Breast cancer and the language of risk, 1750-1950

Social History of Medicine

Volumn 15, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 17-43

  Jasen, Patricia ^a  

^a LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

Breast cancer; Breast disease; Cancer aetiology; Mastectomy; Menopause; Psychosomatic medicine; Risk; Surgeons; Women

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BREAST TUMOR; FEMALE; HISTORY; HUMAN; LANGUAGE; RISK; WOMEN'S HEALTH;

BREAST NEOPLASMS; FEMALE; HISTORY, 18TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; LANGUAGE; RISK; WOMEN'S HEALTH;

EID: 0036557444     PISSN: 0951631X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/shm/15.1.17     Document Type: Review

References (232)

1. S. Gifford, 'The Meaning of Lumps: A Case Study of the Ambiguities of Risk', in C. R. James, J. R. Stall, and S. Gifford (eds.), Anthropology and Epidemiology: Interdisciplinary Approaches to the Study of Health and Illness (Dordrecht, 1986), 213-46, p. 217.
2. R. Aronowitz, Making Sense of Illness: Science, Society and Disease (Cambridge, 1998), p. 112.
3. Some general studies of risk do contain an historical component, although conclusions are often contradictory. For example, see M. Douglas and A. Wildavasky, Risk and Culture (Berkeley, 1982) and D. Lupton, Risk (London, 1999).
4. Lupton, Risk, p. 92.
5. G. Becker and R. D. Nachtgall, '"Born to be a Mother": The Cultural Construction of Risk in Infertility Treatment in the U.S.', Social Science and Medicine, 39 (1994), 507-18, p. 507;
6. S. E. Hansson, 'Dimensions of Risk', Risk Analysis, 8 (1988), 107-12,
7. cited in M. V. Hayes, 'On the Epistemology of Risk: Language, Logic, and Social Science', Social Science and Medicine, 35 (1992), 401-7, p. 403.
8. Gifford, 'The Meaning of Lumps', pp. 217-30.
9. Becker and Nachtgall, 'Born to be a Mother', p. 507.
10. Gifford, 'The Meaning of Lumps', pp. 214-5;
11. E. Parsons and P. Atkinson, 'Lay Constructions of Genetic Risk', Sociology of Health and Illness, 14 (1992), 437-55.
12. D. Lupton, The Imperative of Health: Public Health and the Regulated Body (London, 1995), p. 79.
13. Lupton, The Imperative of Health, p. 77;
14. C. E. Rosenberg, 'Body and Mind in Nineteenth-century Medicine: Some Clinical Origins of the Neurosis Construct', in Rosenberg, Explaining Epidemics and Other Studies in the History of Medicine (Cambridge, 1992), 74-89, p. 78.
15. M. Hayes, 'On the Epistemology of Risk', pp. 404-5;
16. Lupton, The Imperative of Health, pp. 77-9.
17. T. Taylor, '"Purgatory on Earth": An Account of Breast Cancer from Nineteenth Century France', Social History of Medicine, 11 (1998), 381-402, p. 384.
18. E. Leopold, A Darker Ribbon: Breast Cancer, Women, and their Doctors in the Twentieth Century (Boston, 1999), pp. 3-4.
19. Important works on the history of women and medicine, such as R. Apple (ed.), Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook (New York, 1990);
20. A. Dally, Women under the Knife: A History of Surgery (New York, 1992);
21. W. Mitchinson, The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto, 1991) contain little or no mention of breast cancer.
22. Many physicians were also licensed as surgeons and performed breast cancer surgery on occasion, but were less likely to publish on the subject. For example, see J. Duffin, Langstaff: A Nineteenth-Century Medical Life (Toronto, 1993), pp. 171-4.
23. W. Norford, An Essay on the General Method of Treating Cancerous Tumors (London, 1753), p. 30.
24. D. Harley, 'Rhetoric and the Social Construction of Sickness and Healing', Social History of Medicine, 12 (1999), 407-36, p. 420.
25. B. Duden, The Woman Beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany (Cambridge, MA, 1991, trans. T. Dunlap), p. 43;
26. Rosenberg, 'Body and Mind in Nineteenth-century Medicine', p. 89.
27. On the surgeons' profession c. 1790, see W. F. Bynum, Science and the Practice of Medicine in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 2-11.
28. On the ambitions of surgeons and men-midwives in the late-eighteenth century, see O. Moscucci, The Science of Woman: Gynaecology and Gender in England, 1800-1929 (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 50-7.
29. On the history of women's surgery, see Dally, Women under the Knife.
30. D. De Moulin, A Short History of Breast Cancer (The Hague, 1983), p. 33.
31. Duden, The Woman Beneath the Skin, p. 98.
32. For some early statistics on cancer rates, see W. H. Walshe, The Nature and Treatment of Cancer (London, 1846), p. 152;
33. E. Shorter, Women's, Bodies: A Social History of Women's Encounters with Health, Ill-health, and Medicine (New Brunswick, NJ, 1991), pp. 242-4.
34. Burney's letter describing her ordeal is reprinted in D. J. Rothman, S. Marcus, and S. A. Kiceluk (eds.), Medicine and Western Civilization (New Brunswick, NJ, 1995), 383-9.
35. On Burney's case, see J. L. Epstein, 'Writing the Unspeakable: Fanny Burney's Mastectomy and the Fictive Body', Representations, 16 (1986), 131-66;
36. J. Wiltshire, 'Early Nineteenth-century Pathography: The Case of Fanny Burney', Literature and History, 3rd ser., 2 (1992), 9-23.
37. Some surgeons even identified their patients by name and place of residence. For example, see Minutes of Cases of Cancer and Cancer and Tendency successfully treated by Mr. Samuel Young (London, 1816).
38. H. Fearon, A Treatise on Cancers, with an account of a new and successful method of operating, particularly in Cancers of the Breast and Uterus (London, 1790), p. 161;
39. J. Rodman, A Practical Explanation of Cancer in the Female Breast, with the Method of Cure and Cases of Illustration (Paisley, 1815), p. 58.
40. J. Ewart, The History of Two Cases of Ulcerated Cancer of the Mammae (Bath, 1794), p. 31.
41. For doubts concerning professional honesty regarding breast cancer diagnoses, see J. Adams, Observations on the Cancerous Breast (London, 1801), p. 32 and passim.
42. E. Home, Observations on Cancer, Connected with Histories of the Disease (London, 1805), pp. 52-3. See pp. 99-101 for further discussion of the risk associated with surgery.
43. Fearon, A Treatise on Cancers, p. 146.
44. Shorter, Women's Bodies, p. 242.
45. For example, see the range of cancers discussed in B. S. Shoenberg, 'A Program for the Conquest of Cancer: 1802', Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 30 (1975), 3-22.
46. Walshe, The Nature and Treatment of Cancer, p. 152.
47. On humoral theory and cancer, see L. J. Rather, The Genesis of Cancer (Baltimore, 1978), pp. 8-45.
48. M. Yalom, A History of the Breast (New York, 1997), pp. 106-7;
49. De Moulin, A Short History, p. 37.
50. L. Demaitre, 'Medieval Notions of Cancer: Malignancy and Metaphor', Bulletin of the History of Medicine (1998), 609-37, p. 618.
51. Fearon, A Treatise on Cancers, pp. 42, 64-5.
52. Rosenberg, 'Body and Mind in Nineteenth-century Medicine', p. 77.
53. 'Body and Mind in Nineteenth-century Medicine' Ibid., p. 78.
54. E. Bronfen, The Knotted Subject: Hysteria and its Discontents (Princeton, 1998), p. 114;
55. L. Jordanova, Sexual Visions: Images of Gender in Science and Medicine between the Eighteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Madison, 1989), pp. 25-8.
56. Rosenberg, 'Body and Mind in Nineteenth-century Medicine', p. 77.
57. R. Guy, An Essay on Scirrhus Tumours and Cancers (London, 1759),
58. th Century Contributions', The Psychoanalytic Review, 42 (1955), 217-27, p. 219.
59. Rodman, A Practical Explanation of Cancer, pp. 6, 19, 9-10, 56-9, 66-70, and, passim.
60. Ewart, The History of Two Cases, pp. 11, 40;
61. Fearon, A Treatise on Cancers, p. 30 and passim.;
62. T. Gataker, Essays on Medical Subjects (London, 1764), p. 61.
63. For women's references to blows reported in case histories, see R. Guy, Practical Observations on Cancers and Disorders of the Breast (London, 1762), pp. 65, 67, 79, 80, 83, 85, 95, 100, 102, 105, 112.
64. Norford, An Essay on the General Method of Treating Cancerous Tumors, pp. 156-8.
65. Adams, Observations on the Cancerous Breast, p. 78.
66. W. Nisbet, An Inquiry into the History, Nature, Causes, and Difference Modes of Treatment Hitherto Pursued, in the Cure of Scrophula and Cancer (Edinburgh, 1795), p. 155.
67. Ewart, The History of Two Cases, p. 42;
68. Fearon, A Treatise on Cancers, p. 41;
69. D. Hussack, Observations on the Advantages of Exposing Wounds to the Air after Capital Operations, with some remarks upon the Removal of Scirrhus Tumors from the Breast (New York, 1813), pp. 10-11;
70. C. Aldis, Observations on the Nature and Cure of Glandular Diseases, Especially those Denominated Cancer (London, 1820), p. 4.
71. Fearon, A Treatise on Cancers, pp. x-xi.
72. For conflicting views on the question of heredity and cancer, see Shoenberg, 'A Program for the Conquest of Cancer', pp. 11, 15, 18, 21.
73. Home, Observations on Cancer, p. 151.
74. Fearon, A Treatise on Cancers, p. 32;
75. Rodman, A Practical Explanation of Cancer, p. 133.
76. Norford, An Essay on the General Method of Treating Cancerous Tumors, pp. 13, 94;
77. De Moulin, A Short History, pp. 18, 35;
78. Shorter, Women's Bodies, p. 244.
79. L. Schiebinger, The Mind Has No Sex: Women in the Origins of Modern Science (Cambridge, MA, 1989), pp. 219-20;
80. idem., Nature's Body: Gender in the Making of Modern Science (Boston, 1993), pp. 69-74;
81. A. Vickery, The Gentleman's Daughter: Women's Lives in Georgian England (New Haven, 1998), pp. 107-8.
82. W. Rowley, A Practical Treatise on Diseases of the Breast in Women . . . with the Method of Preventing the Cancer (London, 1772), pp. iii, 43-4, 24, 27, vii;
83. Nisbet, An Inquiry, pp. 131-2;
84. J. Burrows, A New and Practical Essay on Cancers (London, 1767), p. 29;
85. T. J. Graham, A Treatise on Cancer (London, 1826), pp. 51-2.
86. De Moulin, A Short History, pp. 57-71.
87. T. W. Nunn, On Cancer of the Breast (London, 1882), p. 141.
88. L. Davidoff and C. Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780-1850 (Chicago, 1987), p. 319.
89. P. Jalland, Death in the Victorian Family (Oxford, 1996), pp. 37, 53, 61-2.
90. Leopold, A Darker Ribbon, p. 32;
91. D. K. McGregor, From Midwives to Medicine: The Birth of American Gynecology (New Brunswick, NJ, 1998), p. 175.
92. K. T. Meiners, 'Imagining Cancer: Sara Coleridge and the Environment of Illness', Literature and Medicine, 15 (1996), 48-63, pp. 50-1.
93. For example, see A. Cooper, The Anatomy and Diseases of the Breast (Philadelphia, 1845), p. 10.
94. Moscucci, The Science of Woman, p. 103.
95. For example, J. C. Webster's Diseases of Women: A Text-book for Students and Practitioners (London, 1898)
96. contains no information on breast disease, and E. J. Tilt's voluminous work, The Change of Life in Health and Disease (Philadelphia, 1871) contains a single sentence on breast cancer, citing Galen and Paget on the frequent occurrence of the disease between the ages of 40 and 50.
97. J. Austoker, 'The Treatment of Choice: Breast Surgery, 1860-1985', Bulletin of the Society for the Social History of Medicine, 37 (1985), 100-7, p. 101.
98. Walshe, The Nature and Treatment of Cancer, p. 153.
99. C. E. Jennings, Cancer and Its Complications (London, 1889), p. 54.
100. W. L. Rodman, Diseases of the Breast with Special Reference to Cancer (Philadelphia, 1908), p. 180.
101. H. Ostrom, A Treatise on the Breast and Its Surgical Diseases (Philadelphia, 1877), p. 119;
102. H. Snow, A Treatise, Practical and Theoretic on Cancers and the Cancer Process (London, 1893), p. 15.
103. R. Williams, A Monograph on Diseases of the Breast, Their Pathology and Treatment, with Special Reference to Cancer, (London, 1894), pp. 260-2;
104. Rodman, Diseases of the Breast, pp. 180-1.
105. Jennings, Cancer and Its Complications, p. 41.
106. C. B. Barrett Lockwood, 'Chronic Mastitis and Its Relation to Carcinoma', Lancet (29 January 1910), 285-7, p. 285.
107. W. Rose and A. Careless, A Manual of Surgery for Students and Practitioners (Toronto, 1900), p. 829;
108. T. G. Roddick, 'Fifteen Cases of Tumour of Breast', Montreal General Hospital Reports, 1 (1880), 1-16, p. 8;
109. F. J. Shepherd, 'Some Rare Forms of Tumors of the Breast', Montreal Medical Journal (August, 1890);
110. McGill Surgery: Embracing the Full Surgical Course of Lectures (Montreal, 1898), p. 233;
111. R. W. Garrett, Text Book of Medical and Surgical Gynaecology (Kingston, 1897), p. 387.
112. Ostrom, A Treatise on the Breast, p. 148.
113. See DrElliston, Cure of a True Cancer of the Female Breast with Mesmerism (London, 1848);
114. J. Pattison, Cancer: Its Nature and Successful and Comparatively Painless Treatment without the Usual Operation with the Knife (London, 1866);
115. D. Turnbull, The New Cancer Treatment (Cheltenham, 1876);
116. P. S. Brown, 'Medically Qualified Naturopaths and the General Medical Council', Medical History, 35 (1991), 50-77, pp. 64-5.
117. U. Parsons, 'Cancer of the Breast', in Boylston Prize Dissertations (Boston, 1839), 156.
118. H. Manders, The Ferment Treatment of Cancer and Tuberculosis (London, 1898), p. 235.
119. Williams, A Monograph on Diseases of the Breast, pp. 296-7.
120. S. L. Gilman, Freud, Race and Gender (Princeton, 1993), p. 175.
121. For example, neither A. G. Woolson (ed.), Dress-Reform: A Series of Lectures delivered in Boston on Dress and How it Affects the Health of Women (Boston, 1876),
122. nor Dress and Health (Montreal, 1876), contain any reference to breast cancer.
123. W. Parker, Cancer: A Study of Three Hundred and Ninety-seven Cases of Cancer of the Female Breast (New York, 1885), p. 11.
124. H. Snow, The Proclivity of Women to Cancerous Diseases (London, 1891), pp. 23, 37.
125. Garrett, Text Book of Medical and Surgical Gynaecology, p. 387;
126. Rose and Careless, A Manual of Surgery, p. 838.
127. Walshe, The Naturu and Treatment of Cancer, p. 154.
128. O. Pemberton, Clinical Illustrations of Various Forms of Cancer (London, 1867), pp. 13-14.
129. Parker, Cancer, p. 22.
130. Williams, A Monograph on Diseases of the Breast, pp. 287-8;
131. Rodman, Diseases of the Breast, pp. 181-2.
132. On beliefs concerning the frailty of woman, see Mitchinson, The Nature of Their Bodies, pp. 48-76;
133. Moscucci, The Science of Woman, pp. 102-33;
134. C. Russett, Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood (Harvard, 1989), pp. 116-25.
135. Walshe, The Nature and Treatment of Cancer, pp. 150-1;
136. Parker, Cancer, pp. 10-11;
137. T. W. Cooke, Cancer: Its Allies and Counterfeits (London, 1865), pp. 22-3.
138. Parsons, 'Cancer of the Breast', p. 164.
139. See M. Lock, The Making of Menopause', in M. Lock (ed.), Encounters with Ageing: Mythologies of Menopause in Japan and North America (Los Angeles, 1993), 303-29.
140. Mitchinson, The Nature of Their Bodies, pp. 94-7;
141. Leopold, A Darker Ribbon, p. 33.
142. Rodman, Diseases of the Breast, p. 177.
143. Walshe, The Nature and Treatment of Cancer, p. 155.
144. J. Birkett, Diseases of the Breast and Their Treatment (London, 1850), p. 219.
145. C. H. Hughes, 'The Relationship of Nervous Depression to the Development of Cancer', St. Louis Medical and Surgical Journal (1887), 267-9, p. 267.
146. And see E. Stainbrook, 'Psychosomatic Medicine in the Nineteenth Century', Psychosomatic Medicine, 14 (1952), 211-27.
147. Snow, The Proclivity of Women, p. 28;
148. idem., A Treatise, p. 14.
149. G. Napheys, The Physical Life of Woman: Advice to the Maiden, Wife, and Mother (Toronto, 1871), p. 43.
150. Garrett, Text Book of Medical and Surgical Gynaecology, p. 383;
151. McGill Surgery, p. 233;
152. Williams, A Monograph on Diseases of the Breast, p. 565;
153. Parker, Cancer, p. 43.
154. Williams advocated treatment 'on the Weir Mitchell principle, including complete change of surroundings' for 'purely hysterical cases' of breast pain and fear of cancer. See also E. P. Fowler, 'Neurotic Tumors of the Breast', Medical Record, 37 (New York, 1890), 179-82.
155. Bronfen, The Knotted Subject, p. 102.
156. Walshe, The Nature and Treatment of Cancer, p. 159.
157. And see Williams, A Monograph on Diseases of the Breast, pp. 247-51;
158. Snow, The Proclivity of Women, pp. 30-5;
159. Parker, Cancer, pp. 51-5.
160. C. Rosenberg, 'Pathologies of Progress: The Idea of Civilization at Risk', Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 72 (1998), 714-30, p. 719.
161. S. Sontag, Illness as Metaphor (New York, 1978), p. 52;
162. Snow, A Treatise, p. 37.
163. J. T. Patterson, The Dread Disease: Cancer and Modern American Life (Harvard, 1987), pp. 43-4.
164. Williams, A Monograph on Diseases of the Breast, pp. 279, 284.
165. Parker, Cancer, p. 25.
166. Snow, The Proclivity of Women, pp. 34-7.
167. C. E. Corrigan, The Clinical Diagnosis of Swellings (Baltimore, 1939), p. 221.
168. See J. Cope, Cancer: Civilization: Degeneration (London, 1932);
169. A. E. Blackburn, Cancer: Causation, Prevention, and Treatment (London, 1939);
170. J. H. Hett, Cancer: Its Causes and Prevention and New Treatment (Toronto, 1943);
171. J. H. Young and R. E. McFadyen, 'The Koch Cancer Treatment', Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 53 (1998), 254-84.
172. L. C. Knox, 'Trauma and Malignant Tumors', American Journal of Surgery, 26 (1935), 66-78, p. 66.
173. On rising cancer rates, see Patterson, The Dread Disease, p. 102;
174. B. Clow, 'The Problem of Cancer: Negotiating Disease in Ontario, 1925-45' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto, 1994), pp. 4-5;
175. Leopold, A Darker Ribbon, p. 157.
176. I. Levin, 'The Cancer Problem arid the Nurse', American Journal of Nursing, 27 (1927), 83-9, pp. 86-7.
177. Leopold, A Darker Ribbon, pp. 155-74;
178. M. E. Black, 'What did Popular Women's Magazines from 1929 to 1949 Say about Breast Cancer?', Cancer Nursing, 18 (1995), 270-7, p. 275.
179. O. Marshino, 'Breast Cancer', Hygeia, 23 (1945), 176-7, 201-2, p. 177.
180. S. Hellman, 'Dogma and Inquisition in Medicine: Breast Cancer as a Case Study', Cancer, 71 (1993), 2430-3.
181. J. B. Deaver and J. McFarland, The Breast: Its Anomalies, Its Diseases, and their Treatment (Philadelphia, 1917), p. 335;
182. D. Fitzwilliams, On the Breast (London, 1924), pp. 300-1.
183. Sir G. L. Cheatle and M. Cutler, Tumours of the Breast: Their Pathology, Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment (New York, 1931), p. 28.
184. Deaver and McFarland, The Breast, p. 519;
185. F. D. Saner (ed.), The Breast: Structure: Function: Disease (Bristol, 1950), p. 173.
186. De Moulin, A Short History, p. 89.
187. Deaver and McFarland, The Breast, p. 337.
188. J. Ewing, Neoplastic Diseases: A Text-book on Tumors (Philadelphia, 1919), pp. 110-12;
189. Fitzwilliams, On the Breast, pp. 301-2;
190. Cheatle and Cutler, Tumours of the Breast, p. 254;
191. W. Boyd, 'The Relation of Trauma to Cancer', The Canadian Nurse, 44 (1948), 624-7, p. 624.
192. Cheatle and Cutler, Tumours of the Breast, p. 254.
193. R. J. Behari, Cancer: with Special Reference to Cancer of the Breast (St. Louis, 1938), p. 76.
194. Cancer: with Special Reference to Cancer of the Breast Ibid., pp. 77-9.
195. W. S. Handley, Cancer of the Breast and Its Treatment (London, 1922), pp. 374-7.
196. Behan, Cancer, pp. 76-7;
197. Deaver and McFarland, The Breast, p. 522;
198. Ewing, Neoplastic Diseases, pp. 112-3;
199. W. G. Barnard and A. H. T. Robb-Smith, Kettle's Pathology of Tumours (London, 1945), p. 38.
200. J. Ewing, 'The Prevention of Cancer', in G. Pack and E. M. Livingston (eds.), Treatment of Cancer and Allied Diseases (New York, 1940), 3-13, p. 7;
201. B. J. Lee, 'Cancer of the Breast: The Sphere of the Trained Nurse in Detecting it', American Journal of Nursing, 30 (1930), 975-6;
202. W. Bauer, 'Cancer', MacLean's Magazine (1 May 1945), 19-20, 23-4, p. 20;
203. P. Morrell, 'Early Cancer Can Often be Cured', Ladies Home Journal, 57 (1940), 12, 118, p. 118.
204. Cheatle and Cutler, Tumours of the Breast, p. 253.
205. Tumours of the Breast, Ibid., pp. 252-3;
206. I. T. Nathanson, 'The Relationship of Hormones to Diseases of the Breast', in Endocrinology of Neoplastic Diseases: A Symposium by Eighteen Authors (New York, 1947), 139-78, p. 161;
207. Ewing, Neoplastic Diseases, p. 489;
208. Behan, Cancer, p. 85.
209. Ewing, Neoplastic Diseases, p. 490.
210. Behan, Cancer, p. 69;
211. Fitzwilliams, On the Breast, p. 302.
212. C. F. Geschickter, Diseases of the Breast: Diagnosis, Pathology, Treatment (Philadelphia, 1943), p. 401;
213. L. V. Ackerman and J. del Regato, Cancer: Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prognosis (St. Louis, 1947), pp. 928-9.
214. Nathanson, 'The Relationship of Hormones to Diseases of the Breast', p. 162.
215. Ewing, 'The Prevention of Cancer', pp. 6-7.
216. Austoker, A History of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund, pp. 99-100;
217. De Moulin, A Short History, pp. 89-90.
218. Cheatle and Cutler, Tumours of the Breast, p. 252.
219. Behan, Cancer, p. 44.
220. F. Brento, 'Woman's Dangerous Years', Canadian Home Journal (August 1943), pp. 10-11, 50.
221. Ackerman and del Regato, Cancer, p. 928.
222. Rosenberg, 'Body and Mind in Nineteenth-century Medicine', p. 88.
223. F. G. Alexander and S. T. Selesnick, The History of Psychiatry: An Evaluation of Psychiatric Thought from Prehistoric Times to the Present (London, 1967), pp. 392-5.
224. E. Evans, The Psychology of Cancer (New York, 1926), pp. 40-52, 71, 193-5.
225. W. E. Mann, Orgone, Reich and Eros: Wilhelm Reich's Theory of Life Energy (New York, 1973), pp. 193-5.
226. W. Reich, The Cancer Biopathy (New York, 1973), pp. 156-8.
227. On anti-feminism and psychoanalysis during this period, see M. J. Buhle, Feminism and Its Discontents: A Century of Struggle with Psychoanalysis (Cambridge, MA, 1998), pp. 165-205.
228. M. Tarlau and I. Smalheiser, 'Personality Patterns in Patients with Malignant Tumors of the Breast and Cervix', Psychosomatic Medicine, 13 (1951), 117-21.
229. A similar study was conducted in 1955 using a control group. See J. I. Wheeler, Jr. and B. M. Caldwell, 'Psychological Evaluation of Women with Cancer of the Breast and of the Cervix', Psychosomatic Medicine, 17 (1955), 256-68.
230. C. L. Bacon, R. Renneker, and M. Cutler, 'A Psychosomatic Survey of Cancer of the Breast', Psychosomatic Medicine, 14 (1952), 453-60.
231. Reznikoff, an American Cancer Society Research Fellow at Yale, narrowed his focus to maternal experiences and heterosexual relations, 'the two areas in which the breast would have primary psychological meaning'. See 'Psychological Factors in Breast Cancer', Psychosomatic Medicine, 17 (1955), 96-108.
232. See J. Stacey, Teratologies: A Cultural Study of Cancer (London, 1997), pp. 44-8, 117-23, and passim.