Photorefractive polymers: Materials science, thin-film fabrication, and experiments in volume holography

American Journal of Physics

Volumn 69, Issue 10, 2001, Pages 1055-1063

  McGee, David J ^a   Matlin, Mark D ^b  

^a DREW UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b SARAH LAWRENCE COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035641520     PISSN: 00029505     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1119/1.1387042     Document Type: Article

References (49)

1. L. Solymar, D. J. Webb, and A. Grunnet-Jepsen, The Physics and Applications of Photorefractive Materials (Oxford U.P., Oxford, 1997); S. I. Stepanov, "Applications of photorefractive crystals," Rep. Prog. Phys. 57, 39-116 (1994); Landmark Papers on Photorefractive Nonlinear Optics, edited by P. Yeh and C. Gu (World Scientific, Singapore, 1995).
2. L. Solymar, D. J. Webb, and A. Grunnet-Jepsen, The Physics and Applications of Photorefractive Materials (Oxford U.P., Oxford, 1997); S. I. Stepanov, "Applications of photorefractive crystals," Rep. Prog. Phys. 57, 39-116 (1994); Landmark Papers on Photorefractive Nonlinear Optics, edited by P. Yeh and C. Gu (World Scientific, Singapore, 1995).
3. L. Solymar, D. J. Webb, and A. Grunnet-Jepsen, The Physics and Applications of Photorefractive Materials (Oxford U.P., Oxford, 1997); S. I. Stepanov, "Applications of photorefractive crystals," Rep. Prog. Phys. 57, 39-116 (1994); Landmark Papers on Photorefractive Nonlinear Optics, edited by P. Yeh and C. Gu (World Scientific, Singapore, 1995).
4. M. D. Matlin and D. J. McGee, "Photorefractive nonlinear optics in the undergraduate physics laboratory," Am. J. Phys. 65, 622-634 (1997); H. Lin, D. W. Weir, A. Yousuf, and S. Bergman, "A unidirectional photorefractive ring resonator oscillating at 633 nm," ibid. 66, 597-600 (1998); K. M. Jones and J. Strait, Optics and Spectroscopy Undergraduate Laboratory Resource Book (Optical Society of America, Washington, DC, 1993); J. B. Norman, "Phase-conjugate Michelson interferometers for all-optical image processing and computing," Am. J. Phys. 60, 212-220 (1992).
5. M. D. Matlin and D. J. McGee, "Photorefractive nonlinear optics in the undergraduate physics laboratory," Am. J. Phys. 65, 622-634 (1997); H. Lin, D. W. Weir, A. Yousuf, and S. Bergman, "A unidirectional photorefractive ring resonator oscillating at 633 nm," ibid. 66, 597-600 (1998); K. M. Jones and J. Strait, Optics and Spectroscopy Undergraduate Laboratory Resource Book (Optical Society of America, Washington, DC, 1993); J. B. Norman, "Phase-conjugate Michelson interferometers for all-optical image processing and computing," Am. J. Phys. 60, 212-220 (1992).
6. M. D. Matlin and D. J. McGee, "Photorefractive nonlinear optics in the undergraduate physics laboratory," Am. J. Phys. 65, 622-634 (1997); H. Lin, D. W. Weir, A. Yousuf, and S. Bergman, "A unidirectional photorefractive ring resonator oscillating at 633 nm," ibid. 66, 597-600 (1998); K. M. Jones and J. Strait, Optics and Spectroscopy Undergraduate Laboratory Resource Book (Optical Society of America, Washington, DC, 1993); J. B. Norman, "Phase-conjugate Michelson interferometers for all-optical image processing and computing," Am. J. Phys. 60, 212-220 (1992).
7. M. D. Matlin and D. J. McGee, "Photorefractive nonlinear optics in the undergraduate physics laboratory," Am. J. Phys. 65, 622-634 (1997); H. Lin, D. W. Weir, A. Yousuf, and S. Bergman, "A unidirectional photorefractive ring resonator oscillating at 633 nm," ibid. 66, 597-600 (1998); K. M. Jones and J. Strait, Optics and Spectroscopy Undergraduate Laboratory Resource Book (Optical Society of America, Washington, DC, 1993); J. B. Norman, "Phase-conjugate Michelson interferometers for all-optical image processing and computing," Am. J. Phys. 60, 212-220 (1992).
8. P. Yeh, Introduction to Photorefractive Nonlinear Optics (Wiley, New York, 1993); D. M. Pepper, J. Feinberg, and N. V. Kukhtarev, "The photorefractive effect," Sci. Am. 263 (4), 62-74 (1990); J. Feinberg, "Photorefractive nonlinear optics," Phys. Today 41 (10), 46-52 (1988).
9. P. Yeh, Introduction to Photorefractive Nonlinear Optics (Wiley, New York, 1993); D. M. Pepper, J. Feinberg, and N. V. Kukhtarev, "The photorefractive effect," Sci. Am. 263 (4), 62-74 (1990); J. Feinberg, "Photorefractive nonlinear optics," Phys. Today 41 (10), 46-52 (1988).
10. P. Yeh, Introduction to Photorefractive Nonlinear Optics (Wiley, New York, 1993); D. M. Pepper, J. Feinberg, and N. V. Kukhtarev, "The photorefractive effect," Sci. Am. 263 (4), 62-74 (1990); J. Feinberg, "Photorefractive nonlinear optics," Phys. Today 41 (10), 46-52 (1988).
11. B. Kippelen, K. Meerholz, and N. Peyghambarian, in Nonlinear Optics of Organic Molecules and Polymers, edited by H. S. Nalwa and S. Miyata (Chemical Rubber, Boca Raton, FL, 1997); S. R. Marder, B. Kippelen, A. K. Jen, and N. Peyghambarian, "Design and synthesis of chromophores and polymers for electro-optic and photorefractive applications," Nature (London) 388, 845-851 (1997); D. M. Burland, G. C. Bjorkland, W. E. Moerner, S. M. Silence, and J. J. Stankus, "Photorefractive polymers - a status report," Pure Appl. Chem. 67, 33-38 (1995); S. Ducharme, J. C. Scott, R. J. Twieg, and W. E. Moerner, "Observation of the photorefractive effect in a polymer," Phys. Rev. Lett. 66, 1846-1849 (1991).
12. B. Kippelen, K. Meerholz, and N. Peyghambarian, in Nonlinear Optics of Organic Molecules and Polymers, edited by H. S. Nalwa and S. Miyata (Chemical Rubber, Boca Raton, FL, 1997); S. R. Marder, B. Kippelen, A. K. Jen, and N. Peyghambarian, "Design and synthesis of chromophores and polymers for electro-optic and photorefractive applications," Nature (London) 388, 845-851 (1997); D. M. Burland, G. C. Bjorkland, W. E. Moerner, S. M. Silence, and J. J. Stankus, "Photorefractive polymers - a status report," Pure Appl. Chem. 67, 33-38 (1995); S. Ducharme, J. C. Scott, R. J. Twieg, and W. E. Moerner, "Observation of the photorefractive effect in a polymer," Phys. Rev. Lett. 66, 1846-1849 (1991).
13. B. Kippelen, K. Meerholz, and N. Peyghambarian, in Nonlinear Optics of Organic Molecules and Polymers, edited by H. S. Nalwa and S. Miyata (Chemical Rubber, Boca Raton, FL, 1997); S. R. Marder, B. Kippelen, A. K. Jen, and N. Peyghambarian, "Design and synthesis of chromophores and polymers for electro-optic and photorefractive applications," Nature (London) 388, 845-851 (1997); D. M. Burland, G. C. Bjorkland, W. E. Moerner, S. M. Silence, and J. J. Stankus, "Photorefractive polymers - a status report," Pure Appl. Chem. 67, 33-38 (1995); S. Ducharme, J. C. Scott, R. J. Twieg, and W. E. Moerner, "Observation of the photorefractive effect in a polymer," Phys. Rev. Lett. 66, 1846-1849 (1991).
14. B. Kippelen, K. Meerholz, and N. Peyghambarian, in Nonlinear Optics of Organic Molecules and Polymers, edited by H. S. Nalwa and S. Miyata (Chemical Rubber, Boca Raton, FL, 1997); S. R. Marder, B. Kippelen, A. K. Jen, and N. Peyghambarian, "Design and synthesis of chromophores and polymers for electro-optic and photorefractive applications," Nature (London) 388, 845-851 (1997); D. M. Burland, G. C. Bjorkland, W. E. Moerner, S. M. Silence, and J. J. Stankus, "Photorefractive polymers - a status report," Pure Appl. Chem. 67, 33-38 (1995); S. Ducharme, J. C. Scott, R. J. Twieg, and W. E. Moerner, "Observation of the photorefractive effect in a polymer," Phys. Rev. Lett. 66, 1846-1849 (1991).
15. W. E. Moerner and S. M. Silence, "Polymeric photorefractive materials," Chem. Rev. 94, 127-155 (1994).
16. P. J. Melz, "Photogeneration in trinitrofluorenone-poly(N-Vinylcarbazole)," J. Chem. Phys. 37, 1694-1699 (1972); Y. Wang, "Photoconductivity of fullerene-doped polymers," Nature (London) 356, 585-587 (1992).
17. P. J. Melz, "Photogeneration in trinitrofluorenone-poly(N-Vinylcarbazole)," J. Chem. Phys. 37, 1694-1699 (1972); Y. Wang, "Photoconductivity of fullerene-doped polymers," Nature (London) 356, 585-587 (1992).
18. W. E. Moerner, A. Grunnet-Jepsen, and C. L. Thompson, "Photorefractive polymers," Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. 27, 585-623 (1997).
19. B. E. Saleh and M. C. Teich, Fundamentals of Photonics (Wiley, New York, 1991), p. 699.
20. C. R. Moylan, R. Wortmann, R. J. Twieg, and I. H. McComb, "Improved characterization of chromophores for photorefractive applications," J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 15, 929-932 (1998); B. Kippelen, F. Meyers, N. Peyghambarian, and S. R. Marder, "Chromophore design for photorefractive applications," J. Am. Chem. Soc. 119, 4559-4560 (1997).
21. C. R. Moylan, R. Wortmann, R. J. Twieg, and I. H. McComb, "Improved characterization of chromophores for photorefractive applications," J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 15, 929-932 (1998); B. Kippelen, F. Meyers, N. Peyghambarian, and S. R. Marder, "Chromophore design for photorefractive applications," J. Am. Chem. Soc. 119, 4559-4560 (1997).
22. M. G. Kuzyk, J. E. Sohn, and C. W. Dirk, "Mechanisms of quadratic electro-optic modulation in dye-doped polymer systems," J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 7, 842-858 (1990); J. W. Wu, "Birefringent and electro-optic effects in poled polymer films: Steady-state and transient properties," ibid. 8, 142-152 (1991).
23. M. G. Kuzyk, J. E. Sohn, and C. W. Dirk, "Mechanisms of quadratic electro-optic modulation in dye-doped polymer systems," J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 7, 842-858 (1990); J. W. Wu, "Birefringent and electro-optic effects in poled polymer films: Steady-state and transient properties," ibid. 8, 142-152 (1991).
24. W. E. Moerner, S. M. Silence, F. Hache, and G. C. Bjorklund, "Orientationally enhanced photorefractive effect in polymers." J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 11, 320-330 (1994).
25. B. Kippelen, Sandalphon, K. Meerholz, and N. Peyghambarian, "Birefringence, Pockels, and Kerr effects in photorefractive polymers," Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1748-1750 (1996).
26. M. Liphardt, A. Goonesekera, B. E. Jones, S. Ducharme, J. M. Takacs, and L. Zhang, "High performance photorefractive polymers," Science 263, 367-369 (1994); D. Wright, M. A. Diaz-Garcia, J. D. Casperson, M. De-Clue, and W. E. Moerner, "High-speed photorefractive polymer composites," Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 1490-1492 (1998); A. M. Cox, R. D. Blackburn, D. P. West, T. A. King, F. A. Wade, and D. A. Leigh, "Crystallization-resistant photorefractive polymer composite with high diffraction efficiency and reproducibility," ibid. 68, 2801-2803 (1996).
27. M. Liphardt, A. Goonesekera, B. E. Jones, S. Ducharme, J. M. Takacs, and L. Zhang, "High performance photorefractive polymers," Science 263, 367-369 (1994); D. Wright, M. A. Diaz-Garcia, J. D. Casperson, M. De-Clue, and W. E. Moerner, "High-speed photorefractive polymer composites," Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 1490-1492 (1998); A. M. Cox, R. D. Blackburn, D. P. West, T. A. King, F. A. Wade, and D. A. Leigh, "Crystallization-resistant photorefractive polymer composite with high diffraction efficiency and reproducibility," ibid. 68, 2801-2803 (1996).
28. M. Liphardt, A. Goonesekera, B. E. Jones, S. Ducharme, J. M. Takacs, and L. Zhang, "High performance photorefractive polymers," Science 263, 367-369 (1994); D. Wright, M. A. Diaz-Garcia, J. D. Casperson, M. De-Clue, and W. E. Moerner, "High-speed photorefractive polymer composites," Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 1490-1492 (1998); A. M. Cox, R. D. Blackburn, D. P. West, T. A. King, F. A. Wade, and D. A. Leigh, "Crystallization-resistant photorefractive polymer composite with high diffraction efficiency and reproducibility," ibid. 68, 2801-2803 (1996).
29. B. Kippelen, Sandalphon, N. Peyghambarian, S. R. Lyon, A. B. Padias, and H. K. Hall, Jr., "New highly efficient photorefractive polymer composite for optical-storage and image-processing applications," Electron. Lett. 29, 1873-1874 (1993); K. Meerholz, B. L. Volodin, Sandalphon, B. Kippelen, and N. Peyghambarian, "A photorefractive polymer with high optical gain and diffraction efficiency near 100%," Nature (London) 371, 497-500 (1994).
30. B. Kippelen, Sandalphon, N. Peyghambarian, S. R. Lyon, A. B. Padias, and H. K. Hall, Jr., "New highly efficient photorefractive polymer composite for optical-storage and image-processing applications," Electron. Lett. 29, 1873-1874 (1993); K. Meerholz, B. L. Volodin, Sandalphon, B. Kippelen, and N. Peyghambarian, "A photorefractive polymer with high optical gain and diffraction efficiency near 100%," Nature (London) 371, 497-500 (1994).
31. E. J. Smiley, D. J. McGee, C. Salter, and C. R. Carlen, "Diffraction efficiency and phase stability of poly(N-vinylcarbazole)-based photorefractive polymer composites as a function of azo-dye concentration," J. Appl. Phys. 88, 4910-4912 (2000): E. Hendrickx, B. L. Volodin, D. D. Steele, J. L. Maldonado, J. F. Wang, B. Kippelen, and N. Peyghambarian, "Phase stability of guest/host photorefractive polymers studied by light scattering experiments," Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 1159-1161 (1997).
32. E. J. Smiley, D. J. McGee, C. Salter, and C. R. Carlen, "Diffraction efficiency and phase stability of poly(N-vinylcarbazole)-based photorefractive polymer composites as a function of azo-dye concentration," J. Appl. Phys. 88, 4910-4912 (2000): E. Hendrickx, B. L. Volodin, D. D. Steele, J. L. Maldonado, J. F. Wang, B. Kippelen, and N. Peyghambarian, "Phase stability of guest/host photorefractive polymers studied by light scattering experiments," Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 1159-1161 (1997).
33. R. Bittner, T. K. Daubler, D. Neher, and K. Meerholz, "Influence of glass-transition temperature and chromophore content on the steady-state performance of poly(N-vinylcarbazole)-based photorefractive polymers," Adv. Mater. 11, 123-127 (1999).
34. H. Kogelnick, "Coupled-wave theory for thick hologram gratings," Bell Syst. Tech. J. 48, 2909-2947 (1969); L. Solymar and D. J. Cooke, Volume Holography and Volume Gratings (Academic, New York, 1981).
35. H. Kogelnick, "Coupled-wave theory for thick hologram gratings," Bell Syst. Tech. J. 48, 2909-2947 (1969); L. Solymar and D. J. Cooke, Volume Holography and Volume Gratings (Academic, New York, 1981).
36. J. M. Heaton, P. A. Mills, E. Paige, L. Solymar, and T. Wilson, "Diffraction efficiency and angular selectivity of volume phase holograms recorded in photorefractive materials," Opt. Acta 31, 885-901 (1984).
37. See L. Solymar et al., Ref. 1, pp. 7-14.
38. F. S. Chen, J. T. LaMacchia, and D. B. Fraser, "Holographic storage in lithium niobate," Appl. Phys. Lett. 13, 223-225 (1968).
39. I. McMichael, W. Christian, D. Pletcher, T. Y. Chang, and J. H. Hong, "Compact holographic storage demonstrator with rapid access," Appl. Opt. 35, 2375-2379 (1996).
40. H. J. Coufal, D. Psaltis, and G. Sincerbox, Holographic Data Storage (Springer, New York, 2000); A. A. Akaev, S. B. Gurevich, and K. M. Zhumaliev, Holographic Memory (Allerton, New York, 1998); L. Hesselink and M. C. Bashaw, "Optical memories implemented with photorefractive media," Opt. Quantum Electron. 25, S611-S661 (1993); Information Processing: Optical Memory, edited by M. Neifeld, L. Hesselink, and D. Psaltis [Appl. Opt. 35, 2345-2418 (1996)]; C. Denz, K. O. Muller, T. Heimann, and T. Tschudi, "Volume holographic storage demonstrator based on phase-coded multiplexing," IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 4, 832-839 (1998).
41. H. J. Coufal, D. Psaltis, and G. Sincerbox, Holographic Data Storage (Springer, New York, 2000); A. A. Akaev, S. B. Gurevich, and K. M. Zhumaliev, Holographic Memory (Allerton, New York, 1998); L. Hesselink and M. C. Bashaw, "Optical memories implemented with photorefractive media," Opt. Quantum Electron. 25, S611-S661 (1993); Information Processing: Optical Memory, edited by M. Neifeld, L. Hesselink, and D. Psaltis [Appl. Opt. 35, 2345-2418 (1996)]; C. Denz, K. O. Muller, T. Heimann, and T. Tschudi, "Volume holographic storage demonstrator based on phase-coded multiplexing," IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 4, 832-839 (1998).
42. H. J. Coufal, D. Psaltis, and G. Sincerbox, Holographic Data Storage (Springer, New York, 2000); A. A. Akaev, S. B. Gurevich, and K. M. Zhumaliev, Holographic Memory (Allerton, New York, 1998); L. Hesselink and M. C. Bashaw, "Optical memories implemented with photorefractive media," Opt. Quantum Electron. 25, S611-S661 (1993); Information Processing: Optical Memory, edited by M. Neifeld, L. Hesselink, and D. Psaltis [Appl. Opt. 35, 2345-2418 (1996)]; C. Denz, K. O. Muller, T. Heimann, and T. Tschudi, "Volume holographic storage demonstrator based on phase-coded multiplexing," IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 4, 832-839 (1998).
43. H. J. Coufal, D. Psaltis, and G. Sincerbox, Holographic Data Storage (Springer, New York, 2000); A. A. Akaev, S. B. Gurevich, and K. M. Zhumaliev, Holographic Memory (Allerton, New York, 1998); L. Hesselink and M. C. Bashaw, "Optical memories implemented with photorefractive media," Opt. Quantum Electron. 25, S611-S661 (1993); Information Processing: Optical Memory, edited by M. Neifeld, L. Hesselink, and D. Psaltis [Appl. Opt. 35, 2345-2418 (1996)]; C. Denz, K. O. Muller, T. Heimann, and T. Tschudi, "Volume holographic storage demonstrator based on phase-coded multiplexing," IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 4, 832-839 (1998).
44. H. J. Coufal, D. Psaltis, and G. Sincerbox, Holographic Data Storage (Springer, New York, 2000); A. A. Akaev, S. B. Gurevich, and K. M. Zhumaliev, Holographic Memory (Allerton, New York, 1998); L. Hesselink and M. C. Bashaw, "Optical memories implemented with photorefractive media," Opt. Quantum Electron. 25, S611-S661 (1993); Information Processing: Optical Memory, edited by M. Neifeld, L. Hesselink, and D. Psaltis [Appl. Opt. 35, 2345-2418 (1996)]; C. Denz, K. O. Muller, T. Heimann, and T. Tschudi, "Volume holographic storage demonstrator based on phase-coded multiplexing," IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 4, 832-839 (1998).
45. H. J. Coufal, D. Psaltis, and G. Sincerbox, Holographic Data Storage (Springer, New York, 2000); A. A. Akaev, S. B. Gurevich, and K. M. Zhumaliev, Holographic Memory (Allerton, New York, 1998); L. Hesselink and M. C. Bashaw, "Optical memories implemented with photorefractive media," Opt. Quantum Electron. 25, S611-S661 (1993); Information Processing: Optical Memory, edited by M. Neifeld, L. Hesselink, and D. Psaltis [Appl. Opt. 35, 2345-2418 (1996)]; C. Denz, K. O. Muller, T. Heimann, and T. Tschudi, "Volume holographic storage demonstrator based on phase-coded multiplexing," IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 4, 832-839 (1998).
46. P. M. Lundquist, C. Poga, R. G. DeVoe, Y. Jia, W. E. Moerner, M. P. Bernal, H. Coufal, R. K. Grygier, J. A. Hoffnagle, C. M. Jefferson, R. M. Macfarlane, R. M. Shelby, and G. T. Sincerbox, "Holographic digital data storage in a photorefractive polymer," Opt. Lett. 21, 890-892 (1996).
47. J. W. Goodman, Introduction to Fourier Optics (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968), Chap. 5: for an excellent introduction to 4F systems see R. D. Guenther, Modern Optics (Wiley, New York, 1990), Chap. 12.
48. J. W. Goodman, Introduction to Fourier Optics (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968), Chap. 5: for an excellent introduction to 4F systems see R. D. Guenther, Modern Optics (Wiley, New York, 1990), Chap. 12.
49. Y. Cui, B. Swedek, N. Cheng, J. Zieba, and P. N. Prasad. "Dynamics of photorefractive grating erasure in polymeric composites," J. Appl. Phys. 85, 38-43 (1999).