Towards compatibility: The future of electronic commerce within the global trading system

Journal of International Economic Law

Volumn 4, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 683-723

  Mitchell, Andrew D ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0035734132     PISSN: 13693034     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jiel/4.4.683     Document Type: Article

References (283)

1. Michael Hart and Ramesh Chaitoo, Electronic Commerce and the Rules of the World Trade Organization, Centre for Trade Policy and Law, Canada, Occasional Papers No 54 (Ottawa: Centre for Trade Policy and Law 1999) 4.
2. Pierre Sauvé and Robert M. Stern, 'New Directions in Services Trade Liberalization: An Overview' in Pierre Sauvé and Robert M. Stern (eds), GATS 2000, New Directions in Services Trade Liberalization (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press 2000) 1, 1.
3. Andrea Goldstein and David O'Connor, E-Commerce for Development: Prospects and Policy Issues, OECD Development Centre: Technical Papers No 164 (Paris: OECD 2000) 14; Rosa Pérez-Esteve and Ludger Schuknecht, A Quantitative Assessment of Electronic Commerce, World Trade Organization, Economic Research and Analysis Division, Staff Working Paper ERAD-99-01 (Geneva: WTO 1999) Part IV.
4. Andrea Goldstein and David O'Connor, E-Commerce for Development: Prospects and Policy Issues, OECD Development Centre: Technical Papers No 164 (Paris: OECD 2000) 14; Rosa Pérez-Esteve and Ludger Schuknecht, A Quantitative Assessment of Electronic Commerce, World Trade Organization, Economic Research and Analysis Division, Staff Working Paper ERAD-99-01 (Geneva: WTO 1999) Part IV.
5. Catherine L. Mann, Electronic Commerce in Developing Countries: Issues for Domestic Policy and WTO Negotiations, Institute for International Economics, Working Paper 00-3 (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics 2000) 3 [hereinafter Mann, Developing Countries]; Catherine L. Mann, Electronic Commerce and Trade Facilitation in APEC, Preliminary Paper, 5 September (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics 2000) 4. For various definitions see OECD, Electronic Commerce: Opportunities and Challenges for Government (Paris: OECD 1997) 20-32; OECD, The Economic and Social Impact of Electronic Commerce (Paris: OECD 1999) 28-29; UNCTAD, Building Confidence: Electronic Commerce and Development (Geneva: UNCTAD 2000) 9-23.
6. Catherine L. Mann, Electronic Commerce in Developing Countries: Issues for Domestic Policy and WTO Negotiations, Institute for International Economics, Working Paper 00-3 (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics 2000) 3 [hereinafter Mann, Developing Countries]; Catherine L. Mann, Electronic Commerce and Trade Facilitation in APEC, Preliminary Paper, 5 September (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics 2000) 4. For various definitions see OECD, Electronic Commerce: Opportunities and Challenges for Government (Paris: OECD 1997) 20-32; OECD, The Economic and Social Impact of Electronic Commerce (Paris: OECD 1999) 28-29; UNCTAD, Building Confidence: Electronic Commerce and Development (Geneva: UNCTAD 2000) 9-23.
7. Catherine L. Mann, Electronic Commerce in Developing Countries: Issues for Domestic Policy and WTO Negotiations, Institute for International Economics, Working Paper 00-3 (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics 2000) 3 [hereinafter Mann, Developing Countries]; Catherine L. Mann, Electronic Commerce and Trade Facilitation in APEC, Preliminary Paper, 5 September (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics 2000) 4. For various definitions see OECD, Electronic Commerce: Opportunities and Challenges for Government (Paris: OECD 1997) 20-32; OECD, The Economic and Social Impact of Electronic Commerce (Paris: OECD 1999) 28-29; UNCTAD, Building Confidence: Electronic Commerce and Development (Geneva: UNCTAD 2000) 9-23.
8. Catherine L. Mann, Electronic Commerce in Developing Countries: Issues for Domestic Policy and WTO Negotiations, Institute for International Economics, Working Paper 00-3 (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics 2000) 3 [hereinafter Mann, Developing Countries]; Catherine L. Mann, Electronic Commerce and Trade Facilitation in APEC, Preliminary Paper, 5 September (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics 2000) 4. For various definitions see OECD, Electronic Commerce: Opportunities and Challenges for Government (Paris: OECD 1997) 20-32; OECD, The Economic and Social Impact of Electronic Commerce (Paris: OECD 1999) 28-29; UNCTAD, Building Confidence: Electronic Commerce and Development (Geneva: UNCTAD 2000) 9-23.
9. Catherine L. Mann, Electronic Commerce in Developing Countries: Issues for Domestic Policy and WTO Negotiations, Institute for International Economics, Working Paper 00-3 (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics 2000) 3 [hereinafter Mann, Developing Countries]; Catherine L. Mann, Electronic Commerce and Trade Facilitation in APEC, Preliminary Paper, 5 September (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics 2000) 4. For various definitions see OECD, Electronic Commerce: Opportunities and Challenges for Government (Paris: OECD 1997) 20-32; OECD, The Economic and Social Impact of Electronic Commerce (Paris: OECD 1999) 28-29; UNCTAD, Building Confidence: Electronic Commerce and Development (Geneva: UNCTAD 2000) 9-23.
10. 'EDI typically entails the exchange of documents and information between the computers of two businesses without human intervention.': World Trade Organization, Electronic Commerce and the Role of the WTO (Geneva: WTO 1998) 9 [hereinafter WTO, Electronic Commerce].
11. See ibid at 10 for a brief history of the Internet.
12. WTO, General Council, Work Programme on Electronic Commerce, Adopted by the General Council on 25 September 1998, 30 September 1998 WT/L/274, http://www.wto.org/english/tratop e/ecom_e/wkprog_e.htm.
13. Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation.
14. APEC, http://www.dfat.gov.au/apec/ecom/TELWG-200598.pdf (emphasis in original).
15. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific.
16. http://www.unescap.org/drpad/pub3/svy5a.htm.
17. WTO, General Council, Work Programme on Electronic Commerce, Adopted by the General Council on 25 September 1998, 30 September 1998 WT/L/274, http://www.wto.org/english/tratop e/ecom_e/wkprog_e.htm.
18. WTO, Electronic Commerce, above n 5, 1.
19. Ibid at 10.
20. 'Untangling E-conomics', Economist (21 September 2000).
21. Ibid.
22. WTO, Electronic Commerce, above n 5, 23; Matthew R. Sanders and Bruce D. Temkin, 'Global eCommerce Approaches Hypergrowth' (18 April 2000). http://www.forrester.com/ER/Research/ Brief/0,1317,9229,00.html; http://www.bcg.com/new_ideas/new_ideas_subpage28.asp.
23. WTO, Electronic Commerce, above n 5, 23; Matthew R. Sanders and Bruce D. Temkin, 'Global eCommerce Approaches Hypergrowth' (18 April 2000). http://www.forrester.com/ER/Research/ Brief/0,1317,9229,00.html; http://www.bcg.com/new_ideas/new_ideas_subpage28.asp.
24. WTO, Electronic Commerce, above n 5, 11, 30-31; Arvind Panagariya, 'Electronic Commerce, WTO and Developing Countries', 23 World Econ 959, 970 (1999).
25. WTO, Electronic Commerce, above n 5, 11, 30-31; Arvind Panagariya, 'Electronic Commerce, WTO and Developing Countries', 23 World Econ 959, 970 (1999).
26. Panagariya, above n 18, 970.
27. WTO, Electronic Commerce, above n 5, 15.
28. Note that some economists doubt that electronic commerce will dramatically reduce consumer search costs since learning how to operate a computer and the Internet both require training which can be expensive to acquire: ibid at 20.
29. 'Dotty about Dot. Commerce?', Economist (24 February 2000).
30. WTO, Electronic Commerce, above n 5, 21.
31. According to a Goldman Sachs report, possible cost savings range from 2 percent in the coal industry to up to 40 percent in electronic components: 'A Thinkers' Guide', Economist (1 April 2000).
32. For example, Singapore's Ministry of Defense operates much of its National Service program via the Internet, and the government's online procurement system, GeBIZ, is expected soon to handle 80 percent of all government procurement: 'Island Site', Economist (22 June 2000).
33. 140 Members on 30 November 2000.
34. Hart and Chaitoo, above n 1, 5.
35. Ibid at 6.
36. The Geneva Ministerial Declaration on Global Electronic Commerce, WT/MIN(98)/DEC/2 (98-2148) (25 May 1998) http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/ecom_e/mindec1_e.ht.
37. Council for Trade in Service, Work Programme on Electronic Commerce - Interim Report to the General Council, S/C/8, 31 March 1999.
38. See section III.A 'The Problem of Digitizable Projects' below.
39. See generally: Mike Moore, 'The Challenges and Opportunities of E-Commerce', 103(1) Bus Credit 52 (2001) [hereinafter Moore, 'E-Commerce'].
40. See generally: Bhagirath Lal Das, An Introduction to the WTO Agreements (New York: Zed Books 1998) 107-14; Jeffrey M. Lang, 'The First Five Years of the WTO: General Agreement on Trade in Services', 31 Law & Pol'y Int'l Bus 801 (2000).
41. See generally: Bhagirath Lal Das, An Introduction to the WTO Agreements (New York: Zed Books 1998) 107-14; Jeffrey M. Lang, 'The First Five Years of the WTO: General Agreement on Trade in Services', 31 Law & Pol'y Int'l Bus 801 (2000).
42. WTO, WTO Secretariat, Trade in Services Division, An Introduction to the GATS, October 1999, 1.
43. GATS Article 11:2 permits Members to maintain a measure inconsistent with this MFN obligation provided that it is listed in the Annex on Article II Exemptions. Although national exemptions to the MFN principle in specific sectors were permitted at the time of entry into force of the agreement (such exemptions are generally not to extend beyond 2004), any future requests to escape MFN obligations must follow the WTO waiver procedure. Another general exemption from the MFN principle is for regional trading arrangements, which is similar to the regional trading exemption in GATT.
44. Part III of GATS (together with the definition of modes of supply in Article 1) structures Members' individual commitments to trade in services liberalization, which are contained in their national Schedules. Members make commitments in three areas described as: market access; national treatment; and additional. The requirements in Part III only relate to service sectors in which Members have scheduled a commitment.
45. Article XIX of GATS mandates: '1. In pursuance of the objectives of this Agreement, Members shall enter into successive rounds of negotiations, beginning not later than [January 2000] and periodically thereafter, with a view to achieving a progressively higher level of liberalization . . . 2. The process of liberalization shall take place with due respect for national policy objectives and the level of development of individual Members, both overall and in individual sectors. There shall be appropriate flexibility for individual developing country members for opening fewer sectors, liberalizing fewer types of transactions, progressively extending market access in line with their development situation . . .'.
46. Christopher Roberts, 'Promoting International Trade in Services: A Priority for Europe', 12(4) Eur Bus J 199, 201-02 (2000).
47. GATS, Article I(2).
48. WTO, Scheduling of Initial Commitments in Trade in Services: Explanatory Note MTN.GNS/W/ 164 (3 September 1993).
49. See sections III.A 'The Problem of Digitizable Products' and III.C 'Convergence Trends' below.
50. Aaditya Mattoo and Ludger Schuknecht, Trade Policies for Electronic Commerce, Policy Research Working Paper Series 2380, World Bank, June 2000, 18.
51. Interim Report of the WTO Council for Trade in Services on the Work Program for Electronic Commerce, S/C/8 (31 March 1999); WTO, Electronic Commerce, above n 5, 52.
52. Interim Report of the WTO Council for Trade in Services on the Work Program for Electronic Commerce, S/C/8 (31 March 1999); WTO, Electronic Commerce, above n 5, 52.
53. Emad Tinawi and Judson I. Berkey, 'E-Services and the WTO; Inadequacy of the GATS Classification Framework', 22 Middle E Executive Rep 8 (1999).
54. William J. Drake and Kalypso Nicolaidïs, 'Global Electronic Commerce and GATS: The Millennium Round and Beyond' in Pierre Sauve and Robert Mitchell Stern (eds), GATS 2000: New Directions in Services Trade Liberalization (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press 2000) 399, 413.
55. Tinawi and Berkey, above n 44; ibid.
56. Mattoo and Schuknecht, above n 42, fn 23. As Mattoo and Schuknecht note, this is particularly important in financial services.
57. Panagariya, above n 18, 965.
58. Drake and Nicolaidïs, above n 45, 413.
59. Hart and Chaitoo, above n 1, 18.
60. Panagariya, above n 18, 965.
61. Ibid at 964.
62. Geza Feketekuty, 'Regulatory Reform and Trade Liberalization in Services' in Pierre Sauvé and Robert Mitchell Stern (eds), GATS 2000: New Directions in Services Trade Liberalization 225 (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press 2000) [hereinafter Feketekuty, 'Regulatory Reform'].
63. Drake and Nicolaidïs, above n 45, 414; Tinawi and Berkey, above n 44.
64. Mattoo and Schuknecht, above n 42, 18.
65. Drake and Nicolaidïs, above n 45, 414.
66. Tinawi and Berkey, above n 44. In relation to market access commitments see section II.B.1, 'Market access commitments' below.
67. Drake and Nicolaidïs, above n 45, 414.
68. World Trade Organization, General Council, 'Work Programme on Electronic Commerce - Communication from the United States' WT/GC/16 (February 12) at 2.
69. Drake and Nicolaidïs, above n 45, 412.
70. Mattoo and Schuknecht, above n 42, 17.
71. Drake and Nicolaidïs, above n 45, 412.
72. WTO, Electronic Commerce, above n 5, 47.
73. Ibid.
74. WTO, Note by the Chairman, Group on Basic Telecommunications, S/GBT/W/2/Rev 1 (16 January 1997).
75. WTO, Electronic Commerce, above n 5, 48.
76. Mattoo and Schuknecht, above n 42, 13-14.
77. Ibid.
78. See generally: Thomas Cottier, Petros Mavroidis, and Patrick Blatter (eds), Regulatory Barriers and the Principle of Non-Discrimination in World Trade Law: Past, Present and Future (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press 1999); Edward S. Tsai, '"Like" is a Four-Letter Word - GATT Article III's "Like Product" Conundrum', 17 Berk J Int'l Law 26 (1999); Richard L. Matheny, 'In the Wake of the Flood: "Like Products" and Cultural Products after the World Trade Organization's Decision in Canada Certain Measures Concerning Periodicals', 147 U Pa L Rev 245 (1998).
79. See generally: Thomas Cottier, Petros Mavroidis, and Patrick Blatter (eds), Regulatory Barriers and the Principle of Non-Discrimination in World Trade Law: Past, Present and Future (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press 1999); Edward S. Tsai, '"Like" is a Four-Letter Word - GATT Article III's "Like Product" Conundrum', 17 Berk J Int'l Law 26 (1999); Richard L. Matheny, 'In the Wake of the Flood: "Like Products" and Cultural Products after the World Trade Organization's Decision in Canada Certain Measures Concerning Periodicals', 147 U Pa L Rev 245 (1998).
80. See generally: Thomas Cottier, Petros Mavroidis, and Patrick Blatter (eds), Regulatory Barriers and the Principle of Non-Discrimination in World Trade Law: Past, Present and Future (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press 1999); Edward S. Tsai, '"Like" is a Four-Letter Word - GATT Article III's "Like Product" Conundrum', 17 Berk J Int'l Law 26 (1999); Richard L. Matheny, 'In the Wake of the Flood: "Like Products" and Cultural Products after the World Trade Organization's Decision in Canada Certain Measures Concerning Periodicals', 147 U Pa L Rev 245 (1998).
81. Drake and Nicolaidïs, above n 45, 421.
82. Mattoo and Schuknecht, above n 42, 15-16.
83. Drake and Nicolaidïs, above n 45, 421.
84. Japan - Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages, Panel Report, WT/DS8/R, WT/DS10/R, WT/DS11/R. (1992).
85. Mattoo and Schuknecht, above n 42, 16.
86. GATS Article VI(4).
87. Hart and Chaitoo, above n 1, 18.
88. WTO, Council for Trade in Services, Work Programme on Electronic Commerce: Interim Report to the General Council, 31 March 1999, S/C/8, 7.
89. Union of French Jewish Students and League against Racism and Anti-Semitism v Yahoo! Inc. and Yahoo France http://www.gigalaw.com/library/france-yahoo-2000-11-20.html. See also the complaint for declaratory relief filed in the US District Court for the Northern District of California (San Jose Division) in Yahoo! Inc. v La Lique Contre Le Racisme Et L'Antisemitisme and L'Union Des Etudiants Juifs De France, which asserts that the French court's order that Yahoo! must block French surfers from auctions for Nazi material on their American website is unenforceable because of lack of jurisdiction. The complaint also alleges that the French order is contrary to public policy and violates not only the American constitutional guarantee of free expression but also provisions in several international treaties. http://www.20001aw.com/article-488.pdf. Yahoo! decided to ban all Nazi paraphernalia and other hate-related materials from its online auctions, effective 10 January: Janet Kornblum, 'Feedback Leads Yahoo! to Ban Nazi Material', USA Today (2 January 2001), at 3D; Yahoo! Auctions - Revised Guidelines http://auctions.yahoo.com/phtml/auc/us/promo/revisedguidelines.html; 'Vive la liberte!', Economist (23 November 2000). See also the prosecution of the former head of CompuServe in Germany for failing to block access to child pornography sites on the Internet. See also: 'First America, Then the World', Economist (24 February 2000): 'In another case, Land's End, a clothes retailer, was deemed to be breaching German consumer law by offering its normal 100% replacement guarantee for any clothing that wore out. Advertising on websites in Europe is a colossal headache: for example, Denmark bans advertising to children, France bans advertising in English and Germany bans comparative advertising.'
90. Union of French Jewish Students and League against Racism and Anti-Semitism v Yahoo! Inc. and Yahoo France http://www.gigalaw.com/library/france-yahoo-2000-11-20.html. See also the complaint for declaratory relief filed in the US District Court for the Northern District of California (San Jose Division) in Yahoo! Inc. v La Lique Contre Le Racisme Et L'Antisemitisme and L'Union Des Etudiants Juifs De France, which asserts that the French court's order that Yahoo! must block French surfers from auctions for Nazi material on their American website is unenforceable because of lack of jurisdiction. The complaint also alleges that the French order is contrary to public policy and violates not only the American constitutional guarantee of free expression but also provisions in several international treaties. http://www.20001aw.com/article-488.pdf. Yahoo! decided to ban all Nazi paraphernalia and other hate-related materials from its online auctions, effective 10 January: Janet Kornblum, 'Feedback Leads Yahoo! to Ban Nazi Material', USA Today (2 January 2001), at 3D; Yahoo! Auctions - Revised Guidelines http://auctions.yahoo.com/phtml/auc/us/promo/revisedguidelines.html; 'Vive la liberte!', Economist (23 November 2000). See also the prosecution of the former head of CompuServe in Germany for failing to block access to child pornography sites on the Internet. See also: 'First America, Then the World', Economist (24 February 2000): 'In another case, Land's End, a clothes retailer, was deemed to be breaching German consumer law by offering its normal 100% replacement guarantee for any clothing that wore out. Advertising on websites in Europe is a colossal headache: for example, Denmark bans advertising to children, France bans advertising in English and Germany bans comparative advertising.'
91. Union of French Jewish Students and League against Racism and Anti-Semitism v Yahoo! Inc. and Yahoo France http://www.gigalaw.com/library/france-yahoo-2000-11-20.html. See also the complaint for declaratory relief filed in the US District Court for the Northern District of California (San Jose Division) in Yahoo! Inc. v La Lique Contre Le Racisme Et L'Antisemitisme and L'Union Des Etudiants Juifs De France, which asserts that the French court's order that Yahoo! must block French surfers from auctions for Nazi material on their American website is unenforceable because of lack of jurisdiction. The complaint also alleges that the French order is contrary to public policy and violates not only the American constitutional guarantee of free expression but also provisions in several international treaties. http://www.20001aw.com/article-488.pdf. Yahoo! decided to ban all Nazi paraphernalia and other hate-related materials from its online auctions, effective 10 January: Janet Kornblum, 'Feedback Leads Yahoo! to Ban Nazi Material', USA Today (2 January 2001), at 3D; Yahoo! Auctions - Revised Guidelines http://auctions.yahoo.com/phtml/auc/us/promo/revisedguidelines.html; 'Vive la liberte!', Economist (23 November 2000). See also the prosecution of the former head of CompuServe in Germany for failing to block access to child pornography sites on the Internet. See also: 'First America, Then the World', Economist (24 February 2000): 'In another case, Land's End, a clothes retailer, was deemed to be breaching German consumer law by offering its normal 100% replacement guarantee for any clothing that wore out. Advertising on websites in Europe is a colossal headache: for example, Denmark bans advertising to children, France bans advertising in English and Germany bans comparative advertising.'
92. Union of French Jewish Students and League against Racism and Anti-Semitism v Yahoo! Inc. and Yahoo France http://www.gigalaw.com/library/france-yahoo-2000-11-20.html. See also the complaint for declaratory relief filed in the US District Court for the Northern District of California (San Jose Division) in Yahoo! Inc. v La Lique Contre Le Racisme Et L'Antisemitisme and L'Union Des Etudiants Juifs De France, which asserts that the French court's order that Yahoo! must block French surfers from auctions for Nazi material on their American website is unenforceable because of lack of jurisdiction. The complaint also alleges that the French order is contrary to public policy and violates not only the American constitutional guarantee of free expression but also provisions in several international treaties. http://www.20001aw.com/article-488.pdf. Yahoo! decided to ban all Nazi paraphernalia and other hate-related materials from its online auctions, effective 10 January: Janet Kornblum, 'Feedback Leads Yahoo! to Ban Nazi Material', USA Today (2 January 2001), at 3D; Yahoo! Auctions - Revised Guidelines http://auctions.yahoo.com/phtml/auc/us/promo/revisedguidelines.html; 'Vive la liberte!', Economist (23 November 2000). See also the prosecution of the former head of CompuServe in Germany for failing to block access to child pornography sites on the Internet. See also: 'First America, Then the World', Economist (24 February 2000): 'In another case, Land's End, a clothes retailer, was deemed to be breaching German consumer law by offering its normal 100% replacement guarantee for any clothing that wore out. Advertising on websites in Europe is a colossal headache: for example, Denmark bans advertising to children, France bans advertising in English and Germany bans comparative advertising.'
93. Union of French Jewish Students and League against Racism and Anti-Semitism v Yahoo! Inc. and Yahoo France http://www.gigalaw.com/library/france-yahoo-2000-11-20.html. See also the complaint for declaratory relief filed in the US District Court for the Northern District of California (San Jose Division) in Yahoo! Inc. v La Lique Contre Le Racisme Et L'Antisemitisme and L'Union Des Etudiants Juifs De France, which asserts that the French court's order that Yahoo! must block French surfers from auctions for Nazi material on their American website is unenforceable because of lack of jurisdiction. The complaint also alleges that the French order is contrary to public policy and violates not only the American constitutional guarantee of free expression but also provisions in several international treaties. http://www.20001aw.com/article-488.pdf. Yahoo! decided to ban all Nazi paraphernalia and other hate-related materials from its online auctions, effective 10 January: Janet Kornblum, 'Feedback Leads Yahoo! to Ban Nazi Material', USA Today (2 January 2001), at 3D; Yahoo! Auctions - Revised Guidelines http://auctions.yahoo.com/phtml/auc/us/promo/revisedguidelines.html; 'Vive la liberte!', Economist (23 November 2000). See also the prosecution of the former head of CompuServe in Germany for failing to block access to child pornography sites on the Internet. See also: 'First America, Then the World', Economist (24 February 2000): 'In another case, Land's End, a clothes retailer, was deemed to be breaching German consumer law by offering its normal 100% replacement guarantee for any clothing that wore out. Advertising on websites in Europe is a colossal headache: for example, Denmark bans advertising to children, France bans advertising in English and Germany bans comparative advertising.'
94. Debora L. Spar, 'The Public Face of Cyberspace' in Inge Kaul et al. (eds), Global Public Goods: International Cooperation in the 21st Century (New York: Oxford University Press 1999) 344, 355.
95. World Trade Organization, Council for Trade in Services 'Work Programme on Electronic Commerce: Communication from the European Communities and Their Member States' S/C/W/98 (23 February 1999) at 2.
96. Geza Feketekuty, 'Setting the Agenda for the Next Round of Negotiations on Trade in Services' in Jeffrey J. Schott (ed), Launching New Global Trade Talks: An Action Agenda (Washington: Institute for International Economics 1999) 91, 94 [hereinafter Feketekuty, 'Setting the Agenda'].
97. Ibid.
98. Ibid.
99. Feketekuty, 'Regulatory Reform', above n 53, 227.
100. Feketekuty, 'Setting the Agenda', above n 81, 94.
101. Mattoo and Schuknecht, above n 42, 19; Ibid at 95; Feketekuty, 'Regulatory Reform', above n 53, 226.
102. Mattoo and Schuknecht, above n 42, 19; Ibid at 95; Feketekuty, 'Regulatory Reform', above n 53, 226.
103. WTO, Electronic Commerce, above n 5, 49.
104. See also, Andrew D. Mitchell, 'Broadening the Vision of Trade Liberalization: International Competition Law and the WTO', (2001) 24 Int'l Competition: L & Econ Rev 303; OECD, Trade and Competition Policies for Tomorrow (1999) 71.
105. See also, Andrew D. Mitchell, 'Broadening the Vision of Trade Liberalization: International Competition Law and the WTO', (2001) 24 Int'l Competition: L & Econ Rev 303; OECD, Trade and Competition Policies for Tomorrow (1999) 71.
106. Rachel Bickler, 'The Role of Competition Policy in the New World Trade Order', 6 Int'l Trade L & Reg 210, 214 (1995).
107. Drake and Nicolaidïs, above n 45, 418.
108. See for example the Microsoft litigation in the United States.
109. WTO Council for Trade in Services, Telecommunication Services: Background Note by the Secretariat, 8 December 1998 (S/C/W/74) 10.
110. GATS Article XXVIII(h).
111. Hart and Chaitoo, above n 1, 20.
112. See generally: Laura B. Sherman, '"Wildly Enthusiastic" About the First Multilateral Agreement on Trade in Telecommunications Services', 51 Fed Comm LJ 61 (1998). Stefan M. Meisner, 'Global Telecommunications Competition a Reality: United States Complies with WTO Pact', 13 Am U Int'l L Rev 1345 (1998); John J. Alissi, 'Revolutionizing the Telephone Industry: The World Trade Organization Agreement on Basic Telecommunications and the Federal Communications Commission Order', 13 Conn J Int'l L 485 (1999); M. C. E. J. Bronckers and P. Larouche, 'Telecommunications Services and the World Trade Organization', 31 J. World Trade 5 (1997); Lee Tuthill, 'Users Rights? The Multilateral Rules on Access to Telecommunications Policy', 20 Telecommunications Policy 89 (1996); Lee Tuthill, 'The GATS and New Rules for Regulators', 21 Telecommunications Policy 783 (1997).
113. See generally: Laura B. Sherman, '"Wildly Enthusiastic" About the First Multilateral Agreement on Trade in Telecommunications Services', 51 Fed Comm LJ 61 (1998). Stefan M. Meisner, 'Global Telecommunications Competition a Reality: United States Complies with WTO Pact', 13 Am U Int'l L Rev 1345 (1998); John J. Alissi, 'Revolutionizing the Telephone Industry: The World Trade Organization Agreement on Basic Telecommunications and the Federal Communications Commission Order', 13 Conn J Int'l L 485 (1999); M. C. E. J. Bronckers and P. Larouche, 'Telecommunications Services and the World Trade Organization', 31 J. World Trade 5 (1997); Lee Tuthill, 'Users Rights? The Multilateral Rules on Access to Telecommunications Policy', 20 Telecommunications Policy 89 (1996); Lee Tuthill, 'The GATS and New Rules for Regulators', 21 Telecommunications Policy 783 (1997).
114. See generally: Laura B. Sherman, '"Wildly Enthusiastic" About the First Multilateral Agreement on Trade in Telecommunications Services', 51 Fed Comm LJ 61 (1998). Stefan M. Meisner, 'Global Telecommunications Competition a Reality: United States Complies with WTO Pact', 13 Am U Int'l L Rev 1345 (1998); John J. Alissi, 'Revolutionizing the Telephone Industry: The World Trade Organization Agreement on Basic Telecommunications and the Federal Communications Commission Order', 13 Conn J Int'l L 485 (1999); M. C. E. J. Bronckers and P. Larouche, 'Telecommunications Services and the World Trade Organization', 31 J. World Trade 5 (1997); Lee Tuthill, 'Users Rights? The Multilateral Rules on Access to Telecommunications Policy', 20 Telecommunications Policy 89 (1996); Lee Tuthill, 'The GATS and New Rules for Regulators', 21 Telecommunications Policy 783 (1997).
115. See generally: Laura B. Sherman, '"Wildly Enthusiastic" About the First Multilateral Agreement on Trade in Telecommunications Services', 51 Fed Comm LJ 61 (1998). Stefan M. Meisner, 'Global Telecommunications Competition a Reality: United States Complies with WTO Pact', 13 Am U Int'l L Rev 1345 (1998); John J. Alissi, 'Revolutionizing the Telephone Industry: The World Trade Organization Agreement on Basic Telecommunications and the Federal Communications Commission Order', 13 Conn J Int'l L 485 (1999); M. C. E. J. Bronckers and P. Larouche, 'Telecommunications Services and the World Trade Organization', 31 J. World Trade 5 (1997); Lee Tuthill, 'Users Rights? The Multilateral Rules on Access to Telecommunications Policy', 20 Telecommunications Policy 89 (1996); Lee Tuthill, 'The GATS and New Rules for Regulators', 21 Telecommunications Policy 783 (1997).
116. See generally: Laura B. Sherman, '"Wildly Enthusiastic" About the First Multilateral Agreement on Trade in Telecommunications Services', 51 Fed Comm LJ 61 (1998). Stefan M. Meisner, 'Global Telecommunications Competition a Reality: United States Complies with WTO Pact', 13 Am U Int'l L Rev 1345 (1998); John J. Alissi, 'Revolutionizing the Telephone Industry: The World Trade Organization Agreement on Basic Telecommunications and the Federal Communications Commission Order', 13 Conn J Int'l L 485 (1999); M. C. E. J. Bronckers and P. Larouche, 'Telecommunications Services and the World Trade Organization', 31 J. World Trade 5 (1997); Lee Tuthill, 'Users Rights? The Multilateral Rules on Access to Telecommunications Policy', 20 Telecommunications Policy 89 (1996); Lee Tuthill, 'The GATS and New Rules for Regulators', 21 Telecommunications Policy 783 (1997).
117. See generally: Laura B. Sherman, '"Wildly Enthusiastic" About the First Multilateral Agreement on Trade in Telecommunications Services', 51 Fed Comm LJ 61 (1998). Stefan M. Meisner, 'Global Telecommunications Competition a Reality: United States Complies with WTO Pact', 13 Am U Int'l L Rev 1345 (1998); John J. Alissi, 'Revolutionizing the Telephone Industry: The World Trade Organization Agreement on Basic Telecommunications and the Federal Communications Commission Order', 13 Conn J Int'l L 485 (1999); M. C. E. J. Bronckers and P. Larouche, 'Telecommunications Services and the World Trade Organization', 31 J. World Trade 5 (1997); Lee Tuthill, 'Users Rights? The Multilateral Rules on Access to Telecommunications Policy', 20 Telecommunications Policy 89 (1996); Lee Tuthill, 'The GATS and New Rules for Regulators', 21 Telecommunications Policy 783 (1997).
118. WTO, Council for Trade in Services, Note by the Secretariat, The Work Programme on Electronic Commerce, 16 November 1998, S/C/W/68, at 6.
119. Drake and Nicolaidïs, above n 45, 414.
120. Hart and Chaitoo, above n 1, 4.
121. Max Baucus, 'International Trade Aspects of E-Commerce', 17 Arizona J In't & Comp L 205, 208 (2000).
122. See generally, Lee Tuthill, 'Users' Rights? The Multilateral Rules on Access to Telecommunications', 20 Telecommunications Policy 89 (1996); 'The Annex on Communications' http:// www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/servte-e/te107_e.htm; WTO, WTO Secretariat, Trade in Services Division, An Introduction to the GATS, October 1999, 12.
123. See generally, Lee Tuthill, 'Users' Rights? The Multilateral Rules on Access to Telecommunications', 20 Telecommunications Policy 89 (1996); 'The Annex on Communications' http:// www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/servte-e/te107_e.htm; WTO, WTO Secretariat, Trade in Services Division, An Introduction to the GATS, October 1999, 12.
124. See generally, Lee Tuthill, 'Users' Rights? The Multilateral Rules on Access to Telecommunications', 20 Telecommunications Policy 89 (1996); 'The Annex on Communications' http:// www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/servte-e/te107_e.htm; WTO, WTO Secretariat, Trade in Services Division, An Introduction to the GATS, October 1999, 12.
125. The Annexes are: Article II Exemptions; Movement of Natural Persons Supplying Services under the Agreement; Air Transport Services; Financial Services (1); Financial Services (2); Maritime Transport Services; Telecommunications; and Negotiations on Basic Telecommunications.
126. See, e.g., GATS, Annex on Telecommunications, Articles 5(d), (e)(i), (e)(ii).
127. Public telecommunications transport service is defined in GATS, Annex on Telecommunications 3(b) to mean 'any telecommunications transport service required, explicitly or in effect, by a Member to be offered to the public generally. Such services may include, inter alia, telegraph, telephone, telex, and data transmission typically involving the real-time transmission of customer-supplied information between two or more points without any end-to-end change in the form or content of the customer's information.' Public telecommunications transport network is defined in GATS, Annex on Telecommunications 3(c) to mean 'the public telecommunications infrastructure which permits telecommunications between and among defined network termination points'.
128. GATS, Annex on Telecommunications, Article 5(a).
129. 'Each Member shall ensure that any service supplier of any Member is accorded access to any use of public telecommunications transport networks and services on reasonable and non-discriminatory terms and conditions, for the supply of a service included in its Schedule.': Annex Para 5(a). WTO, Electronic Commerce, above n 5, 49.
130. WTO, Electronic Commerce, above n 5, 49.
131. Ibid. Note however, that 'in the basic telecommunications negotiations . . . many participants were of the view that more explicit and detailed regulatory provisions were needed in order to ensure adequate market access for new market entrants, especially in situations where dominant suppliers might be tempted to undermine commitments by governments to open up markets for basic telecommunications services.'
132. Drake and Nicolaidïs, above n 45, 416-17.
133. Ibid at 420.
134. Ibid at 417.
135. Feketekuty, 'Setting the Agenda', above n 81, 108.
136. Microsoft, WTO and Electronic Commerce: Issues for World Trade (1999) 11.
137. See generally: Robert M. Frieden, 'Dialing for Dollars: Should the FCC Regulate Internet Telephony?', 23 Rutgers Computer & Tech LJ 47 (1997); Robert M. Frieden, 'Without Public Peer: The Potential Regulatory and Universal Service Consequences of Internet Balkanization', 3 Va J L & Tech 8 (1998); Robert M. Frieden, 'Universal Service: When Technologies Converge and Regulatory Models Diverge', 13 Harv J L & Tech 395 (2000).
138. See generally: Robert M. Frieden, 'Dialing for Dollars: Should the FCC Regulate Internet Telephony?', 23 Rutgers Computer & Tech LJ 47 (1997); Robert M. Frieden, 'Without Public Peer: The Potential Regulatory and Universal Service Consequences of Internet Balkanization', 3 Va J L & Tech 8 (1998); Robert M. Frieden, 'Universal Service: When Technologies Converge and Regulatory Models Diverge', 13 Harv J L & Tech 395 (2000).
139. See generally: Robert M. Frieden, 'Dialing for Dollars: Should the FCC Regulate Internet Telephony?', 23 Rutgers Computer & Tech LJ 47 (1997); Robert M. Frieden, 'Without Public Peer: The Potential Regulatory and Universal Service Consequences of Internet Balkanization', 3 Va J L & Tech 8 (1998); Robert M. Frieden, 'Universal Service: When Technologies Converge and Regulatory Models Diverge', 13 Harv J L & Tech 395 (2000).
140. Drake and Nicolaidïs, above n 45, 418.
141. Microsoft, above n 112, 11.
142. Drake and Nicolaidïs, above n 45, 427.
143. Ibid at 428.
144. Ibid.
145. Hart and Chaitoo, above n 1, 22; Baucus, above n 99, 209.
146. Drake and Nicolaidïs, above n 45, 428.
147. Hart and Chaitoo, above n 1, 9, 17.
148. Pérez-Esteve and Schuknecht, above n 3.
149. Feketekuty, 'Setting the Agenda', above n 81, 102; Hart and Chaitoo, above n 1, 4.
150. Panagariya, above n 18, 960: 'It may be noted at the outset that there is no ambiguity at present regarding the status of the goods ordered and paid for on Internet but delivered physically in the conventional manner. Except for the order and payment themselves, these transactions are treated as goods trade and the GATT discipline applies to them. The ambiguity arises only when the goods are delivered on the Internet.'
151. Catherine L. Mann, Transatlantic Issues in Electronic Commerce, Working Paper 00-7, October (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics 2000) [hereinafter Mann, Transatlantic Issues]; Catherine L. Mann and Sarah Cleeland Knight, 'Electronic Commerce in the WTO' in Jeffrey J. Schott (ed), The WTO After Seattle (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economies 2000) 259.
152. Catherine L. Mann, Transatlantic Issues in Electronic Commerce, Working Paper 00-7, October (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics 2000) [hereinafter Mann, Transatlantic Issues]; Catherine L. Mann and Sarah Cleeland Knight, 'Electronic Commerce in the WTO' in Jeffrey J. Schott (ed), The WTO After Seattle (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economies 2000) 259.
153. Drake and Nicolaidïs, above n 45, 408.
154. Mann and Knight, above n 125, 259.
155. World Trade Organization, 'Preparations for the 1999 Ministerial Conference: Work Program on Electronic Commerce - Communication from Indonesia and Singapore' WT/GC/W/247 (9 July 1999).
156. World Trade Organization, Council for Trade in Services, 1998, 'The Work Programme on Electronic Commerce: Note by the Secretariat' S/C/W/68 (16 November).
157. Drake and Nicolaidïs, above n 45, 409.
158. Ibid.
159. Mann and Knight, above n 125, 259.
160. WTO, Electronic Commerce, above n 5, 52.
161. Christopher Roberts, 'Promoting International Trade in Services: A Priority for Europe', 12(4) Eur Bus J 199, 203 (2000).
162. Mann, Transatlantic Issues, above n 125, 3; Mann and Knight, above n 125, 258 citing 'WTO Agreed on Short-Term Net Tax Ban', CNET News (2 December 1999).
163. Mann, Transatlantic Issues, above n 125, 3; Mann and Knight, above n 125, 258 citing 'WTO Agreed on Short-Term Net Tax Ban', CNET News (2 December 1999).
164. A. Didar Singh, Electronic Commerce: Issues for the South, South Centre: Trade-Related Agenda, Development and Equity Working Papers No 4 (1999) 30.
165. Mattoo and Schuknecht, above n 42, 2-4, 7-8; Panagariya, above n 18, 962-63.
166. Mattoo and Schuknecht, above n 42, 16.
167. Aaditya Mattoo, 'Developing Countries in the New Round of GATS Negotiations: Towards a Pro-Active Role', 22 World Economy 471, 482 (2000).
168. Ibid.
169. Ibid.
170. Mann and Knight, above n 125, 262.
171. This is for the same reasons that customs duties should be eliminated in all forms of international trade.
172. Baucus, above n 99, 219.
173. Mann and Knight, above n 125, 264. See further discussion of developed and developing countries in section IV.B 'Reducing the Digital Divide', below.
174. Feketekuty, 'Setting the Agenda', above n 81, 103; Geza Feketekuty, 'Assessing and Improving the Architecture of GATS' in Pierre Sauve and Robert Mitchell Stern (eds), GATS 2000: New Directions in Services Trade Liberalization 85, 110 (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press 2000) [hereinafter Feketekuty, 'Architecture'].
175. Feketekuty, 'Setting the Agenda', above n 81, 103; Geza Feketekuty, 'Assessing and Improving the Architecture of GATS' in Pierre Sauve and Robert Mitchell Stern (eds), GATS 2000: New Directions in Services Trade Liberalization 85, 110 (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press 2000) [hereinafter Feketekuty, 'Architecture'].
176. Feketekuty, 'Setting the Agenda', above n 81, 103.
177. Aly K. Abu-Akeel, 'Definition of Trade in Services under the GATS: Legal Implications', 32 Geo Wash J Int'l L & Econ 189, 192 (1999).
178. Ibid.
179. Ibid at 195. Abu-Akeel states: 'take the example of a group of medical doctors from country A who cross the border into country B. They may be only in transit (no service trade involved), or arriving as tourists (importers of services), or arriving to provide medical treatment for patients at a local facility (exporters of services). Thus, only an examination of the underlying transaction will clarify whether a trade in services is occurring, as well as the mode of trade and the parties to such trade.' However, arguably the provision of transit services would mean that the medical doctors are importers of services in the first scenario.
180. Ibid.
181. Article 3.2 of the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (the Vienna Convention) provides: 'This Convention does not apply to contracts in which the preponderant part of the obligations of the party who furnishes the goods consists in the supply of labour or other services.'
182. Feketekuty, 'Architecture', above n 146, 109.
183. 30 June 1997, Report of the Appellate Body, WT/DS31/AB/R.
184. An Act to Amend the Excise Tax Act and the Income Tax Act, SC 1995, c 46.
185. Canada - Certain Measures Concerning Periodicals, 30 June 1997, Report of the Appellate Body, WT/ DS31/AB/R, 19.
186. Ibid, 16.
187. Ibid, 18.
188. Feketekuty, 'Architecture', above n 146, 110.
189. See Michael J. - Trebilcock and Robert Howse, The Regulation of International Trade 272 (2nd ed, New York: Routledge 1999) where it is noted that the distinction between services as final products and services as inputs is quite artificial.
190. Feketekuty, 'Setting the Agenda', above n 81, 103.
191. Abu-Akeel, above n 148, 204. For information on the economic theory of origin of internationally traded goods and services, see John H. Jackson, World Trade and the Law of the GATT 464-69 (New York: Bobbs-Merrill Co., Inc. 1969).
192. Abu-Akeel, above n 148, 201.
193. Feketekuty, 'Architecture', above n 146, 103.
194. See section II.A.1 'Distinguishing Between Modes 1 and 2' above.
195. See for example the Marrakesh Declaration of 15 April 1994.
196. http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/gproc_e/gproc_e.htm.
197. Feketekuty, 'Setting the Agenda', above n 81, 103.
198. Feketekuty, 'Architecture', above n 146, 108.
199. Trebilcock and Howse, above n 160, 272.
200. Feketekuty, 'Architecture', above n 146, 109.
201. See section II.B.4 'Competition' above.
202. 9 September 1997, Report of the Appellate Body, WT/DS27/AB/R.
203. Ibid, para 220.
204. Ibid, paras 221-22.
205. Inge Kaul, Isabelle Grunberg, and Marc A. Stern, 'Defining Global Public Goods' in Inge Kaul et al. (eds), Global Public Goods: International Cooperation in the 21st Century 2 (New York: Oxford University Press 1999) 2-3 [hereinafter Kaul et al., 'Defining Global Public Goods'].
206. Kaul, Grunberg, and Stern, 'Introduction' in Kaul et al. above, n 176, xix, xxi [hereinafter Kaul et al., 'Introduction'].
207. Kaul et al. 'Defining Global Public Goods', above n 176, n 5.
208. Ibid.
209. Joseph E. Stiglitz, 'Knowledge as a Global Public Good' in Kaul et al. above, n 176, 308, 310.
210. Ibid.
211. Kaul et al., 'Introduction', above n 177, xxi.
212. Kaul, Grunberg, and Stern, 'Knowledge and Information' in Inge Kaul et al. above, n 176, 306.
213. For example, UNCTAD have found a positive relationship between per-capita GDP and the density of Internet hosts: UNCTAD, Building Confidence in Electronic Commerce and Development (2000) 75.
214. US Department of Commerce, The Emerging Digital Economy II, June 1999, 5.
215. Kaul, Grunberg, and Stern, 'Defining Global Public Goods' in Kaul et al. above, n 176, 2, 10.
216. Singh, above n 136, at 13.
217. Mann, Developing Countries, above n 4, 7. Internet monthly access charges in the United States were US$29 in August 1996 and in Uganda were US$92 in July 1998. As a percentage of GDP per capita the Internet monthly access charge is 1.2 percent and 107 percent respectively: Singh, above n 136, 14.
218. Singh, above n 136, 11.
219. Spar, above n 79, 344, 348-49, 351-52.
220. Bill Gates, The Road Ahead (New York: Viking 1995) 5.
221. WTO, Electronic Commerce, above n 5, 25; Mann, Developing Countries, above n 4, 5.
222. WTO, Electronic Commerce, above n 5, 25; Mann, Developing Countries, above n 4, 5.
223. Stiglitz, above n 180, 318.
224. Singh, above n 136, 2.
225. Drake and Nicolaidïs, above n 45, 413.
226. Ibid at 430.
227. Mattoo and Schuknecht, above n 42, 2, 9-10.
228. See the discussion in section III.A 'The Problem of Digitizable Projects' above.
229. Pérez-Esteve and Schuknecht, above n 3.
230. Ibid.
231. Hart and Chaitoo, above n 1, 16-17 citing OECD, The Economic and Social Impact of Electronic Commerce: Preliminary Findings and Research Agenda (Paris: OECD 1999) 64.
232. See section I.B 'The Economic Significance of Electronic Commerce' above.
233. Spar, above n 79, 344, 358.
234. Panagariya, above n 18, 970.
235. Mike Moore, 'International Trade in Services', 102(10) Bus Credit 32, 33 (2000).
236. Goldstein and O'Connor, above n 3, 18.
237. Drake and Nicolaidïs, above n 45, 430-31.
238. UNCTAD, Building Confidence: Electronic Commerce and Development (Geneva: UNCTAD 2000); Catherine L. Mann, Electronic Commerce and Trade Facilitation in APEC, Preliminary Paper, 5 September (2000) 4.
239. UNCTAD, Building Confidence: Electronic Commerce and Development (Geneva: UNCTAD 2000); Catherine L. Mann, Electronic Commerce and Trade Facilitation in APEC, Preliminary Paper, 5 September (2000) 4.
240. Mann and Knight, above n 125, 265.
241. Ibid.
242. WTO, Electronic Commerce, above n 5, 27; Panagariya, above n 18, 969.
243. Drake and Nicolaidïs, above n 45, 433.
244. Panagariya, above n 18, 976.
245. UNCTAD, Legal Dimensions of Electronic Commerce, TD/B/Com.3/EM.8.2 (1999).
246. Ibid.
247. Panagariya, above n 18, 976.
248. Mann and Knight, above n 125, 264.
249. US Undersecretary of Commerce for International Trade David Aaron, speech on the US objectives for the Seattle ministerial, Institute for International Economics, 26 October 1999.
250. Drake and Nicolaidïs, above n 45, 433.
251. See section III.B 'Moratorium on Customs Duties' above.
252. 'SADC Ministers' Agreed Negotiating Objectives for the Third WTO Ministerial Conference' WTO pre-ministerial communication from the Southern African Development Community, 1 October 1999; Mann and Knight, above n 125, 260.
253. Mann and Knight, above n 125, 264.
254. Ibid.
255. See generally, International Telecommunications Union, Challenges to the Network: Internet for Development Directions in Services (1999).
256. Panagariya, above n 18, 973.
257. Catherine L. Mann, Sue E. Eckert, and Sarah Cleeland Knight, Global Electronic Commerce: A Policy Primer 181 (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics 2000).
258. Ibid at 181-82.
259. Goldstein and O'Connor, above n 3, 28.
260. Ibid at 21.
261. Ibid.
262. Moore, E-Commerce, above n 32, 53.
263. Spar, above n 79, 344, 358.
264. Goldstein and O'Connor, above n 3, 20-21.
265. Ibid.
266. See section IV.B.2 'Recommendations for Developed Countries' above.
267. Panagariya, above n 18, fn 13.
268. Goldstein and O'Connor, above n 3, 21.
269. http://www.undp.org/news/pressrel/p990311e.htm.
270. Goldstein and O'Connor, above n 3, 28.
271. Panagariya, above n 18, 974.
272. See the Fourth Protocol to the General Agreement on Trade in Services (WTO 1997), 36 ILM 354, 366 (1997).
273. Mann et al., above n 226, 176, 178-79 (2000).
274. Moore, E-Commerce, above n 32, 52.
275. Mann et al., above n 226, 182 (2000) citing Business Week (1 November 1999) http://www.businessweek.com/1999/99_43/b3652015.htm.
276. Ibid at 184.
277. Goldstein and O'Connor, above n 3, 27.
278. Singh, above n 136, 27.
279. Ibid at 23.
280. General Assembly Resolution 51/162 of 16 December 1996, UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce.
281. Panagariya, above n 18, 975.
282. Ibid at 969.
283. Goldstein and O'Connor, above n 3, 24.