L. Hinson, and J. W. Dailey. 1985. Pharmacokinetic pitfalls in the estimation of the breast milk/plasma ratio for drugs. Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 25:667-689
131. Wiseman, R. W., E. C. Miller, J. A. Miller, and A. Liem. 1987. Structure-activity studies of the hepatocarcinogenicities of alkenylbenzene derivatives related to estragole and safrole on administration to preweanling male C57BL/6J x C3H/HeJ F1 mice. Cancer Res. 47:2275-2283