The British government and the end of French Algeria, 1958-62

Journal of Strategic Studies

Volumn 25, Issue 2, 2002, Pages 172-198

  Thomas, Martin ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST OF ENGLAND   (United Kingdom)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COLONIALISM; DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS; FOREIGN POLICY; INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS; WAR;

ALGERIA; UNITED KINGDOM;

EID: 0036623350     PISSN: 01402390     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01402390412331302725     Document Type: Article

References (133)

1. Public Record Office, London (hereafter PRO), Selwyn Lloyd Papers, FO 800/726, FO tel. 3568, Eden message to Eisenhower, 5 Aug. 1956; see also Martin Thomas, 'The Dilemmas of an Ally of France: Britain's Policy towards the Algerian Rebellion, 1954-62', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 23/1 (Jan. 1995) pp.140-2.
2. Public Record Office, London (hereafter PRO), Selwyn Lloyd Papers, FO 800/726, FO tel. 3568, Eden message to Eisenhower, 5 Aug. 1956; see also Martin Thomas, 'The Dilemmas of an Ally of France: Britain's Policy towards the Algerian Rebellion, 1954-62', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 23/1 (Jan. 1995) pp.140-2.
3. PRO, COS comm. memoranda, DEFE 5/87, COS(58)272, Defence Coordination Committee, Middle East, 'Cyprus', 1 Dec. 1958; for the NATO connection with Cyprus, see Evanthis Hatzivassiliou, 'The Cyprus Question and the Anglo-American Special Relationship, 1954-58', in Richard J. Aldrich and Michael F. Hopkins (eds.) Intelligence, Defence and Diplomacy: British Policy in the Post-War World (London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass 1994) pp.149-68. On the 17 Oct. massacre, see Jean-Luc Einaudi, La bataille de Paris: 17 octobre 1961 (Paris: Editions du Seuil 1991).
4. PRO, COS comm. memoranda, DEFE 5/87, COS(58)272, Defence Coordination Committee, Middle East, 'Cyprus', 1 Dec. 1958; for the NATO connection with Cyprus, see Evanthis Hatzivassiliou, 'The Cyprus Question and the Anglo-American Special Relationship, 1954-58', in Richard J. Aldrich and Michael F. Hopkins (eds.) Intelligence, Defence and Diplomacy: British Policy in the Post-War World (London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass 1994) pp.149-68. On the 17 Oct. massacre, see Jean-Luc Einaudi, La bataille de Paris: 17 octobre 1961 (Paris: Editions du Seuil 1991).
5. PRO, COS comm. memoranda, DEFE 5/87, COS(58)272, Defence Coordination Committee, Middle East, 'Cyprus', 1 Dec. 1958; for the NATO connection with Cyprus, see Evanthis Hatzivassiliou, 'The Cyprus Question and the Anglo-American Special Relationship, 1954-58', in Richard J. Aldrich and Michael F. Hopkins (eds.) Intelligence, Defence and Diplomacy: British Policy in the Post-War World (London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass 1994) pp.149-68. On the 17 Oct. massacre, see Jean-Luc Einaudi, La bataille de Paris: 17 octobre 1961 (Paris: Editions du Seuil 1991).
6. Anthony J. Stockwell, 'Policing during the Malayan Emergency, 1948-60: Communism, Communalism and Decolonisation', in David Anderson and David Killingray (eds.) Policing and Decolonization (Manchester UP 1992) pp.105-26; Frank Furedi, 'Kenya: Decolonization through Counterinsurgency', in A. Gorst, L. Jonnman and W. Scott Lucas (eds.) Contemporary British History, 1931-1961. Politics and the Limits of Policy (London: Pinter 1991) pp.141-68. The point regarding Rhodesia's UDI is made in William Roger Louis and Ronald Robinson, 'The Imperialism of Decolonization', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 22/3 (Sept. 1994) p.490.
7. Anthony J. Stockwell, 'Policing during the Malayan Emergency, 1948-60: Communism, Communalism and Decolonisation', in David Anderson and David Killingray (eds.) Policing and Decolonization (Manchester UP 1992) pp.105-26; Frank Furedi, 'Kenya: Decolonization through Counterinsurgency', in A. Gorst, L. Jonnman and W. Scott Lucas (eds.) Contemporary British History, 1931-1961. Politics and the Limits of Policy (London: Pinter 1991) pp.141-68. The point regarding Rhodesia's UDI is made in William Roger Louis and Ronald Robinson, 'The Imperialism of Decolonization', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 22/3 (Sept. 1994) p.490.
8. Anthony J. Stockwell, 'Policing during the Malayan Emergency, 1948-60: Communism, Communalism and Decolonisation', in David Anderson and David Killingray (eds.) Policing and Decolonization (Manchester UP 1992) pp.105-26; Frank Furedi, 'Kenya: Decolonization through Counterinsurgency', in A. Gorst, L. Jonnman and W. Scott Lucas (eds.) Contemporary British History, 1931-1961. Politics and the Limits of Policy (London: Pinter 1991) pp.141-68. The point regarding Rhodesia's UDI is made in William Roger Louis and Ronald Robinson, 'The Imperialism of Decolonization', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 22/3 (Sept. 1994) p.490.
9. PRO, DEFE 5/85, COS(58)243, COS comm. memo, 'Release of Military Manpower from Police Duties in Colonial Territories', 30 Oct. 1958.
10. Philip E. Hemming, 'Macmillan and the End of the British Empire in Africa', in Richard Aldous and Sabine Lee (eds.) Harold Macmillan and Britain's World Role (London: Macmillan 1996) p.100.
11. PRO, FO general correspondence, FO 371/125945, JR1201/3, Lt.-Col. A.J. Wilson report on tour of Algeria, 8-16 Jan. 1957.
12. PRO, FO 371/131585, JN10317/181, Selwyn Lloyd to Sir Harold Caccia, Washington, 25 Feb. 1958; Lord Gladwyn, The Memoirs of Lord Gladwyn (London: Weidenfeld 1972) p.286.
13. PRO, FO 371/131585, JN10317/181, Selwyn Lloyd to Sir Harold Caccia, Washington, 25 Feb. 1958; Lord Gladwyn, The Memoirs of Lord Gladwyn (London: Weidenfeld 1972) p.286.
14. Simon J. Ball, 'Macmillan and British Defence Policy', in Aldous and Lee, Harold Macmillan and Britain's World Role (note 5) pp.75-81.
15. PRO, DEFE 5/84, COS(58)145, reply to NATO Annual Review, 30 May 1958.
16. PRO, FO 371/137237, WF1011/1, Jebb, Annual Report, 1957, 17 Jan. 1958.
17. PRO, FO 371/138569, R.F.G. Sarell, Algiers Consulate, Annual Report, 1958, 23 Jan. 1959. For succinct discussion of the Suez group and the Middle East in 1956-57, see Sue Onslow, Backbench Debate within the Conservative Party and its Influence on British Foreign Policy, 1948-57 (London: Macmillan 1997) pp.188-210.
18. PRO, FO 371/138569, R.F.G. Sarell, Algiers Consulate, Annual Report, 1958, 23 Jan. 1959. For succinct discussion of the Suez group and the Middle East in 1956-57, see Sue Onslow, Backbench Debate within the Conservative Party and its Influence on British Foreign Policy, 1948-57 (London: Macmillan 1997) pp.188-210.
19. US National Archives and Records Administration (hereafter NARA), College Park, MD, Record Group 59, Department of State Lot Files, file 61D30/Box 3, Office of Western European Affairs, memos of conversation, 1959 (III). Settler 'ultras' were prime suspects in the bombing of the US Consulate in Algiers on 4 July 1957.
20. PRO, FO 371/131668, JR1018/11, Brig. L. Jackson report, 'The Frontier between Algeria and Tunisia', 28 April 1958.
21. NARA, RG 59, Lot Files Africa, Office of North African Affairs country files: Algeria/Box 1, file A8, FO intell. to Washington, 18 April 1958.
22. Gen. Paul Ely, 'Notre politique militaire', Revue de Défense Nationale (July 1957) p.1039. My translation.
23. Wilson (note 6).
24. For the activities of leading psychological warfare proponents, Colonels Lacheroy and Goussault, see PRO, FO 371/131685, JR1193/19, Sarell notes on field report by Brig. J.A.H. Mitchell, 15 Dec. 1958. Two detailed analyses of French ideas of revolutionary warfare are Peter Paret, French Revolutionary Warfare from Indochina to Algeria. The Analysis of a Political and Military Doctrine (London: Pall Mall 1964), and George A. Kelly, Lost Soldiers. The French Army and Empire in Crisis, 1947-1962 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1965).
25. For the activities of leading psychological warfare proponents, Colonels Lacheroy and Goussault, see PRO, FO 371/131685, JR1193/19, Sarell notes on field report by Brig. J.A.H. Mitchell, 15 Dec. 1958. Two detailed analyses of French ideas of revolutionary warfare are Peter Paret, French Revolutionary Warfare from Indochina to Algeria. The Analysis of a Political and Military Doctrine (London: Pall Mall 1964), and George A. Kelly, Lost Soldiers. The French Army and Empire in Crisis, 1947-1962 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1965).
26. PRO, FO 371/138606, JR1193/4, Sarell to African Dept., 20 April 1959; FO 371/147347, WO situation reports, Jan.-Dec. 1960.
27. PRO, FO 371/125945, JR1201/16, Jackson report, 31 July 1957.
28. PRO, FO 371/138606, JR1193/5, Brig. J.A.H. Mitchell, field report to WO, 6-11 July 1959; FO 371/138587, JR1019/1, Sarell to J.G.S. Beith, 26 Jan. 1959. For details of the relocation programme, see Michel Cornaton, Les Camps de regroupement de la guerre d'Algérie (Paris: L'Harmattan 1998).
29. PRO, FO 371/138606, JR1193/2, Sarell to J.H.A. Watson, 6 April 1959.
30. The phrase is taken from a Chiefs of Staff committee report: PRO, DEFE 5/87, Defence Coordination Committee, Middle East, report, 'Cyprus', 1 Dec. 1958.
31. PRO, DEFE 5/78, COS(57)214, COS memo., 'Strategic facilities in the British territories likely to achieve independence', 25 Sept. 1957; AIR 8/1926, D(57) Defence committee 3rd mtg., COS brief, 10 Oct. 1957; Robert Holland, Britain and the Revolt in Cyprus, 1954-1959 (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1998) p.248.
32. PRO, DEFE 5/78, COS(57)214, COS memo., 'Strategic facilities in the British territories likely to achieve independence', 25 Sept. 1957; AIR 8/1926, D(57) Defence committee 3rd mtg., COS brief, 10 Oct. 1957; Robert Holland, Britain and the Revolt in Cyprus, 1954-1959 (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1998) p.248.
33. Robert Holland, 'Dirty wars: Algeria and Cyprus compared, 1954-1962', in Charles-Robert Ageron and Marc Michel (eds.) L'ère des décolonisations (Paris: Editions Karthala 1995) pp.37-46. Holland also provides the most penetrating analysis of British policy in Cyprus in his Britain and the Revolt in Cyprus (note 23).
34. Robert Holland, 'Dirty wars: Algeria and Cyprus compared, 1954-1962', in Charles-Robert Ageron and Marc Michel (eds.) L'ère des décolonisations (Paris: Editions Karthala 1995) pp.37-46. Holland also provides the most penetrating analysis of British policy in Cyprus in his Britain and the Revolt in Cyprus (note 23).
35. Bodleian Library, Conservative Party Archive, file CCO4/7/167, Imperial policy, 1956-58, Cyprus government review of events, 1956; 'Cyprus: Economic Review, 1955-1956', preface by Cyprus government Financial Secretary, A.F. Bates; Holland, Britain and the Revolt in Cyprus (note 23) p.45.
36. Bodleian Library, Conservative Party Archive, file CCO4/7/167, Imperial policy, 1956-58, Cyprus government review of events, 1956; 'Cyprus: Economic Review, 1955-1956', preface by Cyprus government Financial Secretary, A.F. Bates; Holland, Britain and the Revolt in Cyprus (note 23) p.45.
37. Bodleian Library, Conservative Party Archive, file CCO4/7/167, Imperial policy, 1956-58, Cyprus government review of events, 1956; 'Cyprus: Economic Review, 1955-1956', preface by Cyprus government Financial Secretary, A.F. Bates; Holland, Britain and the Revolt in Cyprus (note 23) p.45.
38. PRO, DEFE 5/72, COS(56)419, COS comm., 'Anti-terrorist campaign in Cyprus', 26 Nov. 1956; Holland, Britain and the Revolt in Cyprus (note 23) pp.147-8.
39. PRO, DEFE 5/72, COS(56)419, COS comm., 'Anti-terrorist campaign in Cyprus', 26 Nov. 1956; Holland, Britain and the Revolt in Cyprus (note 23) pp.147-8.
40. Ibid. p.44.
41. Service Historique de l'Armée de Terre, Vincennes, 1H1425/D1, EMI-2, no. 768/EMI, General Salan, 'Synthèse de renseignements, janvier 1957', 6 Feb. 1957; PRO, CAB 158/28, JIC(57)36, JIC memo., 15 Aug. 1957; Bodleian Library, Oxford, Harold Macmillan Diaries, MS Macmillan, 2nd series diaries, dep. 29, entries for 7, 10, 11 July 1957, folios 88-92.
42. Service Historique de l'Armée de Terre, Vincennes, 1H1425/D1, EMI-2, no. 768/EMI, General Salan, 'Synthèse de renseignements, janvier 1957', 6 Feb. 1957; PRO, CAB 158/28, JIC(57)36, JIC memo., 15 Aug. 1957; Bodleian Library, Oxford, Harold Macmillan Diaries, MS Macmillan, 2nd series diaries, dep. 29, entries for 7, 10, 11 July 1957, folios 88-92.
43. Service Historique de l'Armée de Terre, Vincennes, 1H1425/D1, EMI-2, no. 768/EMI, General Salan, 'Synthèse de renseignements, janvier 1957', 6 Feb. 1957; PRO, CAB 158/28, JIC(57)36, JIC memo., 15 Aug. 1957; Bodleian Library, Oxford, Harold Macmillan Diaries, MS Macmillan, 2nd series diaries, dep. 29, entries for 7, 10, 11 July 1957, folios 88-92.
44. PRO, DEFE 4/132, COS(PAR)(60) annex, COS memo, 'Military strategy for circumstances short of global war', 21 June 1960; Edward Johnson, 'Britain and the Cyprus Question at the United Nations, 1954-58', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 28/3 (Sept. 2000) pp.113-30.
45. PRO, DEFE 4/132, COS(PAR)(60) annex, COS memo, 'Military strategy for circumstances short of global war', 21 June 1960; Edward Johnson, 'Britain and the Cyprus Question at the United Nations, 1954-58', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 28/3 (Sept. 2000) pp.113-30.
46. Maurice Vaïsse, 'La Guerre perdue à l'ONU?', in Jean-Pierre Rioux (ed.) La Guerre d'Algérie et les Français (Paris: Fayard 1990) pp.458-61.
47. Macmillan diaries, 2nd series, dep. 31, entries for 1-17 May 1958, folios 90-114; Ritchie Ovendale, 'Great Britain and the Anglo-American Invasion of Jordan and Lebanon in 1958', International History Review 16/2 (1994) pp.287-8.
48. Macmillan diaries, 2nd series, dep. 31, entries for 1-17 May 1958, folios 90-114; Ritchie Ovendale, 'Great Britain and the Anglo-American Invasion of Jordan and Lebanon in 1958', International History Review 16/2 (1994) pp.287-8.
49. PRO, Prime Minister's Office files, PREM 11/2339, FO Situation Report, 'France and Algeria', 2 June 1958; Alistair Horne, Macmillan, II: 1957-1986 (London: Macmillan 1989) pp.106-8; Memoirs of Lord Gladwyn (note 7) pp.312-14.
50. PRO, Prime Minister's Office files, PREM 11/2339, FO Situation Report, 'France and Algeria', 2 June 1958; Alistair Horne, Macmillan, II: 1957-1986 (London: Macmillan 1989) pp.106-8; Memoirs of Lord Gladwyn (note 7) pp.312-14.
51. PRO, Prime Minister's Office files, PREM 11/2339, FO Situation Report, 'France and Algeria', 2 June 1958; Alistair Horne, Macmillan, II: 1957-1986 (London: Macmillan 1989) pp.106-8; Memoirs of Lord Gladwyn (note 7) pp.312-14.
52. Horne, Macmillan, II (note 32) pp.34-5, 107-8.
53. Macmillan diaries, 2nd Series, dep. 33, entry for 8 Oct. 1958, folio 67.
54. PRO, PREM 11/1849, HMG secret communication to Dulles, 'The French scene', 25 Nov. 1957.
55. PRO, FO 371/131685, JR1193/19, Jebb to Lloyd, 27 Nov. 1958.
56. PRO, FO 371/131685, JR1193/7, WO report. The French view of the FLN', 10-18 July 1958; SAM/27/58, Sarell to FO, 19 Sept. 1958; FO 371/145592, WF 1011/1, Jebb, Annual Report for France, 1958, 12 Jan. 1959.
57. PRO, FO 371/131685, JR1193/7, WO report. The French view of the FLN', 10-18 July 1958; SAM/27/58, Sarell to FO, 19 Sept. 1958; FO 371/145592, WF 1011/1, Jebb, Annual Report for France, 1958, 12 Jan. 1959.
58. PRO, FO 371/131685, JR1193/7, WO report. The French view of the FLN', 10-18 July 1958; SAM/27/58, Sarell to FO, 19 Sept. 1958; FO 371/145592, WF 1011/1, Jebb, Annual Report for France, 1958, 12 Jan. 1959.
59. PRO, FO 371/147328, Trefor Evans, Annual Review, Algeria, 1959, and African Dept. comments. 8 March 1960; Michèle Cointet, De Gaulle et l'Algérie Française, 1958-1962 (Paris: Perrin 1995) pp.38-42.
60. PRO, FO 371/147328, Trefor Evans, Annual Review, Algeria, 1959, and African Dept. comments. 8 March 1960; Michèle Cointet, De Gaulle et l'Algérie Française, 1958-1962 (Paris: Perrin 1995) pp.38-42.
61. PRO, FO 371/147328, Evans, Annual Review, Algeria, 1959, 8 March 1960.
62. PRO, FO 371/138569, Sarell report to Lloyd, 23 Jan. 1959. Pessimistic analysis of the Constantine Plan was well-founded, see Daniel Lefeuvre, 'L'échec du Plan de Constantine', in Rioux, La Guerre d'Algérie et les Français (note 30) pp.320-8.
63. A.N. Porter and A.J. Stockwell, British Imperial Policy and Decolonization 1938-64, Vol.II (NY: St Martin's Press 1989) doc. 75; Ritchie Ovendale, 'Macmillan and the Wind of Change in Africa, 1957-1960', Historical Journal 38/2 (1995) p.471;
64. A.N. Porter and A.J. Stockwell, British Imperial Policy and Decolonization 1938-64, Vol.II (NY: St Martin's Press 1989) doc. 75; Ritchie Ovendale, 'Macmillan and the Wind of Change in Africa, 1957-1960', Historical Journal 38/2 (1995) p.471;
65. Keith Kyle, 'The Politics of the Independence of Kenya', Contemporary British History 11/4 (Winter 1997) p.43.
66. John Darwin, 'The Central African Emergency, 1959', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 21/1 (Jan. 1993) pp.220-9.
67. Ovendale, 'Macmillan and the Wind of Change' (note 41) pp.466-71.
68. NARA, RG 59, 751S.00, Box 3377, Clark to State Dept., 31 Aug. 1956.
69. PRO, DEFE 7/1295, FO tel. 2508 to Washington, 29 May 1959.
70. PRO, FO 371/131197, J1077/2, Bourdillon to A.D.M. Ross, 21 Oct. 1958.
71. Ovendale (note 41) pp 455-6, 477; Horne, Macmillan, II (note 32) pp.193-5.
72. Ovendale (note 41) pp 455-6, 477; Horne, Macmillan, II (note 32) pp.193-5.
73. PRO, FO 371/125944, JR1193/1, Sir Frank Roberts to A.D.M. Ross, 1 Oct. 1957.
74. PRO, FO 371/137819, WUN10719/3, Roberts to Hoyer-Millar, 18 June 1958.
75. Documents Diplomatiques Français (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale 1998) 1961, Vol. II, nos. 32, 41, 42; for details of the crisis, see Nicole Grimaud, 'La Crise de Bizerte', Revue d'Histoire Diplomatique 110 (1996) pp.329-40.
76. Documents Diplomatiques Français (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale 1998) 1961, Vol. II, nos. 32, 41, 42; for details of the crisis, see Nicole Grimaud, 'La Crise de Bizerte', Revue d'Histoire Diplomatique 110 (1996) pp.329-40.
77. PRO, FO 371/125945, JR1201/16, Brig. Jackson to FO, 12 Aug. 1957.
78. PRO, FO 371/146407, WUN11924/3, Roberts to Lloyd, 16 Feb. 1959; WUN11924/7, Sir Richar d Powell (MOD) to Hoyer-Millar, 5 Aug. 1959.
79. PRO, FO 371/146407, WUN11924/3, Roberts to Lloyd, 16 Feb. 1959; WUN11924/7, Sir Richar d Powell (MOD) to Hoyer-Millar, 5 Aug. 1959.
80. PRO, FO 371/125944, JR1193/1, Roberts to Ross, 1 Oct. 1957.
81. PRO, PREM 11/2694, Macleod memo., 'French nuclear tests', 30 Oct. 1959.
82. See, for example, PRO, COS Comm. minutes, DEFE 4/132, COS(PAR)(60)1st mtg., 21 June 1960.
83. Ball, 'Macmillan and British Defence policy' (note 8) pp.82-4.
84. PRO, PREM 11/1830A, Dulles letter to Lloyd, 23 Nov. 1957.
85. PRO, FO 371/125944, JR1193/1/57, African Dept. memo to MOD Joint Planning Comm., 27 March 1958.
86. Colette Barbier, 'Les négociations franco-germano-italiennes en vue de l'établissement d'une coopération militaire nucléaire au cours des années 1956-1958', Revue d'histoire diplomatique 104 (1990) pp.81-113;
87. Jan Melissen, 'Nuclearizing NATO, 1957-1959: the 'Anglo-Saxons', nuclear sharing and the fourth country problem', Review of International Studies 20 (1994) pp.253-75.
88. PRO, FO 371/131586, JN10317/208, Jebb conversation with Louis Joxe, 3 March 1958; FO 371/131591, JN10317/363, Jebb to FO, 18 June 1958. For a survey of Franco-Tunisian relations between 1958 and 1962, see: Maurice Vaïsse, La grandeur. Politique étrangère du général de Gaulle 1958-1969 (Paris: Fayard 1998) pp.79-89.
89. PRO, FO 371/131586, JN10317/208, Jebb conversation with Louis Joxe, 3 March 1958; FO 371/131591, JN10317/363, Jebb to FO, 18 June 1958. For a survey of Franco-Tunisian relations between 1958 and 1962, see: Maurice Vaïsse, La grandeur. Politique étrangère du général de Gaulle 1958-1969 (Paris: Fayard 1998) pp.79-89.
90. PRO, FO 371/131586, JN10317/208, Jebb conversation with Louis Joxe, 3 March 1958; FO 371/131591, JN10317/363, Jebb to FO, 18 June 1958. For a survey of Franco-Tunisian relations between 1958 and 1962, see: Maurice Vaïsse, La grandeur. Politique étrangère du général de Gaulle 1958-1969 (Paris: Fayard 1998) pp.79-89.
91. PRO, FO 371/131586, JN10317/208, Jebb conversation with Louis Joxe, 3 March 1958; FO 371/131591, JN10317/363, Jebb to FO, 18 June 1958. For a survey of Franco-Tunisian relations between 1958 and 1962, see: Maurice Vaïsse, La grandeur. Politique étrangère du général de Gaulle 1958-1969 (Paris: Fayard 1998) pp.79-89.
92. PRO, PREM 11/2338, Jebb record of meeting with de Gaulle, 20 March 1958.
93. PRO, DEFE 5/87, COS(58)271, NATO Military Comm., 21st mtg, 1 Dec. 1958.
94. PRO, PREM 11/2701, WUN1072/54G, FO record of meeting at French Embassy, 13 April 1959.
95. PRO, DEFE 5/88, COS(59)4, COS comm., 'Naval Command Arrangements in the Mediterranean', 2 Jan. 1959.
96. PRO, Colonial Office, defence correspondence, CO 968/547, JPS memo., 'Future Command Organisation in the Middle East', 27 Oct. 1958; MOD Private Office files, DEFE 13/214, Sir Harold Caccia to FO, 29 April 1958; Nigel John Ashton, 'The Hijacking of a Pact: the Formation of the Baghdad Pact and Anglo-American Tensions in the Middle East, 1955-1958', Review of International Studies 19 (1993) pp.135-7.
97. PRO, Colonial Office, defence correspondence, CO 968/547, JPS memo., 'Future Command Organisation in the Middle East', 27 Oct. 1958; MOD Private Office files, DEFE 13/214, Sir Harold Caccia to FO, 29 April 1958; Nigel John Ashton, 'The Hijacking of a Pact: the Formation of the Baghdad Pact and Anglo-American Tensions in the Middle East, 1955-1958', Review of International Studies 19 (1993) pp.135-7.
98. PRO, Colonial Office, defence correspondence, CO 968/547, JPS memo., 'Future Command Organisation in the Middle East', 27 Oct. 1958; MOD Private Office files, DEFE 13/214, Sir Harold Caccia to FO, 29 April 1958; Nigel John Ashton, 'The Hijacking of a Pact: the Formation of the Baghdad Pact and Anglo-American Tensions in the Middle East, 1955-1958', Review of International Studies 19 (1993) pp.135-7.
99. For Macmillan's approach see Wolfram Kaiser, 'The Bomb and Europe. Britain, France and EEC Entry Negotiations 1961-1963', Journal of European Integration History 1/1 (1995) pp.66-9; see also Memoirs of Lord Gladwyn (note 7) pp.299-302.
100. For Macmillan's approach see Wolfram Kaiser, 'The Bomb and Europe. Britain, France and EEC Entry Negotiations 1961-1963', Journal of European Integration History 1/1 (1995) pp.66-9; see also Memoirs of Lord Gladwyn (note 7) pp.299-302.
101. PRO, CAB 128/35, CC(61)3, 31 Jan. 1961; Frank Costigliola, 'The Failed Design: Kennedy, de Gaulle and the Struggle for Europe', Diplomatic History 8/3 (1984) pp.237-44. Home took over from Selwyn Lloyd on 27 July 1960.
102. PRO, CAB 128/35, CC(61)3, 31 Jan. 1961; Frank Costigliola, 'The Failed Design: Kennedy, de Gaulle and the Struggle for Europe', Diplomatic History 8/3 (1984) pp.237-44. Home took over from Selwyn Lloyd on 27 July 1960.
103. PRO, CAB 128/35, CC(61)3, 31 Jan. 1961; Frank Costigliola, 'The Failed Design: Kennedy, de Gaulle and the Struggle for Europe', Diplomatic History 8/3 (1984) pp.237-44. Home took over from Selwyn Lloyd on 27 July 1960.
104. Maurice Vaïsse, 'De Gaulle and the British "application" to Join the Common Market', in George Wilkes (ed.) Britain's Failure to Enter the European Community 1961-63 (London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass 1997) pp.53-69. For a fuller treatment, see Vaïsse, La grandeur (note 60) pp.175-224. For a less fatalistic view of Britain's prospects for entry, focused upon the Brussels entry negotations rather than the Macmillan-de Gaulle exchanges, see: N. Piers Ludlow, Dealing with Britain. The Six and the First UK Application to the EEC (Cambridge: CUP 1997).
105. Maurice Vaïsse, 'De Gaulle and the British "application" to Join the Common Market', in George Wilkes (ed.) Britain's Failure to Enter the European Community 1961-63 (London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass 1997) pp.53-69. For a fuller treatment, see Vaïsse, La grandeur (note 60) pp.175-224. For a less fatalistic view of Britain's prospects for entry, focused upon the Brussels entry negotations rather than the Macmillan-de Gaulle exchanges, see: N. Piers Ludlow, Dealing with Britain. The Six and the First UK Application to the EEC (Cambridge: CUP 1997).
106. Maurice Vaïsse, 'De Gaulle and the British "application" to Join the Common Market', in George Wilkes (ed.) Britain's Failure to Enter the European Community 1961-63 (London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass 1997) pp.53-69. For a fuller treatment, see Vaïsse, La grandeur (note 60) pp.175-224. For a less fatalistic view of Britain's prospects for entry, focused upon the Brussels entry negotations rather than the Macmillan-de Gaulle exchanges, see: N. Piers Ludlow, Dealing with Britain. The Six and the First UK Application to the EEC (Cambridge: CUP 1997).
107. PRO, PREM 11/2699, record of PM-Chauvel conversation, 4 Nov. 1959.
108. Kaiser, 'The Bomb and Europe' (note 66) pp.68-75.
109. PRO, PREM 11/3334, PM note, 16 Sept. 1960; Horne, Macmillan II (note 32) pp.256-7.
110. PRO, PREM 11/3334, PM note, 16 Sept. 1960; Horne, Macmillan II (note 32) pp.256-7.
111. PRO, DEFE 13/178, Watkinson record of 4th Paris mtg., 13 April 1961;
112. Costigliola, 'The Failed Design' (note 67) p.230.
113. PRO, FO 371/160458, CF1192/1, Dixon to FO, 17 April 1961;
114. regarding French atomic development, see General Charles Ailleret, L'aventure atomique française (Paris 1968); Colette Barbier, 'The French Decision to Develop a Military Nuclear Programme in the 1950s', Diplomacy and Statecraft 4/1 (March 1993) pp.103-13.
115. regarding French atomic development, see General Charles Ailleret, L'aventure atomique française (Paris 1968); Colette Barbier, 'The French Decision to Develop a Military Nuclear Programme in the 1950s', Diplomacy and Statecraft 4/1 (March 1993) pp.103-13.
116. Kaiser (note 66) pp.74-80; Horne, Macmillan, II (note 32) pp.300-2.
117. Kaiser (note 66) pp.74-80; Horne, Macmillan, II (note 32) pp.300-2.
118. As an example: PRO, FO 371/147347, JR1018/5, M. Hadow, Paris, to African Dept., 14 March 1960. For analysis of civil-military relations, see: M.S. Alexander and P.C.F. Bankwitz, 'From Politiques en Képi to Military Technocrats. De Gaulle and the Recovery of the French Army after Indochina and Algeria', in G.J. Andreopoulos and H.E. Selesky (eds.) The Aftermath of Defeat. Societies, Armed Forces and the Challenge of Recovery (New Haven, CT: Yale UP 1994) pp.79-102.
119. As an example: PRO, FO 371/147347, JR1018/5, M. Hadow, Paris, to African Dept., 14 March 1960. For analysis of civil-military relations, see: M.S. Alexander and P.C.F. Bankwitz, 'From Politiques en Képi to Military Technocrats. De Gaulle and the Recovery of the French Army after Indochina and Algeria', in G.J. Andreopoulos and H.E. Selesky (eds.) The Aftermath of Defeat. Societies, Armed Forces and the Challenge of Recovery (New Haven, CT: Yale UP 1994) pp.79-102.
120. PRO, FO 371/147329, JR1015/10, FO 'Summary on the recent Algerian crisis for the PM', 26 Jan. 1960; on Crépin, see Jean Morin, De Gaulle et l'Algérie. Mon témoignage 1960-1962 (Paris: Albin Michel 1999) p.50.
121. PRO, FO 371/147329, JR1015/10, FO 'Summary on the recent Algerian crisis for the PM', 26 Jan. 1960; on Crépin, see Jean Morin, De Gaulle et l'Algérie. Mon témoignage 1960-1962 (Paris: Albin Michel 1999) p.50.
122. PRO, FO 371/147332, JR1015/78G, FO record of Rambouillet talks, 12 March 1960; FO 371/147334, JR1015/118, R. Johnstone, Algiers, to FO, 9 June 1960.
123. PRO, FO 371/147332, JR1015/78G, FO record of Rambouillet talks, 12 March 1960; FO 371/147334, JR1015/118, R. Johnstone, Algiers, to FO, 9 June 1960.
124. PRO, Cabinet minutes/conclusions, CAB 128/35, CC(61)23rd conclusions, 25 April 1961; regarding the OAS after the Challe coup, see Alexander Harrison, Challenging De Gaulle. The O.A.S. and the Counterrevolution in Algeria, 1954-1962 (NY: Praeger 1989) Chap.2.
125. PRO, Cabinet minutes/conclusions, CAB 128/35, CC(61)23rd conclusions, 25 April 1961; regarding the OAS after the Challe coup, see Alexander Harrison, Challenging De Gaulle. The O.A.S. and the Counterrevolution in Algeria, 1954-1962 (NY: Praeger 1989) Chap.2.
126. PRO, FO 371/165607, Trefor Evans to Earl of Home, 20 Jan. 1962.
127. PRO, FO 371/163485, 3/1011/1/62, Sir Anthony Rumbold to FO, 9 Jan. 1962. After a three-day trial Challe and Zeller were sentenced to 15 years, Gouraud to ten. Regarding contacts with the FLN executive, see: NARA, RG 59, Lot Files Africa, Office of North African Affairs, UK discussions/Box 1, file A8, 'US/UK talks on post-independence Algeria', 21 Nov. 1961; Jeffery Lefebvre, 'Kennedy's Algerian Dilemma: Containment, Alliance Politics and the "Rebel Dialogue"', Middle Eastern Studies 35/2 (April 1999) pp.66-74.
128. PRO, FO 371/163485, 3/1011/1/62, Sir Anthony Rumbold to FO, 9 Jan. 1962. After a three-day trial Challe and Zeller were sentenced to 15 years, Gouraud to ten. Regarding contacts with the FLN executive, see: NARA, RG 59, Lot Files Africa, Office of North African Affairs, UK discussions/Box 1, file A8, 'US/UK talks on post-independence Algeria', 21 Nov. 1961; Jeffery Lefebvre, 'Kennedy's Algerian Dilemma: Containment, Alliance Politics and the "Rebel Dialogue"', Middle Eastern Studies 35/2 (April 1999) pp.66-74.
129. PRO, FO 371/163485, 3/1011/1/62, Sir Anthony Rumbold to FO, 9 Jan. 1962. After a three-day trial Challe and Zeller were sentenced to 15 years, Gouraud to ten. Regarding contacts with the FLN executive, see: NARA, RG 59, Lot Files Africa, Office of North African Affairs, UK discussions/Box 1, file A8, 'US/UK talks on post-independence Algeria', 21 Nov. 1961; Jeffery Lefebvre, 'Kennedy's Algerian Dilemma: Containment, Alliance Politics and the "Rebel Dialogue"', Middle Eastern Studies 35/2 (April 1999) pp.66-74.
130. PRO, Cabinet memoranda, CAB 129/109, C(62)58, Home memo, 'The Evian Agreements', 3 April 1962; regarding the first breakdown, see Cointet, De Gaulle et l'Algérie Française (note 38) pp.206-12. The most detailed insiders' accounts of the Evian talks are: Redha Malek, L'Algérie à Évian. Histoire des négociations secrètes 1956-1962 (Paris: Editions du Seuil 1995);
131. PRO, Cabinet memoranda, CAB 129/109, C(62)58, Home memo, 'The Evian Agreements', 3 April 1962; regarding the first breakdown, see Cointet, De Gaulle et l'Algérie Française (note 38) pp.206-12. The most detailed insiders' accounts of the Evian talks are: Redha Malek, L'Algérie à Évian. Histoire des négociations secrètes 1956-1962 (Paris: Editions du Seuil 1995);
132. PRO, Cabinet memoranda, CAB 129/109, C(62)58, Home memo, 'The Evian Agreements', 3 April 1962; regarding the first breakdown, see Cointet, De Gaulle et l'Algérie Française (note 38) pp.206-12. The most detailed insiders' accounts of the Evian talks are: Redha Malek, L'Algérie à Évian. Histoire des négociations secrètes 1956-1962 (Paris: Editions du Seuil 1995);
133. Morin, De Gaulle et l'Algérie (note 76).