Material designs: Engineering cultures and engineering states - Ireland 1650-1900

Theory and Society

Volumn 31, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 75-114

  Carroll Burke, Patrick ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

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EID: 0036101967     PISSN: 03042421     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1014445423909     Document Type: Review

References (177)

1. Transactions of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science (London, 1857-).
2. See, for instance, Southwood Smith, "On the Evidence of the Prolongation of Life during the Eighteenth Century," in ibid., v. 1 (1857), 498-504: "the existence in any high degree of the intellectual and moral must be preceded by a liberal possession and enjoyment of the physical," 502.
3. In the past quarter-century more empirically (and historically) minded Marxists began to break ranks with theoretical doctrine. See, for instance, Fred Block, Revising State Theory: Essays in Politics and Postindustrialism (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987). In terms of materiality, however, the normative injunction against "reification" has prevented any internal challenge to the economic reductionism of Marxist materialism.
4. An indicator of the trend is the foundation, in 1998, of a new Journal of Material Culture.
5. Lyn H. Lofland, The Public Realm: Exploring the City's Quintesential Social Territory (Hawthrorne: Aldine de Gruyter, 1998); Susan Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986); Thomas Gieryn, this issue.
6. Lyn H. Lofland, The Public Realm: Exploring the City's Quintesential Social Territory (Hawthrorne: Aldine de Gruyter, 1998); Susan Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986); Thomas Gieryn, this issue.
7. Lyn H. Lofland, The Public Realm: Exploring the City's Quintesential Social Territory (Hawthrorne: Aldine de Gruyter, 1998); Susan Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986); Thomas Gieryn, this issue.
8. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (1979); Chandra Mukerji and Patrick Carroll-Burke, "Representations, Demonstrations, and the Material Operators of State Power," in preparation.
9. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (1979); Chandra Mukerji and Patrick Carroll-Burke, "Representations, Demonstrations, and the Material Operators of State Power," in preparation.
10. Richard Biernacki, The Fabrication of Labor: Germany and Britain, 1640-1914 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).
11. Thomas Osborne, "Security and vitality: Drains, liberalism and power in the nineteenth century," in Andrew Barry, Nikolas Rose, and Thomas Osborne, editors, Foucault and political reason: liberalism, neo-liberalism and rationalities of government (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 99-121; Patrick Joyce, "Maps, Blood and the City: The Governance of the Social in 19th Century Britain," in P. Joyce, editor, The Social in Question: New Bearings in History and the Social Sciences (New York: Routledge, 2001).
12. Thomas Osborne, "Security and vitality: Drains, liberalism and power in the nineteenth century," in Andrew Barry, Nikolas Rose, and Thomas Osborne, editors, Foucault and political reason: liberalism, neo-liberalism and rationalities of government (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 99-121; Patrick Joyce, "Maps, Blood and the City: The Governance of the Social in 19th Century Britain," in P. Joyce, editor, The Social in Question: New Bearings in History and the Social Sciences (New York: Routledge, 2001).
13. Andrew Pickering, The Mangle of Practice: Time, Agency, and Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air-pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985); David Gooding, Trevor Pinch, and Simon Schaffer, editors, The Uses of Experiment: Studies in the Natural Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Peter Galison, Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997).
14. Andrew Pickering, The Mangle of Practice: Time, Agency, and Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air-pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985); David Gooding, Trevor Pinch, and Simon Schaffer, editors, The Uses of Experiment: Studies in the Natural Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Peter Galison, Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997).
15. Andrew Pickering, The Mangle of Practice: Time, Agency, and Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air-pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985); David Gooding, Trevor Pinch, and Simon Schaffer, editors, The Uses of Experiment: Studies in the Natural Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Peter Galison, Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997).
16. Andrew Pickering, The Mangle of Practice: Time, Agency, and Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air-pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985); David Gooding, Trevor Pinch, and Simon Schaffer, editors, The Uses of Experiment: Studies in the Natural Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Peter Galison, Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997).
17. Wiebe E. Bijker and John Law, editors, Shaping Technology/Building Society (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992); Bruno Latour, "Give me a Laboratory and I will Raise the World," reprinted in Mario Biagioli, editor, The Science Studies Reader (New York: Routledge, 1999).
18. Wiebe E. Bijker and John Law, editors, Shaping Technology/Building Society (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992); Bruno Latour, "Give me a Laboratory and I will Raise the World," reprinted in Mario Biagioli, editor, The Science Studies Reader (New York: Routledge, 1999).
19. James Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition have Failed (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998); Chandra Mukerji, Territorial Ambitions at the Gardens of Versailles (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
20. James Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition have Failed (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998); Chandra Mukerji, Territorial Ambitions at the Gardens of Versailles (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
21. Patrick Carroll-Burke, "The Science/State Plexus: Engineering Cultures and Modern State Formation" (unpublished book manuscript).
22. John Meyer, "The Changing Cultural Content of the Nation-State: A World Society Perspective," in George Steinmetz, editor, State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999), 123-143, 123; also, John Meyer, "The World Polity and the Authority of the Nation-State," in George M. Thomas et al., editors, Institutional Structure: Constituting State, Society, and the Individual (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1987), 41-70: "We argue that the world polity is a highly institutionalized system that is reified in an ongoing manner in international discourse," emphasis added, 42.
23. John Meyer, "The Changing Cultural Content of the Nation-State: A World Society Perspective," in George Steinmetz, editor, State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999), 123-143, 123; also, John Meyer, "The World Polity and the Authority of the Nation-State," in George M. Thomas et al., editors, Institutional Structure: Constituting State, Society, and the Individual (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1987), 41-70: "We argue that the world polity is a highly institutionalized system that is reified in an ongoing manner in international discourse," emphasis added, 42.
24. Charles Tilly, "Epilogue: Now Where?" in ibid., 407-419, 411-412.
25. Patrick Carroll-Burke, "Science, Power, Bodies: The Mobilization of Nature as State Formation," Journal of Historical Sociology 9/2 (1996): 139-167.
26. Books in themselves record information, but they only constitute knowledge when they are embedded in interpretative communities.
27. Meyer (1999), 123.
28. See Patrick Carroll, "Medical Police and the History of Public Health," Medical History, 2002.
29. Meyer suggests that Anderson's analysis of "nationalism" applies equally to "nation-states," Meyer, ibid., 123; Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1995 [1983]).
30. Meyer suggests that Anderson's analysis of "nationalism" applies equally to "nation-states," Meyer, ibid., 123; Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1995 [1983]).
31. Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States: AD 990-1992 (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 1992 [1990]); Mukerji, Territorial Ambitions.
32. Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States: AD 990-1992 (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 1992 [1990]); Mukerji, Territorial Ambitions.
33. The late Latin systema meant musical interval; when mixed with Greek meanings of an "organized whole, government, constitution, a body of men or animals, union of several metres into a whole," the medieval and modern Latin meaning came to encompass everything from "the universe" to "the articles of faith." Within science and engineering, by the mid-nineteenth century, it meant any arrangement of things, "natural or artificial, forming a complex whole," for instance, sets of physical laws, bodies of knowledge, geological formations, biological systems, geometrical graphs, mechanical contrivances, architectural schemes, canals, railways, or telegraphs, political and civil boundaries, administrative structures, or any organized scheme or plan, particularly of a complex and comprehensive kind (OED).
34. Bijker and Law, editors, Shaping Technology/Building Society; Latour, "Give me a Laboratory and I will Raise the World."
35. Bijker and Law, editors, Shaping Technology/Building Society; Latour, "Give me a Laboratory and I will Raise the World."
36. This is not system realism of the sort associated with the old institutionalism. It is a concept of system that captures the organizational forms at the center of Weberian analyses, particularly those associated with the "organizational turn" in state theory. For instance, Peter Evans, Deitrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol, Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
37. Leigh Star and James R. Griesemer, "Institutional Ecology, 'Translations' and Boundary Objects: Amateurs and Professionals in Berkeley's Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 1907-1939," Social Studies of Science 19 (1989), 387-420.
38. Philip Abrams, "Notes on the Difficulty of Studying the State, " Journal of Historical Sociology 1/1 (1988 [1977]), 58-89. The explicit suggestion that the state is a "fiction" belongs to Miliband. Ralph Miliband, The State in Capitalist Society (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1969), 49.
39. Philip Abrams, "Notes on the Difficulty of Studying the State, " Journal of Historical Sociology 1/1 (1988 [1977]), 58-89. The explicit suggestion that the state is a "fiction" belongs to Miliband. Ralph Miliband, The State in Capitalist Society (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1969), 49.
40. Philip Corrigan and Derek Sayer, The Great Arch: English State Formation as Cultural Revolution (Oxford: Blackwell, 1985).
41. Chandra Mukerji "The political mobilization of nature in seventeenth century French formal gardens," Theory and Society 23/5 (1994), 656.
42. Patrick Carroll-Burke, "Tools, Instruments and Engines: Getting a Handle on the Specificity of Engine Science," Social Studies of Science 31/4 (August 2001): 593-626.
43. The influence of Foucault on my analysis of organizations is very important, but I take material questions much further than he (and certainly his poststructural followers).
44. Joep Leerssen, "Wildness, Wilderness, and Ireland: Medieval and Early-Modern Patterns in the Demarcation of Civility," Journal of the History of Ideas 56 (1995): 25-39.
45. Leerssen, "Wildness, Wilderness, and Ireland," 32.
46. Quoted in Leerssen, "Wildness, Wilderness, and Ireland," 34. Sir John Davies, A Discoverie of the True Causes why Ireland was Never Entirely Subdued, and Brought under the Obedience of the Crowne of England, un till the Beginning of His Majesties Happy Raigne (London, 1619), 114-115. It is important to note here that "forests" now designate woodlands under government, such as the king's forests; they are a form of park. Hence mountains, bogs, and woods are to be reduced and confined within the limits of forests, chases, and parks.
47. Quoted in Leerssen, "Wildness, Wilderness, and Ireland," 34. Sir John Davies, A Discoverie of the True Causes why Ireland was Never Entirely Subdued, and Brought under the Obedience of the Crowne of England, un till the Beginning of His Majesties Happy Raigne (London, 1619), 114-115. It is important to note here that "forests" now designate woodlands under government, such as the king's forests; they are a form of park. Hence mountains, bogs, and woods are to be reduced and confined within the limits of forests, chases, and parks.
48. First perambulated and geometrical cartography of Ireland, e1659, so named because it was "surveyed down onto maps."
49. See Petty's last will and testament, in Edmund Fitzmaurice, The Life of Sir William Petty 1623-1687 (London: John Murray, 1895), 318-324.
50. Papers respecting Experimental Improvements on the Crown Lands at Kingwilliams town, in the Barony of Duhallow in the County of Cork; and to the New Lines of Public Roads constructed in County Cork and Kerry. H.C. 1834 (173), LI.
51. Willoughby argued that there had been a decline in the number of fluxes due to "an amending of the air since the drayning of so many bogs since English Planters and their husbandry came among us," and he suggested that "some of what is now bogland was formerly Woodland, and some under other Husbandry which by neglect of culture, grew in time to have many broad patches of standing water." "Enquiries to be Made about the Bills of Mortality, aire, diseases &c.," in Rawlinson MSS c.406 fol. 68: Dr. Willoughby, of the Bills of Mortality Dublin, April 17, 1691.
52. Gerard Boate, Ireland's Natural History. Being a true and ample Description of its Situation, Greatness, Shape, and Nature; Of its Hills, Woods, Heaths, Bogs; Of its Fruitfull Parts and profitable Grounds, with the Severall ways of Manuring and Improving the same: With its Heads or Promontories, Harbours, Roads and Bays; Of its Springs and Fountains, Brooks, Rivers, Loghs; Of its Metalls, Mineralls, Freestone, Marble, Sea-coal, Turf, and other things that are taken out of the ground. And lastly, of the Nature and temperature of its Air and Season, and what diseases it is free from, or subject unto. Conducing to the Advancement of Navigation, Husbandry, and other profitable Arts and Professions. For the Common Good of Ireland, and more especially, for the benefit of the Adventurers and Planters therein (London, 1657).
53. O E D.
54. Thomas Newenham, Statistical and Historical Inquiry into the Progress and Magnitude of the Population of Ireland (London: C. & R. Baldwin, 1805), 29. Newenham cited Petty to back up the claim.
55. Ibid., 30.
56. Ibid., 29-30.
57. Samuel Madden, A Letter to the Dublin Society etc. (1736), 30.
58. Rawlinson MSS c.406 fol. 68, Bodleian.
59. Arthur Dobbs, An Essay on the Trade and Improvement of Ireland (Dublin: Rhames, Smith, & Bruce, 1729), 167.
60. 49 Geo. III, c. 102. See also, Reports of the Commissioners Appointed to Enquire into the Nature and Extent of the Several Bogs in Ireland (1810-1814).
61. Quoted in Gordon L. Herries Davies and R. Charles Mollan, editors, Richard Griffith 1784-1878 (Dublin: Royal Dublin Society, 1980), 33.
62. The project was led by the inimitable Richard Griffith, who also participated in the ordnance and geological surveys, and was an important player in relation to roads, railways, and inland navigation.
63. L. M. Cullen, "Economic Development, 1750-1800," in T. W. Moody and W. E. Vaughan, editors, A New History of Ireland 4 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), 180.
64. 1 & 2 Will. IV., c. 33: An Act for the Extension and Promotion of Public Works in Ireland (1831).
65. 3 Geo. IV., c. 34: Poor Employment Act (1822). 1 & 2 Will. IV., c. 57: More O'Terrall's Act (1831).
66. 5 & 6 Vict., c. 89: The Drainage (Ireland) Act (1842). 9 Vict, c. 4: Drainage (Ireland) Act (1846).
67. When government turned to labor schemes as a way of providing relief during the Great Famine, work began in earnest. One-hundred and forty drainage districts were created, and works carried out in 121 of them. Over a quarter million acres were affected by the work at a cost of almost two million (1840s) pounds, close to ninety percent of which was borne by central government. Further legislation in 1863 saw about another half million spent draining about 78,000 acres over a period of twenty-five years.
68. Anderson, Imagined Communities.
69. The Grand Canal was initiated in the mid-eighteenth century by the newly created Commissioners of Inland Navigation. A Grand Canal Company was formed in 1772, which took over construction and ran the canal, providing a passenger service until 1852. The Royal Canal was initiated by a private company, but was subsequently taken over by the Commissioners of Inland Navigation, which completed the project in 1822. Anon. An Account of the Rise and Progress of the Royal Canal in Ireland, and also of the Opposition Thereto (Dublin: N. Kelly, 1797), 6.
70. The Barrow Navigation connected the Grand Canal, which ran west on the south side of Dublin, with Waterford harbour. The Boyne Navigation linked Slane, north-west of Dublin, with Drogheda on the eastern seaboard. The Lough Corrib Navigation in Galway connected the lake with Lough Mask. The Maigue Navigation linked Adare in Limerick with the Shannon. And the Ballinamore, Ballyconnell, and Ulster canals served the north. Rena Lohan, Guide to the Archives of the Office of Public Works (Dublin: Stationary Office, 1994).
71. Mukerji, Territorial Ambitions (1997).
72. The material stuff that traveled through the material infrastructure needs to be studied in itself as well as in terms of the discourses about it. A comprehensive analysis would consider closely the fabrics, machines, paper, and so on, for these reveal the world of skill and craft that carried meaning throughout the country. See C. Mukerji, From Graven Images: Patterns of Modern Materialism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983).
73. William Greig, Strictures of Road Police, containing views of the present systems, by which roads are made and repaired, together with sketches of its progress in Great Britain and Ireland, from the earliest to the present times (Dublin: Archer, Cumming, Milliken, Dugdale, Keene, Hodges & McArthur, and Larkin, 1819), xii.
74. Lohan, Guide to the Archives, 4.
75. 1 Geo. 11., c. 13 (1727); 13 Geo. 11., c. 10 (1739). See also, David Broderick, An Early Toll-Road: The Dublin-Dunlear Turnpike, 1731-1855 (Dublin: Irish University Press, Maynooth Studies in Local History, 1996), 48.
76. 1 Geo. 11., c. 13 (1727); 13 Geo. 11., c. 10 (1739). See also, David Broderick, An Early Toll-Road: The Dublin-Dunlear Turnpike, 1731-1855 (Dublin: Irish University Press, Maynooth Studies in Local History, 1996), 48.
77. 1 Geo. 11., c. 13 (1727); 13 Geo. 11., c. 10 (1739). See also, David Broderick, An Early Toll-Road: The Dublin-Dunlear Turnpike, 1731-1855 (Dublin: Irish University Press, Maynooth Studies in Local History, 1996), 48.
78. "Directions for Making Roads," in Dublin Society ... Essays and Observations (Dublin, 1736 and 1737). The Dublin Society expressed the view that the turnpike roads already built according to these specifications were recognized as "the finest in Europe." In the 1760s legislation allowed roads to be financed by county cess which was levied on each barony by the grand jury. L. M. Cullen, "Economic Development, 1691-1750," in A New History of Ireland 4 (Oxford: Clarendon Press), 184.
79. "Directions for Making Roads," in Dublin Society ... Essays and Observations (Dublin, 1736 and 1737). The Dublin Society expressed the view that the turnpike roads already built according to these specifications were recognized as "the finest in Europe." In the 1760s legislation allowed roads to be financed by county cess which was levied on each barony by the grand jury. L. M. Cullen, "Economic Development, 1691-1750," in A New History of Ireland 4 (Oxford: Clarendon Press), 184.
80. Peter O'Keeffe, "Richard Griffith: Planner and Builder of Roads," in Gordon Davies and R. C. Mollan, editors, Richard Griffith 1784-1878 (Dublin: Royal Dublin Society, 1980), 59.
81. Quoted in O'Keeffe, "Richard Griffith," 59.
82. First Report of the Commissioners of Public Works in Ireland, Upon the State of several Roads and Bridges placed under their care by the Act 1 & 2 Will. IV, c. 33; Pursuant to the Act of Parliament, 6 Geo. IV., c. 101, s. 9, 1-2.
83. Quoted in O'Keeffe, "Richard Griffith," 61.
84. Report on the Southern District. H.C. 1824 (352) M.
85. Charles Vallancey, A Treatise on Inland Navigation or the Art of making Rivers Navigable, Of making Canals in all sorts of Soils, and of Constructing Locks and Sluices (1763); Mukerji, Territorial Ambitions.
86. Charles Vallancey, A Treatise on Inland Navigation or the Art of making Rivers Navigable, Of making Canals in all sorts of Soils, and of Constructing Locks and Sluices (1763); Mukerji, Territorial Ambitions.
87. Bruno Latour, Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers Around (Cambridge: Harvard University Press).
88. Apart from Dublin Castle and the military barracks, government built or maintained the great Four Courts building on the river Liffey, the Chapel Royal in Irishtown, the vice-regal and secretaries buildings in the Phoenix Park, the Royal Hospital in Kilmainham, parts of the great Custom House on the Liffey, the General Post Offices in Dublin and Cork, and a number of law courts and prisons. Government also provided knowledge, work, or money for the Royal Hibernian Military School, the constabulary barracks in Dublin and throughout the country, and an extensive system of schools and teacher training institutions.
89. Patrick Carroll-Burke, Colonial Discipline: The Making of the Irish Convict System (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2000).
90. After 1850 government funded the maintenance of Leinster House, and in 1868 a Science and Art Commission recommended an expansion of the complex to include a public library, a science and art museum, an agricultural museum, a museum of Irish antiquities, and a school of art. In 1916, the nationalist rebels evicted the Royal Dublin Society from Leinster House, making it the seat of the new government, which it remains to this day. It is flanked on the Kildare street side by the National Library and the National Museum, and on the Merrion Square side by the National Gallery and Natural History Museum.
91. Star and Griesemer, "Institutional Ecology, 'Translations' and Boundary Objects."
92. Extracts from the Minutes of the Commissioners appointed by Act of Parliament, for Making Wide and Convenient Ways, Streets, and Passages, in the City of Dublin: Containing the copy of a Memorial to His Excellency the Lord Lieutenant; Together with a General Statement of their Proceedings, Engagements, and Funds from the Commencement of the Institution in 1757, to January 1802 (Dublin: 1812).
93. Mukerji and Carroll-Burke, "Representation, Demonstration, and Material Operators of Power."
94. In 1782 a duty of one shilling per ton of coal imported through Dublin harbor was levied to help pay the costs of further projects. The duty was abolished in 1810.
95. Wide Streets Commission (1812), 16.
96. Ibid., 18. In all about 140,000 pounds were spent by 1810 on street development, 31.
97. Report of the Royal Commissioners appointed to inquire into the Sewerage and Drainage of the City of Dublin, and other matters connected therewith, together with minutes of evidence, appendix, index, &c. (Dublin: Alex Thom, 1880), vii.
98. J. L. McCracken, "The Social Structure and Social Life, 1714-60" in A New History of Ireland 4, 45.
99. Fiftieth Annual Report from the Commissioners of Public Works in Ireland with Appendices, for the Year 1881-1882 (1882).
100. First Report of the Commissioners of Public Works in Ireland, Upon the State of several Roads and Bridges placed under their care by the Act 1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 33; pursuant to Act of Parliament, 6 Geo. IV c. 101, s. 9 (1833), 1.
101. Twentieth Annual Report from the Board of Public Works in Ireland (1852).
102. Tenth Annual Report from the Board of Public Works in Ireland (1842).
103. About two-and-a-half thousand individual loans were made for land improvement, costing almost two million pounds. Thirty-eight of these loans permitted expenditure on farm buildings. Twentieth Annual Report from the Board of Public Works in Ireland (1852), 8.
104. In 1851 over twenty-thousand acres benefited from the more effective method of "thorough draining, and a considerable proportion of this land was also "subsoiled." Twentieth Annual Report from the Board of Public Works in Ireland (1852), 11.
105. Twentieth Annual Report from the Board of Public Works in Ireland (1852), 41.
106. Census of Ireland for 1851 (1856), xiii.
107. W. O'Brien, The Great Famine in Ireland and a Retrospect of the Fifty Years, 1845-1895 (London, 1896), 4-5.
108. After the passing of the Landlord and Tenant act of 1870, applications were received for loans to allow tenants to purchase their holdings. Almost forty-six thousand pounds was granted for this purpose.
109. Among these were the Towns Improvement Clauses Act (1847), the Commissioners Clauses Act (1847), the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act (1845), the Towns Improvement Act (1854), and the Dublin (amended 1864), Cork (1855), Belfast, Limerick, and Derry improvement acts.
110. Arthur Moore, The Towns Improvement (Ireland) Act, 1854, 17 & 18 Vict. Ca 103: with Provisions of Acts Incorporated therewith, and Acts amending the same (Dublin: Alex. Thom, 1856), iii.
111. Moore, The Towns Improvement (Ireland) Act, iii.
112. William Hogan, "On the Necessity for Model Lodging Houses in Dublin," read before the Royal Dublin Society (1848). Published in William Hogan, The Dependence of National Wealth on the Social and Sanatory Condition of the Labouring Classes; [and] On the Necessity for Model Lodging Houses in Dublin, and the Advantages they would confer on the community (Dublin: Hodges and Smith, 1849), 11.
113. William Hogan, "On the Necessity for Model Lodging Houses in Dublin," read before the Royal Dublin Society (1848). Published in William Hogan, The Dependence of National Wealth on the Social and Sanatory Condition of the Labouring Classes; [and] On the Necessity for Model Lodging Houses in Dublin, and the Advantages they would confer on the community (Dublin: Hodges and Smith, 1849), 11.
114. T. C. Barnard, "Improving Clergymen, 1660-1760," in Alan Ford et al., editors, As by Law Established: The Church of Ireland Since the Reformation (Dublin: Lilliput Press, 1995), 144.
115. William Petty, "The Political Anatomy of Ireland" (London: Brown & Rogers, [1672], 1691). Reprinted in A Collection of Tracts and Treatises Illustrative of the Natural History, Antiquities, and the Political and Social State of Ireland 2 (Dublin: Thom & Sons, 1861), 77.
116. William Petty, "The Political Anatomy of Ireland" (London: Brown & Rogers, [1672], 1691). Reprinted in A Collection of Tracts and Treatises Illustrative of the Natural History, Antiquities, and the Political and Social State of Ireland 2 (Dublin: Thom & Sons, 1861), 77.
117. Petty, "Political Anatomy of Ireland," 77.
118. George Berkeley, Bishop of Cloyne, A Word to the Wise: or, an Exhortation to the Roman Catholic Clergy of Ireland (Dublin: Faulkner, 1752).
119. Berkeley, A Word to the Wise, 8.
120. Thomas Willis, On the Social and Sanatory Condition of the Labouring Classes in Dublin (1845), 28.
121. Jonathan Pim, An Address Delivered at the Opening of the Thirtieth Session of the Statistical Society of Ireland, being a Review of the Economic and Social Progress of Ireland since the Famine (Dublin, 1876). The famine's devastation was concentrated amongst the subsistence population, and as this population declined so did the mud cabins. Those consisting of one room and no windows fell from 491,278 in 1841 to 135,589 in 1851, and to 89,374 in 1861, a drop of over 400,000, or eighty percent, in just two decades.
122. Hogan, "On the Necessity for Model Lodging Houses in Dublin," 10-19. Two model lodging houses had been established in London at this time, one run by the Metropolitan Association for Improving the Dwellings of the Industrious Classes," and another by the Labourers' Friend Society."
123. See International Health Exhibition. The Health Exhibition Literature, 19 Vols. (London: William Clowes and Sons, 1884), and particularly the following from volume one: Catherine Gladstone, "Healthy Nurseries and Bedrooms"; Henry Acland, "Health in the Village"; William Eassie, "Healthy and Unhealthy Houses in Town and Country"; Robert Edis, "Healthy Furniture and Decoration"; Charles Paget, "Healthy Schools"; James Lakeman, "Health in the Workshop."
124. See International Health Exhibition. The Health Exhibition Literature, 19 Vols. (London: William Clowes and Sons, 1884), and particularly the following from volume one: Catherine Gladstone, "Healthy Nurseries and Bedrooms"; Henry Acland, "Health in the Village"; William Eassie, "Healthy and Unhealthy Houses in Town and Country"; Robert Edis, "Healthy Furniture and Decoration"; Charles Paget, "Healthy Schools"; James Lakeman, "Health in the Workshop."
125. See International Health Exhibition. The Health Exhibition Literature, 19 Vols. (London: William Clowes and Sons, 1884), and particularly the following from volume one: Catherine Gladstone, "Healthy Nurseries and Bedrooms"; Henry Acland, "Health in the Village"; William Eassie, "Healthy and Unhealthy Houses in Town and Country"; Robert Edis, "Healthy Furniture and Decoration"; Charles Paget, "Healthy Schools"; James Lakeman, "Health in the Workshop."
126. See International Health Exhibition. The Health Exhibition Literature, 19 Vols. (London: William Clowes and Sons, 1884), and particularly the following from volume one: Catherine Gladstone, "Healthy Nurseries and Bedrooms"; Henry Acland, "Health in the Village"; William Eassie, "Healthy and Unhealthy Houses in Town and Country"; Robert Edis, "Healthy Furniture and Decoration"; Charles Paget, "Healthy Schools"; James Lakeman, "Health in the Workshop."
127. See International Health Exhibition. The Health Exhibition Literature, 19 Vols. (London: William Clowes and Sons, 1884), and particularly the following from volume one: Catherine Gladstone, "Healthy Nurseries and Bedrooms"; Henry Acland, "Health in the Village"; William Eassie, "Healthy and Unhealthy Houses in Town and Country"; Robert Edis, "Healthy Furniture and Decoration"; Charles Paget, "Healthy Schools"; James Lakeman, "Health in the Workshop."
128. See International Health Exhibition. The Health Exhibition Literature, 19 Vols. (London: William Clowes and Sons, 1884), and particularly the following from volume one: Catherine Gladstone, "Healthy Nurseries and Bedrooms"; Henry Acland, "Health in the Village"; William Eassie, "Healthy and Unhealthy Houses in Town and Country"; Robert Edis, "Healthy Furniture and Decoration"; Charles Paget, "Healthy Schools"; James Lakeman, "Health in the Workshop."
129. See International Health Exhibition. The Health Exhibition Literature, 19 Vols. (London: William Clowes and Sons, 1884), and particularly the following from volume one: Catherine Gladstone, "Healthy Nurseries and Bedrooms"; Henry Acland, "Health in the Village"; William Eassie, "Healthy and Unhealthy Houses in Town and Country"; Robert Edis, "Healthy Furniture and Decoration"; Charles Paget, "Healthy Schools"; James Lakeman, "Health in the Workshop."
130. Hogan, "Model Lodging Houses," 10.
131. See, for instance: H. H. Collins, "What Conditions are Essential for a Healthy Dwelling and how far is it desirable that they should be rendered Compulsory by Legislation" Vol. II; William Eassle, "Healthy Town and Country Houses," Vol. III; T. Pridgin Teale, "Healthy Houses," Vol. III. Henry Acland's "Health in the Village" provides a design that designates the locations for the bedrooms for boys, girls and parents, the boys and girls separated by a landing, 33.
132. See, for instance: H. H. Collins, "What Conditions are Essential for a Healthy Dwelling and how far is it desirable that they should be rendered Compulsory by Legislation" Vol. II; William Eassle, "Healthy Town and Country Houses," Vol. III; T. Pridgin Teale, "Healthy Houses," Vol. III. Henry Acland's "Health in the Village" provides a design that designates the locations for the bedrooms for boys, girls and parents, the boys and girls separated by a landing, 33.
133. See, for instance: H. H. Collins, "What Conditions are Essential for a Healthy Dwelling and how far is it desirable that they should be rendered Compulsory by Legislation" Vol. II; William Eassle, "Healthy Town and Country Houses," Vol. III; T. Pridgin Teale, "Healthy Houses," Vol. III. Henry Acland's "Health in the Village" provides a design that designates the locations for the bedrooms for boys, girls and parents, the boys and girls separated by a landing, 33.
134. See, for instance: H. H. Collins, "What Conditions are Essential for a Healthy Dwelling and how far is it desirable that they should be rendered Compulsory by Legislation" Vol. II; William Eassle, "Healthy Town and Country Houses," Vol. III; T. Pridgin Teale, "Healthy Houses," Vol. III. Henry Acland's "Health in the Village" provides a design that designates the locations for the bedrooms for boys, girls and parents, the boys and girls separated by a landing, 33.
135. The Sanitary Inspector 1 (London: E. W. Allen, 1877), reported that the City of Health was to be erected to the west of Worthing, on the Sussex coast, to be named "Courtlands," and to be built by "The Sanitary Estates Association, Limited," 26.
136. Foucault, Discipline and Punish.
137. Jeremiah Fitzpatrick, An Essay on Gaol-Abuses, and on the Means of Redressing them: Together with the General Method of Treating Disorders to which Prisoners are most Incident (Dublin: Byrne, 1784).
138. Jeremiah Fitzpatrick, Essay on Gaol Abuses, 27-28.
139. "Indeed, among the numerous wrongs, great and small, on which the philosopher in his old age used to dilate with a kind of cheerful acrimony peculiar to himself, there was none which roused so much resentment as the suppression of his Panopticon, which he always attributed to a personal grudge on the King's part." The Sanitary Inspector 1 (London: E. W. Allen, 1877), 91.
140. Carroll-Burke, Colonial Discipline.
141. John Grey, Observations on House and General Sewerage, and on an Improved Plan for Cleansing and Ventilating House Drains by a Self-acting Mechanism: with a Description of the Apparatus, as applied in the North Dublin Union Workhouse, under the Superintendence of the Poor-law Commissioners: Being the substance of a paper read at the Royal Dublin Society (Dublin: Hodges & Smith, 1855).
142. Ibid., 30.
143. Quoted in Oliver MacDonagh, "Ideas and Institutions, 1830-1845, "A New History of Ireland 5 (Oxford: Clarenton Press, 1989), 206.
144. Anon., "A Glance at Irish Statistics," in Dublin University Magazine (1855), 251.
145. Ibid., 251.
146. Anon., "Our juvenile Criminals: the Schoolmaster and the Gaoler," in the Irish Quarterly Review (1854), 27. Quoted in Patrick Carroll-Burke, Colonial Discipline: The Making of the Irish Convict System (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2000), 151.
147. Anon., "Our juvenile Criminals: the Schoolmaster and the Gaoler," in the Irish Quarterly Review (1854), 27. Quoted in Patrick Carroll-Burke, Colonial Discipline: The Making of the Irish Convict System (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2000), 151.
148. "Corporeity" meaning a condition of material being, "socio" for obvious reasons.
149. Gustave Beaumont and Alexis de Tocqueville, On the Penitentiary System in the United States and its Application to France (Southern Illinois University Press, 1964), 81.
150. Franz Von Holtzendorff, Reflections and Observations on the present condition of the Irish Convict System (1863), 7.
151. Designed by Joshua Jebb, who also designed "Pentonville" in London (1842). Mounjoy was opened in 1850. See Carroll-Burke, Colonial Discipline.
152. Designed by Joshua Jebb, who also designed "Pentonville" in London (1842). Mounjoy was opened in 1850. See Carroll-Burke, Colonial Discipline.
153. Lohan, Guide to the Archives, 38-39.
154. See the introduction by Powell and DiMaggio in Walter W. Powell and Paul J. DiMaggio, editors, The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 14-15, and the chapters by Jepperson and Zucker.
155. Carroll-Burke, Colonial Discipline, esp. chapter 4.
156. I b i d.
157. Issues now more central to institutionalism. See Roger Friedland and Robert R. Alford, "Bringing Society Back in: Symbols, Practices, and Institutional Contradictions," in Powell and DiMaggio, 232-263.
158. "... taken-for-granted scripts, rules, and classifications are the stuff of which institutions are made." Powell and DiMaggio, "Introduction," in The New Institutionalism, 15.
159. Simonetta Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini's Italy (Berkeley: University of California Press), 110-113.
160. Lord Brougham's opening address to the first congress of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science, Birmingham, 1857. The verse is Darwin describing the steam engine.
161. Patrick Carroll-Burke, "Medical Police and the History of Public Health," Medical History, 2002.
162. F. M. L. Thomson, The Rise of Respectable Society (London, 1988), 332. W. E. Vaughan, has recently documented the same process in Ireland in the mid-Victorian period. W. E. Vaughan, "Ireland c.1870," in A New History of Ireland 5 (1989).
163. F. M. L. Thomson, The Rise of Respectable Society (London, 1988), 332. W. E. Vaughan, has recently documented the same process in Ireland in the mid-Victorian period. W. E. Vaughan, "Ireland c.1870," in A New History of Ireland 5 (1989).
164. Thomson, Rise of Respectable Society, 331.
165. Elizabeth Malcolm "Popular Recreation in Nineteenth Century Ireland," in Oliver MacDonagh, et al., editors, Irish Culture and Nationalism, 1750-1950 (London and Canberra, 1983).
166. John Flint, The Dublin Police and the Dublin Police System (Dublin, 1847), 43.
167. Anon, "Playground and General Recreation Society," in Irish Quarterly Review (quarterly record, July, 1859), xxxvi.
168. Ibid., xxxvii.
169. Carroll-Burke, "Medical Police and the History of Public Health."
170. David Carins, Writing Ireland: Colonialism, Nationalism, and Culture (New York: Manchester University Press, 1988); Susan Shaw Sailer, editor, Representing Ireland. Gender, Class, Nationality (Gainesville Fl.: University Press of Florida, 1997); Declan Kiberd, Inventing Ireland. The Literature of the Modern Nation (London: Jonathan Cape, 1995). Brenden Bradshaw, editor, Representing Ireland: Literature and the Origins of Conflict, 1534-1660 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
171. David Carins, Writing Ireland: Colonialism, Nationalism, and Culture (New York: Manchester University Press, 1988); Susan Shaw Sailer, editor, Representing Ireland. Gender, Class, Nationality (Gainesville Fl.: University Press of Florida, 1997); Declan Kiberd, Inventing Ireland. The Literature of the Modern Nation (London: Jonathan Cape, 1995). Brenden Bradshaw, editor, Representing Ireland: Literature and the Origins of Conflict, 1534-1660 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
172. David Carins, Writing Ireland: Colonialism, Nationalism, and Culture (New York: Manchester University Press, 1988); Susan Shaw Sailer, editor, Representing Ireland. Gender, Class, Nationality (Gainesville Fl.: University Press of Florida, 1997); Declan Kiberd, Inventing Ireland. The Literature of the Modern Nation (London: Jonathan Cape, 1995). Brenden Bradshaw, editor, Representing Ireland: Literature and the Origins of Conflict, 1534-1660 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
173. David Carins, Writing Ireland: Colonialism, Nationalism, and Culture (New York: Manchester University Press, 1988); Susan Shaw Sailer, editor, Representing Ireland. Gender, Class, Nationality (Gainesville Fl.: University Press of Florida, 1997); Declan Kiberd, Inventing Ireland. The Literature of the Modern Nation (London: Jonathan Cape, 1995). Brenden Bradshaw, editor, Representing Ireland: Literature and the Origins of Conflict, 1534-1660 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
174. Mukerji and Carroll-Burke.
175. Unlike Tilly, I do not believe modern engineering states should be classed along side premodern, what I would call "regime-states."
176. A culture that, while muted in representation, was never in fact entirely lost. Indeed, the national electricity system was given enormous impetus immediately after the civil war with a massive hydro-electric station built on the Shannon river and opened in 1927. As Mark Maguire points out, "the scheme" as it was known, was noteworthy for the way its designers "wove an icon of modernity into the fabric of a nation purported to be rural and anti-modern." Mark Maguire, "Socialists, Savages and Hydroelectric Schemes: A Historical Anthropological Account of the Construction of Ardnacrusha," Irish Journal of Anthropology 3, 1998, 60-77. On collective memory see the special issue of Qualitative Sociology, edited by Barry Swartz, 19/3, (1996).
177. A culture that, while muted in representation, was never in fact entirely lost. Indeed, the national electricity system was given enormous impetus immediately after the civil war with a massive hydro-electric station built on the Shannon river and opened in 1927. As Mark Maguire points out, "the scheme" as it was known, was noteworthy for the way its designers "wove an icon of modernity into the fabric of a nation purported to be rural and anti-modern." Mark Maguire, "Socialists, Savages and Hydroelectric Schemes: A Historical Anthropological Account of the Construction of Ardnacrusha," Irish Journal of Anthropology 3, 1998, 60-77. On collective memory see the special issue of Qualitative Sociology, edited by Barry Swartz, 19/3, (1996).