Judicial enforcement of WTO law in the European Union - Some further reflections

Journal of International Economic Law

Volumn 5, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 91-110

  Eeckhout, Piet ^a  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0036281307     PISSN: 13693034     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jiel/5.1.91     Document Type: Review

References (74)

1. The first judgment dates from 1972: ECJ, Joined Cases 21-24/72 International Fruit Company v Produktschap voor Groenten en Fruit [1972] ECR 1219.
2. See Piet Eeckhout, 'The Domestic Legal Status of the WTO Agreement: interconnecting legal systems', 34 CMLRev 11 (1997).
3. Stefan Griller, 'Judicial Enforceability of WTO Law in the European Union: Annotation to Case C-149/96, Portugal v Council', 3 JIEL 441 (2000).
4. See, inter alia, Allan Rosas, 'Annotation Case C-149/96, Portugal v. Council', 37 CMLRev 797 (2000); Meinhard Hilf and Frank Schorkopf, 'WTO und EG/ Rechtskonflikte vor den EuGH?', 35 Europarecht 74-91 (2000); Geert A. Zonnekeyn, 'The Status of WTO Law in the Community Legal Order: some comments in the light of the Portuguese Textiles case', 25 ELRev 293 (2000); Axel Desmedt, 'ECJ Restricts Effect of WTO Agreements in the EC Legal Order', 3 JIEL 191 (2000); Frédérique Berrod, 'La Cour de justice refuse l'invocabilité des accords OMC: essai de régulation de la mondialisation', 36 Revue trimestrielle de droit européen 419 (2000); Steve Peers, 'Fundamental Right or Political Whim? WTO Law and the European Court of Justice', in Gráinne de Búrca and Joanne Scott, The EU and the WTO - Legal and Constitutional Issues (Oxford - Portland Oregon: Hart Publishing, 2001) 111-30; Armin von Bogdandy and Tilman Makatsch, 'Collision, Co-existence or Co-operation? Prospects for the Relationship between WTO Law and European Union Law', in de Búrca and Scott, above, at 143-50; Naboth van den Broek, 'Legal Persuasion, Political Realism and Legitimacy: The European Court's Recent Treatment of the Effect of WTO Agreements in the EC Legal Order', 4 JIEL 411 (2001).
5. See, inter alia, Allan Rosas, 'Annotation Case C-149/96, Portugal v. Council', 37 CMLRev 797 (2000); Meinhard Hilf and Frank Schorkopf, 'WTO und EG/ Rechtskonflikte vor den EuGH?', 35 Europarecht 74-91 (2000); Geert A. Zonnekeyn, 'The Status of WTO Law in the Community Legal Order: some comments in the light of the Portuguese Textiles case', 25 ELRev 293 (2000); Axel Desmedt, 'ECJ Restricts Effect of WTO Agreements in the EC Legal Order', 3 JIEL 191 (2000); Frédérique Berrod, 'La Cour de justice refuse l'invocabilité des accords OMC: essai de régulation de la mondialisation', 36 Revue trimestrielle de droit européen 419 (2000); Steve Peers, 'Fundamental Right or Political Whim? WTO Law and the European Court of Justice', in Gráinne de Búrca and Joanne Scott, The EU and the WTO - Legal and Constitutional Issues (Oxford - Portland Oregon: Hart Publishing, 2001) 111-30; Armin von Bogdandy and Tilman Makatsch, 'Collision, Co-existence or Co-operation? Prospects for the Relationship between WTO Law and European Union Law', in de Búrca and Scott, above, at 143-50; Naboth van den Broek, 'Legal Persuasion, Political Realism and Legitimacy: The European Court's Recent Treatment of the Effect of WTO Agreements in the EC Legal Order', 4 JIEL 411 (2001).
6. See, inter alia, Allan Rosas, 'Annotation Case C-149/96, Portugal v. Council', 37 CMLRev 797 (2000); Meinhard Hilf and Frank Schorkopf, 'WTO und EG/ Rechtskonflikte vor den EuGH?', 35 Europarecht 74-91 (2000); Geert A. Zonnekeyn, 'The Status of WTO Law in the Community Legal Order: some comments in the light of the Portuguese Textiles case', 25 ELRev 293 (2000); Axel Desmedt, 'ECJ Restricts Effect of WTO Agreements in the EC Legal Order', 3 JIEL 191 (2000); Frédérique Berrod, 'La Cour de justice refuse l'invocabilité des accords OMC: essai de régulation de la mondialisation', 36 Revue trimestrielle de droit européen 419 (2000); Steve Peers, 'Fundamental Right or Political Whim? WTO Law and the European Court of Justice', in Gráinne de Búrca and Joanne Scott, The EU and the WTO - Legal and Constitutional Issues (Oxford - Portland Oregon: Hart Publishing, 2001) 111-30; Armin von Bogdandy and Tilman Makatsch, 'Collision, Co-existence or Co-operation? Prospects for the Relationship between WTO Law and European Union Law', in de Búrca and Scott, above, at 143-50; Naboth van den Broek, 'Legal Persuasion, Political Realism and Legitimacy: The European Court's Recent Treatment of the Effect of WTO Agreements in the EC Legal Order', 4 JIEL 411 (2001).
7. See, inter alia, Allan Rosas, 'Annotation Case C-149/96, Portugal v. Council', 37 CMLRev 797 (2000); Meinhard Hilf and Frank Schorkopf, 'WTO und EG/ Rechtskonflikte vor den EuGH?', 35 Europarecht 74-91 (2000); Geert A. Zonnekeyn, 'The Status of WTO Law in the Community Legal Order: some comments in the light of the Portuguese Textiles case', 25 ELRev 293 (2000); Axel Desmedt, 'ECJ Restricts Effect of WTO Agreements in the EC Legal Order', 3 JIEL 191 (2000); Frédérique Berrod, 'La Cour de justice refuse l'invocabilité des accords OMC: essai de régulation de la mondialisation', 36 Revue trimestrielle de droit européen 419 (2000); Steve Peers, 'Fundamental Right or Political Whim? WTO Law and the European Court of Justice', in Gráinne de Búrca and Joanne Scott, The EU and the WTO - Legal and Constitutional Issues (Oxford - Portland Oregon: Hart Publishing, 2001) 111-30; Armin von Bogdandy and Tilman Makatsch, 'Collision, Co-existence or Co-operation? Prospects for the Relationship between WTO Law and European Union Law', in de Búrca and Scott, above, at 143-50; Naboth van den Broek, 'Legal Persuasion, Political Realism and Legitimacy: The European Court's Recent Treatment of the Effect of WTO Agreements in the EC Legal Order', 4 JIEL 411 (2001).
8. See, inter alia, Allan Rosas, 'Annotation Case C-149/96, Portugal v. Council', 37 CMLRev 797 (2000); Meinhard Hilf and Frank Schorkopf, 'WTO und EG/ Rechtskonflikte vor den EuGH?', 35 Europarecht 74-91 (2000); Geert A. Zonnekeyn, 'The Status of WTO Law in the Community Legal Order: some comments in the light of the Portuguese Textiles case', 25 ELRev 293 (2000); Axel Desmedt, 'ECJ Restricts Effect of WTO Agreements in the EC Legal Order', 3 JIEL 191 (2000); Frédérique Berrod, 'La Cour de justice refuse l'invocabilité des accords OMC: essai de régulation de la mondialisation', 36 Revue trimestrielle de droit européen 419 (2000); Steve Peers, 'Fundamental Right or Political Whim? WTO Law and the European Court of Justice', in Gráinne de Búrca and Joanne Scott, The EU and the WTO - Legal and Constitutional Issues (Oxford - Portland Oregon: Hart Publishing, 2001) 111-30; Armin von Bogdandy and Tilman Makatsch, 'Collision, Co-existence or Co-operation? Prospects for the Relationship between WTO Law and European Union Law', in de Búrca and Scott, above, at 143-50; Naboth van den Broek, 'Legal Persuasion, Political Realism and Legitimacy: The European Court's Recent Treatment of the Effect of WTO Agreements in the EC Legal Order', 4 JIEL 411 (2001).
9. See, inter alia, Allan Rosas, 'Annotation Case C-149/96, Portugal v. Council', 37 CMLRev 797 (2000); Meinhard Hilf and Frank Schorkopf, 'WTO und EG/ Rechtskonflikte vor den EuGH?', 35 Europarecht 74-91 (2000); Geert A. Zonnekeyn, 'The Status of WTO Law in the Community Legal Order: some comments in the light of the Portuguese Textiles case', 25 ELRev 293 (2000); Axel Desmedt, 'ECJ Restricts Effect of WTO Agreements in the EC Legal Order', 3 JIEL 191 (2000); Frédérique Berrod, 'La Cour de justice refuse l'invocabilité des accords OMC: essai de régulation de la mondialisation', 36 Revue trimestrielle de droit européen 419 (2000); Steve Peers, 'Fundamental Right or Political Whim? WTO Law and the European Court of Justice', in Gráinne de Búrca and Joanne Scott, The EU and the WTO - Legal and Constitutional Issues (Oxford - Portland Oregon: Hart Publishing, 2001) 111-30; Armin von Bogdandy and Tilman Makatsch, 'Collision, Co-existence or Co-operation? Prospects for the Relationship between WTO Law and European Union Law', in de Búrca and Scott, above, at 143-50; Naboth van den Broek, 'Legal Persuasion, Political Realism and Legitimacy: The European Court's Recent Treatment of the Effect of WTO Agreements in the EC Legal Order', 4 JIEL 411 (2001).
10. See, inter alia, Allan Rosas, 'Annotation Case C-149/96, Portugal v. Council', 37 CMLRev 797 (2000); Meinhard Hilf and Frank Schorkopf, 'WTO und EG/ Rechtskonflikte vor den EuGH?', 35 Europarecht 74-91 (2000); Geert A. Zonnekeyn, 'The Status of WTO Law in the Community Legal Order: some comments in the light of the Portuguese Textiles case', 25 ELRev 293 (2000); Axel Desmedt, 'ECJ Restricts Effect of WTO Agreements in the EC Legal Order', 3 JIEL 191 (2000); Frédérique Berrod, 'La Cour de justice refuse l'invocabilité des accords OMC: essai de régulation de la mondialisation', 36 Revue trimestrielle de droit européen 419 (2000); Steve Peers, 'Fundamental Right or Political Whim? WTO Law and the European Court of Justice', in Gráinne de Búrca and Joanne Scott, The EU and the WTO - Legal and Constitutional Issues (Oxford - Portland Oregon: Hart Publishing, 2001) 111-30; Armin von Bogdandy and Tilman Makatsch, 'Collision, Co-existence or Co-operation? Prospects for the Relationship between WTO Law and European Union Law', in de Búrca and Scott, above, at 143-50; Naboth van den Broek, 'Legal Persuasion, Political Realism and Legitimacy: The European Court's Recent Treatment of the Effect of WTO Agreements in the EC Legal Order', 4 JIEL 411 (2001).
11. See, inter alia, Allan Rosas, 'Annotation Case C-149/96, Portugal v. Council', 37 CMLRev 797 (2000); Meinhard Hilf and Frank Schorkopf, 'WTO und EG/ Rechtskonflikte vor den EuGH?', 35 Europarecht 74-91 (2000); Geert A. Zonnekeyn, 'The Status of WTO Law in the Community Legal Order: some comments in the light of the Portuguese Textiles case', 25 ELRev 293 (2000); Axel Desmedt, 'ECJ Restricts Effect of WTO Agreements in the EC Legal Order', 3 JIEL 191 (2000); Frédérique Berrod, 'La Cour de justice refuse l'invocabilité des accords OMC: essai de régulation de la mondialisation', 36 Revue trimestrielle de droit européen 419 (2000); Steve Peers, 'Fundamental Right or Political Whim? WTO Law and the European Court of Justice', in Gráinne de Búrca and Joanne Scott, The EU and the WTO - Legal and Constitutional Issues (Oxford - Portland Oregon: Hart Publishing, 2001) 111-30; Armin von Bogdandy and Tilman Makatsch, 'Collision, Co-existence or Co-operation? Prospects for the Relationship between WTO Law and European Union Law', in de Búrca and Scott, above, at 143-50; Naboth van den Broek, 'Legal Persuasion, Political Realism and Legitimacy: The European Court's Recent Treatment of the Effect of WTO Agreements in the EC Legal Order', 4 JIEL 411 (2001).
12. ECJ, Case C-149/96 Portugal v Council [1999] ECR I-8395. Part one runs from paras 34 to 41, part two from paras 42 to 52.
13. In International Fruit Company, above n 1, the Court did not make any distinction between examining the agreement itself and making an autonomous EC law assessment.
14. See Jan Klabbers, 'International Law in Community Law: the law and politics of direct effect', to be published in Yearbook of European Law (2002) (on file with the author).
15. Griller, above n 3, at 450-54, referring to John H. Jackson, 'The WTO Dispute Settlement Understanding - Misunderstandings on the Nature of Legal Obligation', in Cameron and Cameron, Dispute Resolution in the World Trade Organisation (London: Cameron May, 1998) 69 (73) [reprinted from AJIL(1997), at 60].
16. Griller, above n 3, at 450-54, referring to John H. Jackson, 'The WTO Dispute Settlement Understanding - Misunderstandings on the Nature of Legal Obligation', in Cameron and Cameron, Dispute Resolution in the World Trade Organisation (London: Cameron May, 1998) 69 (73) [reprinted from AJIL(1997), at 60].
17. See, for example, the protracted nature of the bananas and hormones disputes.
18. What is so illegitimate about settlement of WTO disputes, even after the full run of dispute settlement, and possibly on terms which do not amount to full compliance?
19. Council Directive 88/146, OJ 1988 L 70/16.
20. But see WTO Panel Report, Australia - Subsidies Provided to Producers and Exporters of Automotive Leather - Recourse to Article 21.5 of the DSU by the United States ('Australia - Leather'), WT/DS126/RW, adopted 11 February 2000.
21. Jacques H. J. Bourgeois, 'The European Court of Justice and the WTO', in J. H. H. Weiler, The EU, the WTO and NAFTA (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 71-123, at 121.
22. ECJ, Joined Cases 97, 193, 99 and 215/86 Asteris v Commission [1988] ECR 2181, para 30. See Mark Brealey and Mark Hoskins, Remedies in EC Law (2nd edn, London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1998) 328-330.
23. ECJ, Joined Cases 97, 193, 99 and 215/86 Asteris v Commission [1988] ECR 2181, para 30. See Mark Brealey and Mark Hoskins, Remedies in EC Law (2nd edn, London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1998) 328-330.
24. WTO Panel Report, United States - Sections 301-310 of the Trade Act of 1974 ('US - Sections 301-310'), WT/DS152/R, adopted 27 January 2000, para 7.72.
25. Meinhard Hilf, 'The Role of National Courts in International Trade Relations', 18 Michigan Journal of International Law 321-56 (1997) at 324ff.
26. See also Peers, above n 4, at 120-22; van den Broek, above n 4, at sections II-III.
27. See also Peers, Legal Persuasion, Political Realism and Legitimacy: The European Court's Recent Treatment of the Effect of WTO Agreements in the EC Legal Order, at 120-22; van den Broek, above n 4, at sections II-III.
28. See David W. Leebron, 'Implementation of the Uruguay Round Results in the United States', in J. H. Jackson and A. O. Sykes, Implementing the Uruguay Round (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997) at 209-18.
29. ECJ, Case 104/81 Hauptzollamt Mainz v Kupferberg [1982] ECR 3641, para 18.
30. Council Decision 94/800, OJ 1994 L 336/1, according to which 'by its nature, the Agreement establishing the World Trade Organisation, including the Annexes thereto, is not susceptible to being directly invoked in Community or Member State courts'.
31. Above n 3, at 454.
32. Ibid, at 454 and 460-61.
33. See again International Fruit Company, n 1 above, dating from 1972.
34. On European constitutionalism see, for example, J. H. H. Weiler, The Constitution of Europe (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), ch 6 and Paul Craig, 'Constitutions, Constitutionalism and the European Union', 7 European Law Journal 125 (2001).
35. On European constitutionalism see, for example, J. H. H. Weiler, The Constitution of Europe (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), ch 6 and Paul Craig, 'Constitutions, Constitutionalism and the European Union', 7 European Law Journal 125 (2001).
36. For a brief account, see Paul Craig and Graínne de Búrca, EU Law - Text, Cases and Materials (2nd edn, Oxford: OUP, 1998) 264-76.
37. Above n 15
38. See also Markus Krajewski, Verfassungsperspektiven und Legitimation des Rechts der Welthandelsorganisation (WTO) (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 2001) 63-67 and Rosas, above n 4, at 812.
39. See also Markus Krajewski, Verfassungsperspektiven und Legitimation des Rechts der Welthandelsorganisation (WTO) (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 2001) 63-67 and Rosas, above n 4, at 812.
40. J. H. H. Weiler, 'The Rule of Lawyers and the Ethos of Diplomats: Reflections on the Internal and External Legitimacy of WTO Dispute Settlement', Jean Monnet Working Paper No 9/00, http://www.jeanmonnetprogram.org/papers/papers00.html (visited 9 December 2001) ; Robert Howse and Elisabeth Tuerk, The WTO Impact on Internal Regulations - A Case Study of the Canada-EC Asbestos Dispute', in de Búrca and Scott, n 4 above, 283, at 304-06.
41. J. H. H. Weiler, 'The Rule of Lawyers and the Ethos of Diplomats: Reflections on the Internal and External Legitimacy of WTO Dispute Settlement', Jean Monnet Working Paper No 9/00, http://www.jeanmonnetprogram.org/papers/papers00.html (visited 9 December 2001) ; Robert Howse and Elisabeth Tuerk, The WTO Impact on Internal Regulations - A Case Study of the Canada-EC Asbestos Dispute', in de Búrca and Scott, n 4 above, 283, at 304-06.
42. WTO Appellate Body Report, Japan - Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages ('Japan - Alcohol'), WT/DS8/AB/R, WT/DS10/AB/R and WT/DS11/AB/R, adopted 1 November 1996.
43. See, for example, Markus Krajewski, 'Democratic Legitimacy and Constitutional Perspectives of WTO Law', 35(1) Journal of World Trade 167 (2001).
44. See Weiler, n 24 above
45. For further jurisprudential reflections, see Neil Walker, 'The EU and the WTO: Constitutionalism in a New Key', in de Búrca and Scott, n 4 above, 31-57.
46. See, for example; Deirdre Curtin and Kamiel Mortelmans, 'Application and Enforcement of Community Law by the Member States: Actors in Search of a Third Generation Script', in Ton Heukels, Institutional Dynamics of European Integration: Essays in honour of Henry G. Schemers - Volume II (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1994) 426-66.
47. A marvellous example is the United Kingdom Human Rights Act (1998), see Francesca Klug, Values for a Godless Age - The Story of the United Kingdom's New Bill of Rights (London: Penguin, Books, 2000).
48. Above n 15, paras 7.73-7.77.
49. Compare with Weiler, above n 24, at 270-78.
50. Eeckhout, above n 2, at 53-55.
51. The TRIPs Agreement in particular appears to be well suited for applying the principle of consistent interpretation, and has indeed been interpreted by the Court of Justice in a couple of cases: Case C-53/96 Hermès v FHT [1998] ECR I-3603; Joined Cases C-300 and 392/98, Parfums Christian Dior v Tuk Consultancy, not yet reported (see http://europa.eu.int/cj/en/jurisp/index.htm, visited 9 December 2001); and Case C-89/99 Schieving-Nijstad vof and Others v Robert Groeneveld, judgment of 13 September 2001 (ibid).
52. The TRIPs Agreement in particular appears to be well suited for applying the principle of consistent interpretation, and has indeed been interpreted by the Court of Justice in a couple of cases: Case C-53/96 Hermès v FHT [1998] ECR I-3603; Joined Cases C-300 and 392/98, Parfums Christian Dior v Tuk Consultancy, not yet reported (see http://europa.eu.int/cj/en/jurisp/index.htm, visited 9 December 2001); and Case C-89/99 Schieving-Nijstad vof and Others v Robert Groeneveld, judgment of 13 September 2001 (ibid).
53. The TRIPs Agreement in particular appears to be well suited for applying the principle of consistent interpretation, and has indeed been interpreted by the Court of Justice in a couple of cases: Case C-53/96 Hermès v FHT [1998] ECR I-3603; Joined Cases C-300 and 392/98, Parfums Christian Dior v Tuk Consultancy, not yet reported (see http://europa.eu.int/cj/en/jurisp/index.htm, visited 9 December 2001); and Case C-89/99 Schieving-Nijstad vof and Others v Robert Groeneveld, judgment of 13 September 2001 (ibid).
54. See Eeckhout, n 2 above, at 56.
55. Portugal v Council, n 5 above, para 49. For comments see Griller, n 3 above, at 463-67.
56. Portugal v Council, n 5 above, para 49. For comments see Griller, n 3 above, at 463-67.
57. ECJ Case C-69/89 Nakajima v Council [1991] ECR I-2069, para 31; Case C-188/88 NMB v Commission [1992] ECR I-1689, para 23; CFI, Case T-162/94 NMB and Others v Commission [1996] ECR II-427, para 99; CFI, Case T-256/97 BEUC v Commission [2000] ECR II-101.
58. Case C-352/96 [1998] ECR I-6937, para 20. See also the Opinion of Mischo AG at paras 21-22.
59. Case C-317/99, Opinion of 2 May 2001 (see http://europa.eu.int/cj/en/jurisp/index.htm, visited 9 December 2001).
60. WT/DS69/AB/R, adopted 23 July 1998
61. Case T-18/99 Cordis Obst und Gemüse Grosshandel v Commission, judgment of 20 March 2001, para 59; Case T-30/99 Bocchi Food Trade International v Commission, judgment of 20 March 2001, para 64; Case T-52/99 T. Port v Commission, judgment of 20 March 2001, para 59 (see http://europa.eu.int/cj/en/jurisp/index.htm, visited 9 December 2001). See also ECJ, Case C-307/99, OGT Fruchthandelsge-sellschaft v Hauptzollamt Hamburg-St. Annen, Order of 2 May 2001 (ibid).
62. Case T-18/99 Cordis Obst und Gemüse Grosshandel v Commission, judgment of 20 March 2001, para 59; Case T-30/99 Bocchi Food Trade International v Commission, judgment of 20 March 2001, para 64; Case T-52/99 T. Port v Commission, judgment of 20 March 2001, para 59 (see http://europa.eu.int/cj/en/jurisp/index.htm, visited 9 December 2001). See also ECJ, Case C-307/99, OGT Fruchthandelsge-sellschaft v Hauptzollamt Hamburg-St. Annen, Order of 2 May 2001 (ibid).
63. Case T-18/99 Cordis Obst und Gemüse Grosshandel v Commission, judgment of 20 March 2001, para 59; Case T-30/99 Bocchi Food Trade International v Commission, judgment of 20 March 2001, para 64; Case T-52/99 T. Port v Commission, judgment of 20 March 2001, para 59 (see http://europa.eu.int/cj/en/jurisp/index.htm, visited 9 December 2001). See also ECJ, Case C-307/99, OGT Fruchthandelsge-sellschaft v Hauptzollamt Hamburg-St. Annen, Order of 2 May 2001 (ibid).
64. Council Regulation 1637/98, OJ 1998 L 210/28, para (2) of the Preamble and Art 20 (e) of the amended basic Regulation (Council Regulation 404/93, OJ 1993 L 47/1).
65. WTO Arbitrators, European Communities - Regime for the Importation, Sale and Distribution of Bananas - Recourse to Arbitration by the European Communities under Article 22.6 of the DSU, WT/DS27/ARB, 9 April 1999 and WTO Panel Report, European Communities - Regime for the Importation, Sale and Distribution of Bananas - Recourse to Article 21. 5 by Ecuador, WT/DS27/RW/ECU, 12 April 1999.
66. WTO Arbitrators, European Communities - Regime for the Importation, Sale and Distribution of Bananas - Recourse to Arbitration by the European Communities under Article 22.6 of the DSU, WT/DS27/ARB, 9 April 1999 and WTO Panel Report, European Communities - Regime for the Importation, Sale and Distribution of Bananas - Recourse to Article 21. 5 by Ecuador, WT/DS27/RW/ECU, 12 April 1999.
67. See cases n 44 above.
68. CFI, Case T-19/01 Chiquita v Commission, pending.
69. Case C-377/98, judgment of 9 October 2001, not yet reported. Opinion of Jacobs, AG, of 14 June 2001 (see , visited 9 December 2001).
70. [1998] OJ L 213/13.
71. Netherlands v European Parliament and Council, Opinion Jacobs, AG, n 49 above, paras 146-58.
72. Ibid, at para 147.
73. N 49 above, para 55.
74. Which are a judiciary, but for the name, see Weiler, above n 28, at section IV(1).