Moving from recommendation to implementation and audit: Part 2. Review of interventions and audit

Clinical Microbiology and Infection

Volumn 8, Issue SUPPL. 2, 2002, Pages 107-128

  Christiansen, K ^a   Carbon, C ^b   Cars, O ^c  

^a ROYAL PERTH HOSPITAL   (Australia)

^b LAUSANNE UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Switzerland)

^c SWEDISH INSTITUTE FOR INFECTIOUS DISEASE CONTROL   (Sweden)

Author keywords

Antimicrobial resistance; Disease burden; Interventions audit

Indexed keywords

AMIKACIN; AMINOGLYCOSIDE; AMOXICILLIN; AMOXICILLIN PLUS CLAVULANIC ACID; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; APRAMYCIN; AVOPARCIN; AZITHROMYCIN; BACITRACIN; BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTIC; BETA LACTAMASE INHIBITOR; CARBAPENEM; CEPHALOSPORIN DERIVATIVE; CHLORAMPHENICOL; CIPROFLOXACIN; ENROFLOXACIN; GENTAMICIN; HYGROMYCIN; MACROLIDE; NOURSEOTHRICIN; PENICILLIN G; PROBIOTIC AGENT; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; SPIRAMYCIN; STREPTOGRAMIN; TYLOSIN; UNINDEXED DRUG; VACCINE; VANCOMYCIN; VIRGINIAMYCIN;

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; AREA UNDER THE CURVE; BACTERIAL COLONIZATION; COMMUNITY; CONSUMER; CONTROLLED STUDY; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURE; DISEASE CONTROL; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG QUALITY; DRUG SURVEILLANCE PROGRAM; DRUG USE; EDUCATION PROGRAM; GOVERNMENT; HEALTH CARE ORGANIZATION; HEALTH CARE SYSTEM; HEALTH PROGRAM; HUMAN; INFORMATION PROCESSING; LICENSING; MEDICAL AUDIT; NONHUMAN; OUTCOMES RESEARCH; PATIENT EDUCATION; PHARMACODYNAMICS; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRESCRIPTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PUBLIC HEALTH; RESOURCE ALLOCATION; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION; REVIEW; STANDARDIZATION; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VACCINATION; VETERINARY MEDICINE;

ANIMALIA; BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS);

EID: 0036401366     PISSN: 1198743X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1046/j.1469-0691.8.s.2.9.x     Document Type: Article

References (192)

1. Austin DJ, Kristinsson KG, Anderson RM. The relationship between the volume of antimicrobial consumption in human communities and the frequency of resistance. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999; 96: 1152-6.
2. World Health Organization. ATC Index with Ddds. Oslo: WHO Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology, 1999.
3. Cars O, Molstad S, Melander A. Variation in antibiotic use in the European Union. Lancet 2001; 357: 1851-3.
4. Felmingham D, Feldman C, Hryniewicz W et al. Surveillance of resistance in bacteria causing community-acquired respiratory tract infections. Clin Microbiol Infect 2002; 8(Suppl. 2): 12-42.
5. Oie Ad Hoc Group on Antimicrobial Resistance. Guideline No 5. Harmonisation of national antimicrobial resistance monitoring and surveillance programmes in animals and in animal derived food. OIE Sci Tech Rev 2001; 20: 797-870.
6. National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards. Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing. (Suppl.) M100-S11. Wayne, PA: National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards, 2001.
7. Andrews JM. for the BSAC Working Party on Susceptibility Testing. BSAC standardized disc susceptibility testing method. J Antimicrob Chemother 2001; 48(Suppl. 1): 43-57.
8. Deutsches Institut für Normung. Methoden zur empfindlichkeitspufung von bakteriellen krankheitserregern (auber Mycobacterien) gegen chemotherapeutika. Din 58940. Berlin: Beuth-Verlag GmbH, 2000.
9. Comité l'antibiogramme de la Société Française de Microbiologie. 1996 Report. Clin Microbiol Infect 1996; 2(Suppl. 2): S1-49.
10. Snell JJS, Brown DFJ. External quality assessment of antimicrobial susceptibility testing in Europe. J Antimicrob Chemother 2001; 47: 801-10.
11. Tenover FC, Mohammed MJ, Stelling J et al. Ability of laboratories to detect emerging antimicrobial resistance: proficiency testing and quality control results from the World Health Organization's external quality assurance system for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. J Clin Microbiol 2001; 39: 241-50.
12. Livermore DM, Macgowan AP, Wale MC. Surveillance of antimicrobial resistance. Centralised surveys to validate routine data offer a practical approach. BMJ 1998; 317: 614-15.
13. Livermore DM, Threfall EJ, Reacher MH et al. Are routine sensitivity test data suitable for the surveillance of resistance? Resistance rates amongst Escherichia coli from blood and CSF from 1991 to 1997 as assessed by routine and centralized testing. J Antimicrob Chemother, 2000; 45: 205-11.
14. Pfaller MA, Acar J, Jones RN, Verhoef J, Turnidge J, Sader HS. Integration of molecular characterization of microorganisms in a global antimicrobial resistance surveillance program. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32(Suppl. 2): S156-67.
15. Niederman MS. Impact of antibiotic resistance on clinical outcomes and the cost of care. Crit Care Med 2001; 29(Suppl. 4): N114-20.
16. Harris AD, Karchmer TB, Carmeli Y, Samore MH. Methodological principles of case-control studies that analyzed risk factors for antibiotic resistance: a systematic review. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32: 1055-61.
17. Mccaig LF, Hughes JM. Trends in antimicrobial drug prescribing among office-based physicians in the United States. JAMA 1995; 273: 214-19.
18. Macfarlane J, Lewis SA, Macfarlane R, Holmes W. Contemporary use of antibiotics in 1089 adults presenting with acute lower respiratory tract illness in general practice in the UK: implications for developing management guidelines. Respir Med 1997; 91: 427-34.
19. Mcisaac WJ, Goel V, To T, Low DE. The validity of a sore throat score in family practice. CMAJ 2000; 163: 811-15.
20. Kolmos HJ, Little P. Controversies in management: should general practitioners perform diagnostic tests on patients before prescribing antibiotics? BMJ 1999; 318: 799-802.
21. Grimshaw JM, Russell IT. Effect of clinical guidelines on medical practice: a systematic review of rigorous evaluations. Lancet 1993; 342: 1317-22.
22. Various. Principles of judicious use of antimicrobial agents for pediatric upper respiratory tract infections. Pediatrics 1998; 101(Suppl.): 163-84.
23. Mccaig LF, Besser RE, Hughes JM. Trends in antimicrobial prescribing rates for children and adolescents. JAMA 2002; 287: 3096-102.
24. Gonzales R, Bartlett JG, Besser RE et al. Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for treatment of acute respiratory tract infections in adults: background, specific aims, and methods. Ann Intern Med 2001; 134: 479-86.
25. Snow V, Mottur-Pilson C, Gonzales R. Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for treatment of nonspecific upper respiratory tract infections in adults. Ann Intern Med 2001; 134: 487-9.
26. Gonzales R, Bartlett JG, Besser RE, Hickner JM, Hoffman JR, Sande MA. Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for treatment of nonspecific upper respiratory tract infections in adults: background. Ann Intern Med 2001; 134: 490-4.
27. Snow V, Mottur-Pilson C, Hickner JM. Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for acute sinusitis in adults. Ann Intern Med 2001; 134: 495-7.
28. Hickner JM, Bartlett JG, Besser RE, Gonzales R, Hoffman JR, Sande MA. Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for acute rhinosinusitis in adults: background. Ann Intern Med 2001; 134: 498-505.
29. Snow V, Mottur-Pilson C, Cooper RJ, Hoffman JR. Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for acute pharyngitis in adults. Ann Intern Med 2001; 134: 506-8.
30. Cooper RJ, Hoffman JR, Bartlett JG et al. Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for acute pharyngitis in adults: background. Ann Intern Med 2001; 134: 509-17.
31. Snow V, Mottur-Pilson C, Gonzales R. Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for treatment of acute bronchitis in adults. Ann Intern Med 2001; 134: 518-20.
32. Gonzales R, Bartlett JG, Besser RE et al. Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for treatment of uncomplicated acute bronchitis: background. Ann Intern Med 2001; 134: 521-9.
33. Niederman MS, Bass JB Jr, Campbell GD et al. Guidelines for the initial management of adults with community-acquired pneumonia: diagnosis, assessment of severity, and initial antimicrobial therapy. American Thoracic Society. Medical Section of the American Lung Association. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 148: 1418-26.
34. Niederman MS, Mandell LA, Anzueto A et al. Guidelines for the management of adults with community-acquired pneumonia. Diagnosis, assessment of severity, antimicrobial therapy, and prevention. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 163: 1730-54.
35. Bartlett JG, Dowell SF, Mandell LA, File TM Jr, Musher DM, Fine MJ. Practice guidelines for the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 31: 347-82.
36. Mandell LA, Marrie TJ, Grossman RF, Chow AW, Hyland RH. Canadian guidelines for the initial management of community-acquired pneumonia: an evidence-based update by the Canadian Infectious Diseases Society and the Canadian Thoracic Society. The Canadian Community-Acquired Pneumonia Working Group. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 31: 383-421.
37. Huchon G, Woodhead M, the European Study on Community Acquired Pneumonia Committee. Management of adult community-acquired lower respiratory tract infection. Eur Respir Rev 1998; 8: 391-426.
38. British Thoracic Society Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community-acquired pneumonia in childhood. Thorax 2002; 57(Suppl. 1): i1-24.
39. Gleason PP, Kapoor WN, Stone RA et al. Medical outcomes and antimicrobial costs with the use of the American Thoracic Society guidelines for outpatients with community-acquired pneumonia. JAMA 1997; 278: 32-9.
40. Barwitz HJ. Sore throat consultation - what is the value of a treatment guideline? MMW Fortschr Med 1999; 141: 32-6.
41. Pestotnik SL, Classen DC, Evans S, Burke JP. Implementing antibiotic practice guidelines through computer-assisted decision support: clinical and financial outcomes. Ann Intern Med 1996; 124: 884-90.
42. Evans RS, Pestotnik SL, Classen DC et al. A computer-assisted management program for antibiotics and other antiinfective agents. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 232-8.
43. Mainous AG, 3rd Hueston WJ, Love MM, Evans ME, Finger R. An evaluation of statewide strategies to reduce antibiotic overuse. Fam Med 2000; 32: 22-9.
44. O'Connell DL, Henry D, Tomlins R. Randomised controlled trial of effect of feedback on general practitioners' prescribing in Australia. BMJ 1999; 318: 507-11.
45. Hux JE, Melady MP, Deboer D. Confidential prescriber feedback and education to improve antibiotic use in primary care: a controlled trial. CMAJ 1999; 161: 388-92.
46. Zwar N, Wolk J, Gordon J, Sanson-Fisher R, Kehoe L. Influencing antibiotic prescribing in general practice: a trial of prescriber feedback and management guidelines. Fam Pract 1999; 16: 495-500.
47. Ekedahl A, Andersson SI, Hovelius B, Molstad S, Liedholm H, Melander A. Drug prescription attitudes and behaviour of general practitioners. Effects of a problem-oriented educational programme. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1995; 47: 381-7.
48. Munck AP, Gahrn-Hansen B, Sogaard P, Sogaard J. Long-lasting improvement in general practitioners' prescribing of antibiotics by means of medical audit. Scand J Prim Health Care 1999; 17: 185-90.
49. De Santis G, Harvey KJ, Howard D, Mashford ML, Moulds RF. Improving the quality of antibiotic prescription patterns in general practice. The role of educational intervention. Med J Aust 1994; 160: 502-5.
50. Stewart J, Pilla J, Dunn L. Pilot study for appropriate anti-infective community therapy. Effect of a guideline-based strategy to optimize use of antibiotics. Can Fam Physician 2000; 46: 851-9.
51. Gonzales R, Steiner JF, Lum A, Barrett PH Jr. Decreasing antibiotic use in ambulatory practice: impact of multidimensional intervention on the treatment of uncomplicated acute bronchitis in adults. JAMA 1999; 281: 1512-19.
52. Solomon DH, Van Houten L, Glynn RJ et al. Academic detailing to improve use of broadspectrum antibiotics at an academic medical center. Arch Intern Med 2001; 161: 1897-902.
53. Cates C. An evidence based approach to reducing antibiotic use in children with acute otitis media: controlled before and after study. BMJ 1999; 318: 715-16.
54. Little P, Gould C, Williamson I, Moore M, Warner G, Dunleavy J. Pragmatic randomized controlled trial of two prescribing strategies for childhood acute otitis media. BMJ 2001; 322: 336-42.
55. Couchman GR, Rascoe TG, Forjuoh SN. Back-up antibiotic prescriptions for common respiratory symptoms. Patient satisfaction and fill rates. J Fam Pract 2000; 49: 907-13.
56. Hulscher ME, Wensing M, van Der Weijden T, Grol R. Interventions to implement prevention in primary care. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001; 1: CD000362.
57. Gross PA, Pujat D. Implementing practice guidelines for appropriate antimicrobial usage. A systematic review. Med Care 2001; 39(8 Suppl. 2): II55-69.
58. Trepka MJ, Belongia EA, Chyou PH, Davis JP, Schwartz B. The effect of a community intervention trial on parental knowledge and awareness of antibiotic resistance and appropriate antibiotic use in children. Pediatrics 2001; 107: E6.
59. Bauraind I, Vanden Bremt I, Bogaert M et al. Evaluation of the impact of a public campaign for a more rational use of antibiotics in Belgium. Presented at the 41st Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 2001; Abstract LB-9.
60. The European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products. Notes for the Guidance on the Pharmacodynamics Section of the SPC for Antibacterial Medicinal Products, CPMP/EWP/520/96. London: EMEA, 1997.
61. The European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products. Points to Consider on Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics in the Development of Antibacterial Medicinal Products, CPMP/EWP/2655/99. London: EMEA, 2000.
62. Stephenson J. Icelandic researchers are showing the way to bring down rates of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. JAMA 1996; 275: 175.
63. Turnidge JD, Bell JM, Collignon PJ. Rapidly emerging antimicrobial resistances in Streptococcus pneumoniae in Australia. Pneumococcal Study Group. Med J Aust 1999; 170: 152-5.
64. Bell JM, Turnidge JD, and the SENTRY Western Pacific plus participants. Emerging resistance to fluoroquinolones: results from the SENTRY surveillance program for Asia, Australia, and South Africa. Presented at the 39th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 1999; Abstract C2-2258.
65. Commonwealth Department of Health and Aged Care. Australian Statistics on Medicines 1998. Retrieved on 25 June 2002 from http://www.health.gov.au/pbs/pubs/pdf/asm98.pdf.
66. van den Bogaard AE, Stobberingh EE. Epidemiology of resistance to antibiotics. Links between animals and humans. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2000; 14: 327-35.
67. Wegener HC, Aarestrup FM, Jensen LB, Hammerum AM, Bager F. Use of antimicrobial growth promoters in food animals and Enterococcus faecium resistance to therapeutic antimicrobial drugs in Europe. Emerg Infect Dis 1999; 5: 329-35.
68. Klare I, Badstubner D, Konstabel C, Bohme G, Claus H, Witte W. Decreased incidence of VanA-type vancomycin resistant enterococci isolated from poultry meat and from fecal samples of humans in the community after discontinuation of avoparcin usage in animal husbandry. Microb Drug Resist 1999; 5: 45-52.
69. Pantosti A, Del Grosso M, Tagliabue S, Macri A, Caprioli A. Decrease of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in poultry meat after avoparcin ban. Lancet 1999; 354: 741-2.
70. van Den Bogaard AE, London N, Stobberingh EE. Antimicrobial resistance in pig faecal samples from The Netherlands (five abattoirs) and Sweden. J Antimicrob Chemother 2000; 45: 663-71.
71. Wierup M. The control of microbial diseases in animals: alternatives to the use of antibiotics. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2000; 14: 315-19.
72. The European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products. Antibiotic Resistance in the European Union Associated with Therapeutic Use of Veterinary Medicines, CVMP/342/99, Chapter 11. London: EMEA, 1999.
73. Zulkifli I, Abdullah N, Azrin NM, Ho YW. Growth performance and immune response of two commercial broiler strains fed diets containing Lactobacillus cultures and oxytetracycline under heat stress conditions. Br Poult Sci 2000; 41: 593-7.
74. Verschuere L, Rombaut G, Sorgeloos P, Verstraete W. Probiotic bacteria as biological control agents in aquaculture. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2000; 64: 655-71.
75. Zhao T, Doyle MP, Harmon BG, Brown CA, Mueller PO, Parks AH. Reduction of carriage of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157: H7 in cattle by inoculation with probiotic bacteria. J Clin Microbiol 1998; 36: 641-7.
76. Morishita TY, Aye PP, Harr BS, Cobb CW, Clifford JR. Evaluation of an avian-specific probiotic to reduce the colonization and shedding of Campylobacter jejuni in broilers. Avian Dis 1997; 41: 850-5.
77. World Health Organization. WHO Global Principles for the Containment of Antimicrobial Resistance in Animals Intended for Food. Retrieved on 25 June 2002 from http://who.int/emc/diseases/zoo/whoobal∥inciples.html.
78. Aliabadi FS, Lees P. Antibiotic treatment for animals: effect on bacterial population and dosage regimen optimization. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2000; 14: 307-13.
79. Craig WA. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic parameters: rationale for antibacterial dosing of mice and men. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 26: 1-12.
80. Andes D. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of antimicrobials in the therapy of respiratory tract infections. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2001; 14: 165-72.
81. Blaser J, Stone BB, Groner MC, Zinner SH. Comparative study with enoxacin and netilmicin in a pharmacodynamic model to determine importance of antibiotic peak concentration to MIC for bactericidal activity and emergence of resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1987; 31: 1054-60.
82. Drusano GL, Johnson DE, Rosen M, Standiford HC. Pharmacodynamics of a fluoroquinolone antimicrobial agent in a neutropenic rat model of Pseudomonas sepsis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993; 37: 483-90.
83. Marchbanks CR, Mckiel JR, Gilbert DH et al. Dose ranging and fractionation of intravenous ciprofloxacin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus in an in vitro model of infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993; 37: 1756-63.
84. Madaras-Kelly KJ, Ostergaard BE, Hovde LB, Rotschafer JC. Twenty-four-hour area under the concentration-time curve/MIC ratio as a generic predictor of fluoroquinolone antimicrobial effect by using three strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and an in vitro pharmacodynamic model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996; 40: 627-32.
85. Martinez JL, Baquero F. Mutation frequencies and antibiotic resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000; 44: 1771-7.
86. Blondeau JM, Zhao X, Hansen G, Drlica K. Mutant prevention concentrations of fluoroquinolones for clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001; 45: 433-8.
87. Thomas JK, Forrest A, Bhavnani SM et al. Pharmacodynamic evaluation of factors associated with the development of bacterial resistance in acutely ill patients during therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998; 42: 521-7.
88. Arason VA, Kristinsson KG, Sigurdsson JA, Stefansdottir G, Molstad S, Gudmundsson S. Do antimicrobials increase the carriage rate of penicillin resistant pneumococci in children? Cross sectional prevalence study. BMJ 1996; 313: 387-91.
89. Dagan R, Leibovitz E, Greenberg D, Yagupsky P, Fliss DM, Leiberman A. Dynamics of pneumococcal nasopharyngeal colonization during the first days of antibiotic treatment in pediatric patients. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1998; 17: 880-5.
90. Dagan R, Klugman KP, Craig WA, Baquero F. Evidence to support the rationale that bacterial eradication in respiratory tract infection is an important aim of antimicrobial therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother 2001; 47: 129-40.
91. Schrag SJ, Beall B, Dowell SF. Limiting the spread of resistant pneumococci: biological and epidemiologic evidence for the effectiveness of alternative interventions. Clin Microbiol Rev 2000; 13: 588-601.
92. Guillemot D, Carbon C, Balkau B et al. Low dosage and long treatment duration of betalactam: risk factors for carriage of penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. JAMA 1998; 279:365-70.
93. Schrag SJ, Pena C, Fernandez J et al. Effect of short-course, high-dose amoxicillin therapy on resistant pneumococcal carriage: a randomized trial. JAMA 2001; 286: 49-56.
94. Ghaffar FA, Katz K, Miniz LS et al. Effect of amoxicillin-clavulanate 14:1 vs azithromycin on nasopharyngeal carriage carriage and resistant S. pneumoniae. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 31: 230.
95. Galluppi GR, Rogge MC, Roskos LK et al. Integration of pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies in the discovery, development, and review of protein therapeutic agents: a conference report. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2001; 69: 387-99.
96. Rice LB, Willey SH, Papanicolaou GA et al. Outbreak of ceftazidime resistance caused by extended-spectrum beta-lactamases at a Massachusetts chronic-care facility. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1990; 34: 2193-9.
97. Enne VI, Livermore DM, Stephens P, Hall LM. Persistence of sulphonamide resistance in Escherichia coli in the UK despite national prescribing restriction. Lancet 2001; 357: 1325-8.
98. Chiew YF, Yeo SF, Hall LM, Livermore DM. Can susceptibility to an antimicrobial be restored by halting its use? The case of streptomycin versus Enterobacteriaceae. J Antimicrob Chemother 1998; 41: 247-51.
99. White AC Jr, Atmar RL, Wilson J, Cate TR, Stager CE, Greenberg SB. Effects of requiring prior authorization for selected antimicrobials: expenditures, susceptibilities and clinical outcomes. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 25: 230-9.
100. Quale J, Landman D, Saurina G, Atwood E, Ditore V, Patel K. Manipulation of a hospital antimicrobial formulary to control an outbreak of vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 23: 1020-5.
101. Bradley SJ, Wilson AL, Allen MC, Sher HA, Goldstone AH, Scott GM. The control of hyperendemic glycopeptide-resistant Enterococcus spp. on a haematology unit by changing antibiotic usage. J Antimicrob Chemother 1999; 43: 261-6.
102. Rahal JJ, Urban C, Horn D et al. Class restriction of cephalosporin use to control total cephalosprin resistance in nosocomial Klebsiella. JAMA 1998; 280: 1233-7.
103. Pena C, Pujol M, Ardanuy C et al. Epidemiology and successful control of a large outbreak due to Klebsiella pneumoniae producing extended-spectrum beta-lactamases. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998; 42: 53-8.
104. Pearman J, Perry P, Lee R, Mitchell D. Restriction of third-generation cephalosporins plus infection control measures ended recurrent outbreaks of multi-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii in an Australian hospital. Aust Infect Control 1999; 4: 16-24.
105. Gerding DN, Larson TA, Hughes RA, Weiler M, Shanholtzer C, Peterson LR. Aminoglycoside resistance and aminoglycoside usage: ten years of experience in one hospital. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1991; 35: 1284-90.
106. Gerding DN. Antimicrobial cycling: lessons learned from the aminoglycoside experience. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000; 21(Suppl. 1): S12-17.
107. John JF Jr. Antibiotic cycling: is it ready for prime time? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000; 21: 9-11.
108. Kollef MH. Is there a role for antibiotic cycling in the intensive care unit? Crit Care Med 2001; 29(Suppl. 4): N135-42.
109. Kollef MH, Vlasnik J, Sharpless L, Pasque C, Murphy D, Fraser V. Scheduled change of antibiotic classes: a strategy to decrease the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 156: 1040-8.
110. Kollef MH, Ward S, Sherman G et al. Inadequate treatment of nosocomial infections is associated with certain empiric antibiotic choices. Crit Care Med 2000; 28: 3456-64.
111. Gruson D, Hilbert G, Vargas F et al. Rotation and restricted use of antibiotics in a medical intensive care unit. Impact on the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by antibiotic-resistant gram-negative bacteria. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162: 837-43.
112. Dominguez EA, Smith TL, Reed E, Sanders CC, Sanders WE Jr. A pilot study of antibiotic cycling in a hematology-oncology unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000; 21(Suppl. 1): S4-8.
113. Bonhoeffer S, Lipsitch M, Levin BR. Evaluating treatment protocols to prevent antibiotic resistance. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997, 94: 12106-11.
114. John JF, Rice LB. The microbial genetics of antibiotic cycling. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000; 21 (Suppl. 1): S22-31.
115. Mcgowan JE Jr. Strategies for study of the role of cycling on antimicrobial use and resistance. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000; 21(1 Suppl.): S36-43.
116. Melander E, Molstad S, Persson K, Hansson HB, Soderstrom M, Ekdahl K. Previous antibiotic consumption and other risk factors for carriage of penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1998; 17: 834-8.
117. Dagan R, Melamed R, Muallem M, Piglansky L, Yagupsky P. Nasopharyngeal colonization in southern Israel with antibiotic-resistant pneumococci during the first 2 years of life: relation to serotypes likely to be included in pneumococcal conjugate vaccines. J Infect Dis 1996; 174: 1352-5.
118. Christenson B, Sylvan SP, Noreen B. Drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in daycare centres in Stockholm County. J Infect 1998; 37: 9-14.
119. Reichler MR, Allphin AA, Breiman RF et al. The spread of multiply resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae at a day care center in Ohio. J Infect Dis 1992; 166: 1346-53.
120. Leach AJ, Shelby-James T, Mayo M, Gratten M, Mathews JD. Report of a multidrug resistant clone of Streptococcus pneumoniae (MRSPN) in aboriginal infants in the Northern Territory. Commun Dis Intell 1995; 19: 134-7.
121. Lipsitch M. Measuring and interpreting associations between antibiotic use and penicillin resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32: 1044-54.
122. Dagan R, Leibovitz E, Cheletz G, Leiberman A, Porat N. Antibiotic treatment in acute otitis media promotes superinfection with resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae carried before initiation of treatment. J Infect Dis 2001; 183: 880-6.
123. Ekdahl K, Cars O. Role of communicable disease control measures in affecting the spread of resistant pneumococci: the Swedish model. Clin Microbiol Infect 1999; 5(Suppl. 4): S48-54.
124. Rowe B, Ward LR, Threlfall EJ. Multidrug-resistant Salmonella typhi: a worldwide epidemic. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 24(Suppl. 1): S106-9.
125. Coppo A, Colombo M, Pazzani C et al. Vibrio cholerae in the horn of Africa: epidemiology, plasmids, tetracycline resistance gene amplification, and comparison between O1 and non-O1 strains. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1995; 53: 351-9.
126. Threlfall EJ, Ward LR, Skinner JA, Smith HR, Lacey S. Ciprofloxacin-resistant Salmonella typhi and treatment failure. Lancet 1999; 353: 1590-9.
127. Garg P, Chakraborty S, Basu I et al. Expanding multiple antibiotic resistance among clinical strains of Vibrio cholerae isolated from 1992 to 1997 in Calcutta. India Epidemiol Infect 2000; 124: 393-9.
128. Seas C, Alarcon M, Aragon JC et al. Surveillance of bacterial pathogens associated with acute diarrhea in Lima, Peru. Int J Infect Dis 2000; 4: 96-9.
129. Olsen SJ, Debess EE, Mcgivern TE et al. A nosocomial outbreak of fluoroquinolone-resistant salmonella infection. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 1572-9.
130. O'Brien FG, Pearman JW, Gracey M, Riley TV, Grubb WB. Community strain of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus involved in a hospital outbreak. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37: 2858-62.
131. Semmelweis IF. The Etiology, Concept and Prophylaxis of Childbed Fever Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983.
132. Pittet D, Mourouga P, Perneger TU. Compliance with handwashing in a teaching hospital. Ann Intern Med 1999; 130: 126-30.
133. Weinstein RA. Controlling antimicrobial resistance in hospitals: infection control and use of antibiotics. Emerg Infect Dis 2001; 7: 188-92.
134. Conly JM, Hill S, Ross J, Lertzman J, Louie TJ. Handwashing practices in an intensive care unit: the effects of an educational program and its relationship to infection rates. Am I Infect Control 1989; 17: 330-9.
135. Bischoff WE, Reynolds TM, Sessler CN, Edmond MB, Wenzel RP. Handwashing compliance by health care workers: the impact of introducing an accessible, alcohol-based hand antiseptic. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 1017-21.
136. Bonten MJ, Slaughter S, Ambergen AW et al. The role of 'colonization pressure' in the spread of vancomycin-resistant enterococci: an important infection control variable. Arch Intern Med 1998; 158: 1127-32.
137. Austin DJ, Bonten MJ, Weinstein RA, Slaughter S, Anderson RM. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci in intensive-care hospital settings: transmission dynamics, persistence, and the impact of infection control programs. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999; 96: 6908-13.
138. Mcmanus AT, Mason AD Jr, Mcmanus WF, Pruitt BA Jr. A decade of reduced gram-negative infections and mortality associated with improved isolation of burned patients. Arch Surg 1994; 129: 1306-9.
139. Lingnau W, Allerberger F. Control of an outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) by hygienic measures in a general intensive care unit. Infection 1994; 22(Suppl. 2): S135-9.
140. Jernigan JA, Titus MG, Groschel DH, Getchell-White S, Farr BM. Effectiveness of contact isolation during a hospital outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Am J Epidemiol 1996; 143: 496-504.
141. Johnson S, Gerding DN, Olson MM et al. Prospective, controlled study of vinyl glove use to interrupt Clostridium difficile nosocomial transmission. Am J Med 1990; 88: 137-40.
142. Warren DK, Fraser VJ. Infection control measures to limit antimicrobial resistance. Crit Care Med 2001; 29 (Suppl. 4): N128-34.
143. O'Donovan CA, Fan-Havard P, Tecson-Tumang FT, Smith SM, Eng RHK. Enteric eradication of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium with oral bacitracin. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1994; 18: 105-9.
144. Chia JKS, Nakata MM, Park SS, Lewis RP, Mckee B. Use of bacitracin therapy for infection due to vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 21: 1520.
145. Weinstein MR, Dedier H, Brunton J, Campbell I, Conly JM. Lack of efficacy of oral bacitracin plus doxycycline for the eradication of stool colonisation with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 29: 361-6.
146. Wong MT, Kauffman CA, Standiford HC et al. Effective suppression of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus species in asymptomatic gastrointestinal carriers by a novel glycolipodepsipeptide, ramoplanin. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33: 1476-82.
147. Boyce JM. MRSA patients: proven methods to treat colonization and infection. J Hosp Infect 2001; 48(Suppl. A): S9-S14.
148. Whitby M. Fusidic acid in the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Int J Antimicrob Agents 1999; 12(Suppl. 2): S67-71.
149. Black S, Shinefield H, Fireman B et al. Efficacy, safety and immunogenicity of heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in children. Northern California Kaiser Permanente Vaccine Study Center Group. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000; 19: 187-95.
150. Eskola J, Kilpi T, Palmu A et al. Efficacy of a pneumococcal conjugate vaccine against acute otitis media. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 403-9.
151. Mbelle N, Huebner RE, Wasas AD, Kimura A, Chang I, Klugman KP. Immunogenicity and impact on nasopharyngeal carriage of a nonavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. J Infect Dis 1999; 180: 1171-6.
152. Young DB. Current tuberculosis vaccine development. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 30(Suppl. 3): S254-6.
153. Vyas SP, Sihorkar V. Exploring novel vaccines against Helicobacter pylori: protective and therapeutic immunization. J Clin Pharm Ther 1999; 24: 259-72.
154. Coster TS, Killeen KP, Waldor MK et al. Safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy of live attenuated Vibrio cholerae O139 vaccine prototype. Lancet 1995; 345: 949-52.
155. Lin FY, Ho VA, Khiem HB et al. The efficacy of a Salmonella typhi Vi conjugate vaccine in two-to-five-year-old children. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 1263-9.
156. Zhang-Barber L, Turner AK, Barrow PA. Vaccination for control of Salmonella in poultry. Vaccine 1999; 17: 2538-45.
157. Yancey RJ Jr. Vaccines and diagnostic methods for bovine mastitis: fact and fiction. Adv Vet Med 1999; 41: 257-73.
158. Vinitnantharat S, Gravningen K, Greger E. Fish vaccines. Adv Vet Med 1999; 41: 539-50.
159. Alvarez-Olmos MI, Oberhelman RA. Probiotic agents and infectious diseases: a modern perspective on a traditional therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32: 1567-76.
160. Huovinen P. Bacteriotherapy: the time has come. BMJ 2001; 323: 353-4.
161. Kontiokari T, Sundqvist K, Nuutinen M, Pokka T, Koskela M, Uhari M. Randomised trial of cranberry-lingonberry juice and Lactobacillus GG drink for the prevention of urinary tract infections in women. BMJ 2001; 322: 1571.
162. Hatakka K, Savilahti E, Ponka A et al. Effect of long term consumption of probiotic milk on infections in children attending day care centres: double blind, randomised trial. BMJ 2001; 322: 1327-9.
163. Roos K. Hakansson EG, Holm S. Effect of recolonisation with 'interfering' alpha streptococci on recurrences of acute and secretory otitis media in children: randomised placebo controlled trial. BMJ 2001; 322: 1-4.
164. Espinal MA, Laszlo A. Simonsen L et al. Global trends in resistance to antituberculosis drugs. World Health Organization-International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease Working Group on Anti-Tuberculosis Drug Resistance Surveillance. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 1294-303.
165. Hart CA, Kariuki S. Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries. BMJ 1998; 317: 647-50.
166. Okeke IN, Lamikanra A, Edelman R. Socioeconomic and behavioral factors leading to acquired bacterial resistance to antibiotics in developing countries- Emerg Infect Dis 1999; 5: 18-27.
167. Isturiz RE, Carbon C. Antibiotic use in developing countries. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000; 21: 394-7.
168. Bapna JS, Tripathi CD, Tekur U. Drug utilisation patterns in the Third World. Pharmacoeconomics 1996; 9: 286-94.
169. Lansang MA, Lucas-Aquino R, Tupasi TE et al. Purchase of antibiotics without prescription in Manila, the Philippines. Inappropriate choices and doses. J Clin Epidemiol 1990; 43: 61-7.
170. Siringi S. Over-the-counter sale of antimalaria drugs stalls Kenyan disease strategy. Lancet 2001; 357: 1862.
171. Sturm AW, van der Pol R, Smits. AJ et al. Over-the-counter availability of antimicrobial agents, self-medication and patterns of resistance in Karachi, Pakistan. J Antimicrob Chemother 1997; 39: 543-7.
172. Chatterjee P. India's trade in fake drugs - bringing the counterfeiters to book. Lancet 2001; 357: 1776.
173. Newton P, Proux S, Green M et al. Fake artesunate in southeast Asia. Lancet 2001; 357: 1948-50.
174. Favre I. Strict separation between prescription and delivery tasks: a strategy to improve medication use and distribution in Thailand. Presented at the International Conference on Improving the Use of Medicines Chiang Mai, Thailand, April 1997. Retrieved on 25 June 2002 from http://www.who.ch/dap-icium/posters/4b1-text.html.
175. Trap B. Practices by dispensing doctors related to rational drug use and health economics. Presented at the International Conference on Improving the Use of Medicines Chiang Mai, Thailand, April 1997. Retrieved on 25 June 2002 from. http://www.who.ch/dap-icium/posters/4b4n.html.
176. Brown RC. Antibiotic sensitivity testing for infections in developing countries: lacking the basics. JAMA 1996; 276: 952-3.
177. Archibald LK, Reller LB. Clinical microbiology in developing countries. Emerg Infect Dis 2001; 7: 302-5.
178. Stelling JM, O'Brien TF. Surveillance of antimicrobial resistance: the WHONET program. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 24(Suppl. 1): S157-68.
179. World Health Organization. Guide for the Formulation and Implementation of a National Drug Policy and a National Pharmaceutical Masterplan. Annex to documents WHO/DAP93.9; WHO/DAP/93.11; WHO/DAP/93.12. Geneva: WHO, 1996.
180. Hogerzeil HV, Bimo Ross-Degnan D, Laing RO et al. Field tests for rational drug use in twelve developing countries. Lancet 1993; 342: 1408-10.
181. Laing RO, Hogerzeil HV, Ross-Degnan D. Ten recommendations to improve use of medicines in developing countries. Health Policy Plan 2001; 16: 13-20.
182. Paredes P, Yeager BAC, Montalvo J, Arana. A. Intervention trial to decrease unjustified use of pharmaceutical drugs in the treatment of childhood diarrhea, Lima, Peru. Presented at the International Conference on Improving the Use of Medicines Chiang Mai, Thailand, April 1997. Retrieved on 25 June 2002 from http://www.who.ch/dap-icium/posters/3A2xt.html.
183. Dupont O. Reducing multiple antibiotics in treatment Of acute respiratory infections (ARI): a planned intervention in Haiti. Presented at the International Conference on Improving the Use of Medicines Chiang Mai, Thailand, April 1997. Retrieved on 25 June 2002 from http://www.who.ch/dap-icium/posters /2P17t.html.
184. Chalker J, Phuong NK. Combating the growth of resistance to antibiotics. Antibiotic dose as an indicator for rational drug use. Presented at the International Conference on Improving the Use of Medicines Chiang Mai, Thailand, April 1997. Retrieved on 25 June 2002 from http://www.who.ch/dap-icium/posters/2E1tf.html.
185. Kafuko JM, Zirabamuzaale C, Bagenda D. Rational drug use in rural health units of Uganda. Effect of National Standard Treatment Guidelines on Rational Drug Use. Presented at the International Conference on Improving the Use of Medicines Chiang Mai, Thailand, April 1997. Retrieved on 25 June 2002 from http://www.who.ch/dap-icium/posters/2f3xt.html.
186. Wiedenmayer K, Mtasiwa D, Majapa Z, Lorenz N. Impact of pilot intervention (Standard Treatment Guidelines, training) on prescribing patterns in Dar es Salaam. Presented at the International Conference on Improving the Use of Medicines Chiang Mai, Thailand, April 1997. Retrieved on 25 June 2002 from http://www.who.ch/dap-icium/posters/2f4xt.html.
187. Sia IC, Valerin J. The effect of an intervention on the drug selling behavior of sarisari (variety) store keepers in some villages in the Philippines. Presented at the International Conference on Improving the Use of Medicines Chiang Mai, Thailand, April 1997. Retrieved on 25 June 2002 from http://www.who.ch/dap-icium/posters/3C4tf.html.
188. Kafle KK, Gartoulla RP, Pradhan YM, Shrestha AD, Karkee SB, Quick JD. Drug retailer training: experiences from Nepal. Soc Sci Med 1992; 35: 1015-25.
189. Haak H, Cleason M. Regulatory actions to enhance appropriate drug use: the case of drugs. Presented at the International Conference on Improving the Use of Medicines Chiang Mai, Thailand, April 1997. Retrieved on 25 June 2002 from http://www.who.ch/dap-icium/posters/4A1xt.html.
190. Hollaway KA, Gautam BR. The effects of different charging mechanisms on rational drug use in eastern rural Nepal. Presented at the International Conference on Improving the Use of Medicines Chiang Mai, Thailand, April 1997. Retrieved on 25 June 2002 from http://www.who.ch/dapicium/posters/4e2xt.html.
191. FEDESA. Press release on the European Union Conference. The Microbial Threat, Copenhagen, 1998.
192. Wise R, Hart T, Cars O et al. Antimicrobial resistance is a major threat to public health. BMJ 1998; 317: 609-10.