The United States, International Policing and the War against Anarchist Terrorism, 1900-1914

Terrorism and Political Violence

Volumn 13, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 15-46

  Jensen, Richard Bach ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0035640562     PISSN: 09546553     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09546550109609668     Document Type: Article

References (164)

1. Neither the excellent article by Sidney Fine, 'Anarchism and the Assassination of McKinley', American Historical Review 60 (July 1955) pp.777-99, nor the equally fine book by William Preston, Aliens and Dissenters; Federal Suppression of Radicals, 1903-1933 (Cambridge: Harvard University 1963), discuss the international repercussions of McKinley's death for American foreign policy, nor the role played by the lack of a national police force. Philip H. Melanson's The Politics of Protection. The U.S. Secret Service in the Terrorist Age (New York: Praeger 1984) says almost nothing about the Secret Service's efforts to combat international anarchist terrorism.
2. Neither the excellent article by Sidney Fine, 'Anarchism and the Assassination of McKinley', American Historical Review 60 (July 1955) pp.777-99, nor the equally fine book by William Preston, Aliens and Dissenters; Federal Suppression of Radicals, 1903-1933 (Cambridge: Harvard University 1963), discuss the international repercussions of McKinley's death for American foreign policy, nor the role played by the lack of a national police force. Philip H. Melanson's The Politics of Protection. The U.S. Secret Service in the Terrorist Age (New York: Praeger 1984) says almost nothing about the Secret Service's efforts to combat international anarchist terrorism.
3. Neither the excellent article by Sidney Fine, 'Anarchism and the Assassination of McKinley', American Historical Review 60 (July 1955) pp.777-99, nor the equally fine book by William Preston, Aliens and Dissenters; Federal Suppression of Radicals, 1903-1933 (Cambridge: Harvard University 1963), discuss the international repercussions of McKinley's death for American foreign policy, nor the role played by the lack of a national police force. Philip H. Melanson's The Politics of Protection. The U.S. Secret Service in the Terrorist Age (New York: Praeger 1984) says almost nothing about the Secret Service's efforts to combat international anarchist terrorism.
4. Memorandum from Interior Minister (and beginning in 1903, Prime Minister) Giolitti to the Italian foreign minister, 12 May 1902, Series P: politico, 1891-1916, busta 47, Archivio storico, Italian foreign ministry, Rome [hereafter cited as IFM]; Giolitti to Italian foreign minister, no. 10560, most confidential, Rome, 30 May 1904, Polizia internazionale, busta 35, IFM.
5. These statistics are my own compilation drawn from a variety of sources. Information on two of the countries most severely affected by anarchist violence can be found in Jean Maitron, Historie du mouvement anarchiste en France (1880-1914) (Paris: Société Universitaire d'éditions et de librairie, 1955) p. 202, and Rafael Núñez Florencio, El terrorismo anarquista (1888-1909) (Madrid: Siglo veintiuno editores 1983) pp.191-7.
6. These statistics are my own compilation drawn from a variety of sources. Information on two of the countries most severely affected by anarchist violence can be found in Jean Maitron, Historie du mouvement anarchiste en France (1880-1914) (Paris: Société Universitaire d'éditions et de librairie, 1955) p. 202, and Rafael Núñez Florencio, El terrorismo anarquista (1888-1909) (Madrid: Siglo veintiuno editores 1983) pp.191-7.
7. Review of Reviews, 5 (1892) p.435, quoted by Bernard Porter, The Origins of the Vigilant State (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson 1987) p. 102.
8. Review of Reviews, 5 (1892) p.435, quoted by Bernard Porter, The Origins of the Vigilant State (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson 1987) p. 102.
9. Richard T. Ely, 'Anarchy', Harper's Weekly 37 (23 Dec. 1893) p.1226.
10. Alfred Vizetelly's popular and influential The Anarchists (London: John Land 1911) attributes to the anarchists every assassination and many acts of popular violence that took place during the last quarter of the nineteenth century up until the eve of World War I, although the authors of many of these deeds were clearly revolutionaries and nationalists who did not share the anarchists' desire to abolish hierarchical forms of centralized authority. Vizetelly continues to influence and confuse authors today, e.g. Barton Ingraham, Political Crime in Europe (Berkeley: University of California Press 1979) p.180n, attributes the assassination of Alexander II of Russia (1881) and assassination attempts against Kaiser Wilhelm I (1878), King Humbert of Italy (1878), and Alexander III (1887) to the anarchists, although the culprits were in fact revolutionary socialists or deranged persons. Prior to 1914, the London Times repeatedly labeled various murders, or attempted murders, and violent acts in India as 'anarchist' explicitly linking them to anarchist deeds in Europe, although the Indian terrorists were motivated by nationalist, rather than anarchist, ideals (e.g. 'The Methods of Indian Anarchism', 16 Feb. 1909, p.7; 'Indian Anarchism', 12 Feb. 1909, p.11; and especially, 'The Attempted Assassination of [the Viceroy] Lord Hardinge', 24 Dec. 1912, p. 5.
11. Alfred Vizetelly's popular and influential The Anarchists (London: John Land 1911) attributes to the anarchists every assassination and many acts of popular violence that took place during the last quarter of the nineteenth century up until the eve of World War I, although the authors of many of these deeds were clearly revolutionaries and nationalists who did not share the anarchists' desire to abolish hierarchical forms of centralized authority. Vizetelly continues to influence and confuse authors today, e.g. Barton Ingraham, Political Crime in Europe (Berkeley: University of California Press 1979) p.180n, attributes the assassination of Alexander II of Russia (1881) and assassination attempts against Kaiser Wilhelm I (1878), King Humbert of Italy (1878), and Alexander III (1887) to the anarchists, although the culprits were in fact revolutionary socialists or deranged persons. Prior to 1914, the London Times repeatedly labeled various murders, or attempted murders, and violent acts in India as 'anarchist' explicitly linking them to anarchist deeds in Europe, although the Indian terrorists were motivated by nationalist, rather than anarchist, ideals (e.g. 'The Methods of Indian Anarchism', 16 Feb. 1909, p.7; 'Indian Anarchism', 12 Feb. 1909, p.11; and especially, 'The Attempted Assassination of [the Viceroy] Lord Hardinge', 24 Dec. 1912, p. 5.
12. Alfred Vizetelly's popular and influential The Anarchists (London: John Land 1911) attributes to the anarchists every assassination and many acts of popular violence that took place during the last quarter of the nineteenth century up until the eve of World War I, although the authors of many of these deeds were clearly revolutionaries and nationalists who did not share the anarchists' desire to abolish hierarchical forms of centralized authority. Vizetelly continues to influence and confuse authors today, e.g. Barton Ingraham, Political Crime in Europe (Berkeley: University of California Press 1979) p.180n, attributes the assassination of Alexander II of Russia (1881) and assassination attempts against Kaiser Wilhelm I (1878), King Humbert of Italy (1878), and Alexander III (1887) to the anarchists, although the culprits were in fact revolutionary socialists or deranged persons. Prior to 1914, the London Times repeatedly labeled various murders, or attempted murders, and violent acts in India as 'anarchist' explicitly linking them to anarchist deeds in Europe, although the Indian terrorists were motivated by nationalist, rather than anarchist, ideals (e.g. 'The Methods of Indian Anarchism', 16 Feb. 1909, p.7; 'Indian Anarchism', 12 Feb. 1909, p.11; and especially, 'The Attempted Assassination of [the Viceroy] Lord Hardinge', 24 Dec. 1912, p. 5.
13. Alfred Vizetelly's popular and influential The Anarchists (London: John Land 1911) attributes to the anarchists every assassination and many acts of popular violence that took place during the last quarter of the nineteenth century up until the eve of World War I, although the authors of many of these deeds were clearly revolutionaries and nationalists who did not share the anarchists' desire to abolish hierarchical forms of centralized authority. Vizetelly continues to influence and confuse authors today, e.g. Barton Ingraham, Political Crime in Europe (Berkeley: University of California Press 1979) p.180n, attributes the assassination of Alexander II of Russia (1881) and assassination attempts against Kaiser Wilhelm I (1878), King Humbert of Italy (1878), and Alexander III (1887) to the anarchists, although the culprits were in fact revolutionary socialists or deranged persons. Prior to 1914, the London Times repeatedly labeled various murders, or attempted murders, and violent acts in India as 'anarchist' explicitly linking them to anarchist deeds in Europe, although the Indian terrorists were motivated by nationalist, rather than anarchist, ideals (e.g. 'The Methods of Indian Anarchism', 16 Feb. 1909, p.7; 'Indian Anarchism', 12 Feb. 1909, p.11; and especially, 'The Attempted Assassination of [the Viceroy] Lord Hardinge', 24 Dec. 1912, p. 5.
14. Alfred Vizetelly's popular and influential The Anarchists (London: John Land 1911) attributes to the anarchists every assassination and many acts of popular violence that took place during the last quarter of the nineteenth century up until the eve of World War I, although the authors of many of these deeds were clearly revolutionaries and nationalists who did not share the anarchists' desire to abolish hierarchical forms of centralized authority. Vizetelly continues to influence and confuse authors today, e.g. Barton Ingraham, Political Crime in Europe (Berkeley: University of California Press 1979) p.180n, attributes the assassination of Alexander II of Russia (1881) and assassination attempts against Kaiser Wilhelm I (1878), King Humbert of Italy (1878), and Alexander III (1887) to the anarchists, although the culprits were in fact revolutionary socialists or deranged persons. Prior to 1914, the London Times repeatedly labeled various murders, or attempted murders, and violent acts in India as 'anarchist' explicitly linking them to anarchist deeds in Europe, although the Indian terrorists were motivated by nationalist, rather than anarchist, ideals (e.g. 'The Methods of Indian Anarchism', 16 Feb. 1909, p.7; 'Indian Anarchism', 12 Feb. 1909, p.11; and especially, 'The Attempted Assassination of [the Viceroy] Lord Hardinge', 24 Dec. 1912, p. 5.
15. Alfred Vizetelly's popular and influential The Anarchists (London: John Land 1911) attributes to the anarchists every assassination and many acts of popular violence that took place during the last quarter of the nineteenth century up until the eve of World War I, although the authors of many of these deeds were clearly revolutionaries and nationalists who did not share the anarchists' desire to abolish hierarchical forms of centralized authority. Vizetelly continues to influence and confuse authors today, e.g. Barton Ingraham, Political Crime in Europe (Berkeley: University of California Press 1979) p.180n, attributes the assassination of Alexander II of Russia (1881) and assassination attempts against Kaiser Wilhelm I (1878), King Humbert of Italy (1878), and Alexander III (1887) to the anarchists, although the culprits were in fact revolutionary socialists or deranged persons. Prior to 1914, the London Times repeatedly labeled various murders, or attempted murders, and violent acts in India as 'anarchist' explicitly linking them to anarchist deeds in Europe, although the Indian terrorists were motivated by nationalist, rather than anarchist, ideals (e.g. 'The Methods of Indian Anarchism', 16 Feb. 1909, p.7; 'Indian Anarchism', 12 Feb. 1909, p.11; and especially, 'The Attempted Assassination of [the Viceroy] Lord Hardinge', 24 Dec. 1912, p. 5.
16. New York Times, 30 Sept. 1893; 'The Anarchists in merica', Outlook, 68 (10 Aug. 1901) p.863.
17. New York Times, 30 Sept. 1893; 'The Anarchists in merica', Outlook, 68 (10 Aug. 1901) p.863.
18. Fine (note 1) pp.780-8.
19. New York Times, 7 Sept. 1901, pp.2, 5.
20. 'Paterson Police Aroused', New York Times, 9 Sept. 1901, p.3.
21. Paul Avrich, An American Anarchist: The Life of Voltairine de Cleyre (Princeton: University Press 1978) pp.133-6; Fine (note I) pp.781-6.
22. Paul Avrich, An American Anarchist: The Life of Voltairine de Cleyre (Princeton: University Press 1978) pp.133-6; Fine (note I) pp.781-6.
23. Emma Goldman, Living My Life (New York: AMS Press 1970) p.307.
24. Ibid. p. 301.
25. Fine (note 1) p.789. For the press's reaction to the McKinley assassination, see Don Sneed, 'Newspapers Call for Swift Justice: A Study of the McKinley Assassination', Journalism Quarterly 65 (summer 1988) pp.360-7, 398, and Linda Cobb-Reiley, 'Aliens and Alien Ideas: The Suppression of Anarchists and the Anarchist Press in America, 1901-1914', 15/2-3 (summer/autumn 1988) pp. 50-9.
26. Fine (note 1) p.789. For the press's reaction to the McKinley assassination, see Don Sneed, 'Newspapers Call for Swift Justice: A Study of the McKinley Assassination', Journalism Quarterly 65 (summer 1988) pp.360-7, 398, and Linda Cobb-Reiley, 'Aliens and Alien Ideas: The Suppression of Anarchists and the Anarchist Press in America, 1901-1914', 15/2-3 (summer/autumn 1988) pp. 50-9.
27. Fine (note 1) p.789. For the press's reaction to the McKinley assassination, see Don Sneed, 'Newspapers Call for Swift Justice: A Study of the McKinley Assassination', Journalism Quarterly 65 (summer 1988) pp.360-7, 398, and Linda Cobb-Reiley, 'Aliens and Alien Ideas: The Suppression of Anarchists and the Anarchist Press in America, 1901-1914', 15/2-3 (summer/autumn 1988) pp. 50-9.
28. Congress, Senate, President Roosevelt's Message to the Senate and House of Representatives, 57th Cong., 1st sess., Congressional Record (3 Dec. 1901), vol. XXXV, p.82.
29. Richard Bach Jensen, 'The International Anti-Anarchist Conference of 1898 and the Origins of Interpol', Journal of Contemporary History 16/2 (April 1981) pp.323-47.
30. Promemoria of Russian Ambassador to German Foreign Office, Berlin, 4 Sept. 1900, German Foreign Office (records filmed at Whaddon Hall, Bucks, England, Dec. 1958), Anarchismus (Geheim), 43.
31. Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States (1901) vol. II, pp.196-7; also cited in John Bassett Moore, ed., A Digest of International Law (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office 1906) pp.432-5.
32. Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States (1901) vol. II, pp.196-7; also cited in John Bassett Moore, ed., A Digest of International Law (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office 1906) pp.432-5.
33. Department of State (note 18) vol. II, pp.197-8.
34. Fine (note 1) pp.790-3. In a speech to the graduating class of the Yale Law School, Whitelaw Reid, a leading member of the Republican Party, former Ambassador to France, and long-time editor of the New York Tribune, contended that 'the bill for protecting the life of the President failed, because certain Senators held that the head of the government was entitled to no greater protection before the law than its humblest or most worthless and vicious citizen'. New York Herald, 23 June 1903. See also the detailed discussion in Richard B. Sherman, 'Presidential Protection during the Progressive Era: The Aftermath of the McKinley Assassination', The Historian 46/1 Nov. 1983) pp.1-20.
35. Fine (note 1) pp.790-3. In a speech to the graduating class of the Yale Law School, Whitelaw Reid, a leading member of the Republican Party, former Ambassador to France, and long-time editor of the New York Tribune, contended that 'the bill for protecting the life of the President failed, because certain Senators held that the head of the government was entitled to no greater protection before the law than its humblest or most worthless and vicious citizen'. New York Herald, 23 June 1903. See also the detailed discussion in Richard B. Sherman, 'Presidential Protection during the Progressive Era: The Aftermath of the McKinley Assassination', The Historian 46/1 Nov. 1983) pp.1-20.
36. Fine (note 1) pp.790-3. In a speech to the graduating class of the Yale Law School, Whitelaw Reid, a leading member of the Republican Party, former Ambassador to France, and long-time editor of the New York Tribune, contended that 'the bill for protecting the life of the President failed, because certain Senators held that the head of the government was entitled to no greater protection before the law than its humblest or most worthless and vicious citizen'. New York Herald, 23 June 1903. See also the detailed discussion in Richard B. Sherman, 'Presidential Protection during the Progressive Era: The Aftermath of the McKinley Assassination', The Historian 46/1 Nov. 1983) pp.1-20.
37. Fine (note 1) pp.790-3. In a speech to the graduating class of the Yale Law School, Whitelaw Reid, a leading member of the Republican Party, former Ambassador to France, and long-time editor of the New York Tribune, contended that 'the bill for protecting the life of the President failed, because certain Senators held that the head of the government was entitled to no greater protection before the law than its humblest or most worthless and vicious citizen'. New York Herald, 23 June 1903. See also the detailed discussion in Richard B. Sherman, 'Presidential Protection during the Progressive Era: The Aftermath of the McKinley Assassination', The Historian 46/1 Nov. 1983) pp.1-20.
38. Copy of Wilkie to William Loeb, Jr., Oyster Bay, New York, personal, 31 Aug. 1903, U.S. Secret Service, Record Group [hereafter cited as RG] 87, Letters Sent 1899-1914, Box 18, file number 17617, U. S. National Archives, College Park, Maryland [hereafter cited as National Archives].
39. 'Lists of Suspected Anarchists', RG 87 5/46/35/5, National Archives.
40. Cortelyou and B. F. Barnes, (untitled) memorandum on presidential security arrangements, 4 October 1901, cited in Frederick Kaiser, 'Origins of Secret Service protection of the President: Personal, Interagency, and Institutional Conflict', Presidential Studies Quarterly 18 (Winter 1988) p.113.
41. Fine (note 1) pp.790-4; Preston (note 1) p.32.
42. Promemoria, German embassy to state department, Washington D.C., 1 May 1902, RG 59, Microfilm M58, Reel T31, National Archives.
43. Hoar to John Hay, 9 May 1902, Washington D.C., state department. Miscellaneous Letters, RG 59, Microfilm M179, Reel 1135, National Archives.
44. Published versions of the protocol in German translation can be found in German foreign office, Documente aus den russischen Geheimarchiven (Berlin 1918), pp.14-18, and in De Martens' Nouveau Recueil général de traités, ed. Heinrich Triepel (3), vol. X, pp.81-4. Both sources mistakenly include Switzerland among the official signatories of the protocol. For the original French version of the protocol with the correct list of signatories, see the copy forwarded by German Ambassador Sternburg to Secretary of State Hay, strictly confidential, Washington, 9 May 1904, RG 59, Microfilm M58, Reel T33, National Archives. Spain and Portugal accepted the St. Petersburg agreement on 15 and 25 June 1904, respectively. Spanish foreign ministry (Section 2) to German ambassador, very confidential, Madrid, 15 June 1904, Orden Público, Legajo 2753 , Archivo Histórico, Spanish foreign ministry [hereafter cited as SFM], Madrid; copy of a note, Portuguese minister to the Russian minister of foreign affairs, very confidential, St. Petersburg, 25 June/8 July 1904, Administrative Registratur, Generalia 1871-1910, F 52/9, p.275, Haus-, Hof-, und Staatsarchiv, Vienna [hereafter cited as HHSA]. Switzerland did not sign, but on 31 March 1904 agreed to comply unilaterally with the administrative measures of the accord, baring a change in political 'circumstances or a change in legislation'. See the copy of a note from the Swiss Federal Council to the Russian minister in Berne, 31 March 1904, forwarded by German ambassador Sternburg to secretary of state Hay, strictly confidential, Washington D.C., 9 May 1904, RG 59, Microfilm M58, Reel T33, National Archives. For further details on the St. Petersburg Protocol see Jensen (note 16) pp.337-8.
45. Published versions of the protocol in German translation can be found in German foreign office, Documente aus den russischen Geheimarchiven (Berlin 1918), pp.14-18, and in De Martens' Nouveau Recueil général de traités, ed. Heinrich Triepel (3), vol. X, pp.81-4. Both sources mistakenly include Switzerland among the official signatories of the protocol. For the original French version of the protocol with the correct list of signatories, see the copy forwarded by German Ambassador Sternburg to Secretary of State Hay, strictly confidential, Washington, 9 May 1904, RG 59, Microfilm M58, Reel T33, National Archives. Spain and Portugal accepted the St. Petersburg agreement on 15 and 25 June 1904, respectively. Spanish foreign ministry (Section 2) to German ambassador, very confidential, Madrid, 15 June 1904, Orden Público, Legajo 2753 , Archivo Histórico, Spanish foreign ministry [hereafter cited as SFM], Madrid; copy of a note, Portuguese minister to the Russian minister of foreign affairs, very confidential, St. Petersburg, 25 June/8 July 1904, Administrative Registratur, Generalia 1871-1910, F 52/9, p.275, Haus-, Hof-, und Staatsarchiv, Vienna [hereafter cited as HHSA]. Switzerland did not sign, but on 31 March 1904 agreed to comply unilaterally with the administrative measures of the accord, baring a change in political 'circumstances or a change in legislation'. See the copy of a note from the Swiss Federal Council to the Russian minister in Berne, 31 March 1904, forwarded by German ambassador Sternburg to secretary of state Hay, strictly confidential, Washington D.C., 9 May 1904, RG 59, Microfilm M58, Reel T33, National Archives. For further details on the St. Petersburg Protocol see Jensen (note 16) pp.337-8.
46. Published versions of the protocol in German translation can be found in German foreign office, Documente aus den russischen Geheimarchiven (Berlin 1918), pp.14-18, and in De Martens' Nouveau Recueil général de traités, ed. Heinrich Triepel (3), vol. X, pp.81-4. Both sources mistakenly include Switzerland among the official signatories of the protocol. For the original French version of the protocol with the correct list of signatories, see the copy forwarded by German Ambassador Sternburg to Secretary of State Hay, strictly confidential, Washington, 9 May 1904, RG 59, Microfilm M58, Reel T33, National Archives. Spain and Portugal accepted the St. Petersburg agreement on 15 and 25 June 1904, respectively. Spanish foreign ministry (Section 2) to German ambassador, very confidential, Madrid, 15 June 1904, Orden Público, Legajo 2753 , Archivo Histórico, Spanish foreign ministry [hereafter cited as SFM], Madrid; copy of a note, Portuguese minister to the Russian minister of foreign affairs, very confidential, St. Petersburg, 25 June/8 July 1904, Administrative Registratur, Generalia 1871-1910, F 52/9, p.275, Haus-, Hof-, und Staatsarchiv, Vienna [hereafter cited as HHSA]. Switzerland did not sign, but on 31 March 1904 agreed to comply unilaterally with the administrative measures of the accord, baring a change in political 'circumstances or a change in legislation'. See the copy of a note from the Swiss Federal Council to the Russian minister in Berne, 31 March 1904, forwarded by German ambassador Sternburg to secretary of state Hay, strictly confidential, Washington D.C., 9 May 1904, RG 59, Microfilm M58, Reel T33, National Archives. For further details on the St. Petersburg Protocol see Jensen (note 16) pp.337-8.
47. Published versions of the protocol in German translation can be found in German foreign office, Documente aus den russischen Geheimarchiven (Berlin 1918), pp.14-18, and in De Martens' Nouveau Recueil général de traités, ed. Heinrich Triepel (3), vol. X, pp.81-4. Both sources mistakenly include Switzerland among the official signatories of the protocol. For the original French version of the protocol with the correct list of signatories, see the copy forwarded by German Ambassador Sternburg to Secretary of State Hay, strictly confidential, Washington, 9 May 1904, RG 59, Microfilm M58, Reel T33, National Archives. Spain and Portugal accepted the St. Petersburg agreement on 15 and 25 June 1904, respectively. Spanish foreign ministry (Section 2) to German ambassador, very confidential, Madrid, 15 June 1904, Orden Público, Legajo 2753 , Archivo Histórico, Spanish foreign ministry [hereafter cited as SFM], Madrid; copy of a note, Portuguese minister to the Russian minister of foreign affairs, very confidential, St. Petersburg, 25 June/8 July 1904, Administrative Registratur, Generalia 1871-1910, F 52/9, p.275, Haus-, Hof-, und Staatsarchiv, Vienna [hereafter cited as HHSA]. Switzerland did not sign, but on 31 March 1904 agreed to comply unilaterally with the administrative measures of the accord, baring a change in political 'circumstances or a change in legislation'. See the copy of a note from the Swiss Federal Council to the Russian minister in Berne, 31 March 1904, forwarded by German ambassador Sternburg to secretary of state Hay, strictly confidential, Washington D.C., 9 May 1904, RG 59, Microfilm M58, Reel T33, National Archives. For further details on the St. Petersburg Protocol see Jensen (note 16) pp.337-8.
48. Published versions of the protocol in German translation can be found in German foreign office, Documente aus den russischen Geheimarchiven (Berlin 1918), pp.14-18, and in De Martens' Nouveau Recueil général de traités, ed. Heinrich Triepel (3), vol. X, pp.81-4. Both sources mistakenly include Switzerland among the official signatories of the protocol. For the original French version of the protocol with the correct list of signatories, see the copy forwarded by German Ambassador Sternburg to Secretary of State Hay, strictly confidential, Washington, 9 May 1904, RG 59, Microfilm M58, Reel T33, National Archives. Spain and Portugal accepted the St. Petersburg agreement on 15 and 25 June 1904, respectively. Spanish foreign ministry (Section 2) to German ambassador, very confidential, Madrid, 15 June 1904, Orden Público, Legajo 2753 , Archivo Histórico, Spanish foreign ministry [hereafter cited as SFM], Madrid; copy of a note, Portuguese minister to the Russian minister of foreign affairs, very confidential, St. Petersburg, 25 June/8 July 1904, Administrative Registratur, Generalia 1871-1910, F 52/9, p.275, Haus-, Hof-, und Staatsarchiv, Vienna [hereafter cited as HHSA]. Switzerland did not sign, but on 31 March 1904 agreed to comply unilaterally with the administrative measures of the accord, baring a change in political 'circumstances or a change in legislation'. See the copy of a note from the Swiss Federal Council to the Russian minister in Berne, 31 March 1904, forwarded by German ambassador Sternburg to secretary of state Hay, strictly confidential, Washington D.C., 9 May 1904, RG 59, Microfilm M58, Reel T33, National Archives. For further details on the St. Petersburg Protocol see Jensen (note 16) pp.337-8.
49. Luxembourg signed a version of the St. Petersburg Protocol which omitted the article calling for the notification of other signatories prior to the expulsion of anarchists (Habsburg Foreign Office to the Austrian and Hungarian ministers of the interior, secret, Vienna, 16 June 1904, Administrative Registratur, Generalia 1871-1910, F 52/9, p. 251, HHSA. Many countries, including Italy, objected to this as a form of disguised extradition.
50. Ambassador Sternburg to Secretary Hay, Washington D.C., 9 May 1904, RG 59, Microfilm M58, Reel T33, National Archives.
51. President Roosevelt's 9 April 1908 message to both houses of Congress (Congressional Record, 60th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 42, part 5: [9 April 1908] p.4526 and [13 April 1908] pp.4698-4699). Regarding Roosevelt's support of international 'civilization' as a consistent thread in his foreign policy, see Frank Ninkovich, 'Theodore Roosevelt: Civilization as Ideology', Diplomatic History 10 (Summer 1986) pp.221-45.
52. President Roosevelt's 9 April 1908 message to both houses of Congress (Congressional Record, 60th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 42, part 5: [9 April 1908] p.4526 and [13 April 1908] pp.4698-4699). Regarding Roosevelt's support of international 'civilization' as a consistent thread in his foreign policy, see Frank Ninkovich, 'Theodore Roosevelt: Civilization as Ideology', Diplomatic History 10 (Summer 1986) pp.221-45.
53. Richard H. Collin, Theodore Roosevelt's Caribbean: the Panama Canal, the Monroe Doctrine, and the Latin American Context (Baton Rouge and London: Louisiana State University Press 1990) pp.71-2; Hans Gatzke, Germany and the United States: A 'Special Relationship?' (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press 1980) p.44.
54. Richard H. Collin, Theodore Roosevelt's Caribbean: the Panama Canal, the Monroe Doctrine, and the Latin American Context (Baton Rouge and London: Louisiana State University Press 1990) pp.71-2; Hans Gatzke, Germany and the United States: A 'Special Relationship?' (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press 1980) p.44.
55. Promemoria, German embassy, Washington D.C., 20 December 1901, in department of state, Foreign Relations (1901) p. 196.
56. Gatzke (note 31) p.45.
57. Roosevelt also believed that 'The English behaved badly in Venezuela' and had 'permitted themselves to be roped in as an appendage to Germany in the blockade of Venezuela'. William N. Tilchin, Theodore Roosevelt and the British Empire (New York: St. Martin's Press 1997) pp.33-4.
58. This may, or may not, have followed Roosevelt's ultimatum to the Germans, as the former president alleged in Aug. 1916. For a recent and impressive refutation of the ultimatum claim, see Nancy Mitchell, The Height of the German Challenge: The Venezuelan Blockade, 1902-3', Diplomatic History 20/2 (Spring 1996) pp.198-200.
59. Frederick W. Marks III, Velvet on Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt (Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press 1979) pp.7-10; Gatzke (note 31) p.44.
60. Frederick W. Marks III, Velvet on Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt (Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press 1979) pp.7-10; Gatzke (note 31) p.44.
61. Howard Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins 1956) p.392.
62. Theodore Roosevelt, An Autobiography (New York: Macmillan 1913) p.26.
63. Beal (note 37) p.492.
64. Roosevelt to George Von Lengerke Meyer, Oyster Bay, 12 April 1901, in The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, ed. Elting E. Morison, vol. III (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951), p.52.
65. This opinion was expressed during the midst of the negotiations to end the Russo-Japanese War. Roosevelt to Hay, 2 April 1905, in ibid. vol. IV, p.1157.
66. Beale (note 37) pp.390-5; Collin (note 31 ) pp.66-75.
67. Copy of Von Muehlberg, Foreign Office, Berlin, to Ambassador Alvensleben, St. Petersburg, secret, 12 January 1903, German Foreign Office, 43. Anarchismus (Geheim), microfilm.
68. Beale (note 37) pp.262-4; Norman Saul, Concord and Conflict: The United Slates and Russia, 1867-1914 (Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas 1996) pp.467-77.
69. Beale (note 37) pp.262-4; Norman Saul, Concord and Conflict: The United Slates and Russia, 1867-1914 (Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas 1996) pp.467-77.
70. Walter LaFeber, The Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations, vol II: The American Search for Opportunity 1865-1913 (Cambridge: University Press 1993) pp.170; 189-90.
71. For example, see Roosevelt to Cecil Arthur Spring Rice, Washington D.C., 27 Dec. 1904, in The Leiters of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. IV, p.1085.
72. Cassini openly favored Roosevelt's opponent in the 1904 election; the president could not stand the Russian ambassador. Saul (note 44) pp.473, 483, 492.
73. Saul (note 44) p.473.
74. H. C. Allen, Great Britain and the United States. A History of Anglo-American Relations (1783-1952) (New York: St. Martin's Press 1955) pp.557, 568-9, 602; Tilchin (note 34) pp.7-10; Ritchie Ovendale, Anglo-American Relations in the Twentieth Century (New York: Martin's Press 1998) pp.5-7; Alan P. Dobson, Anglo-American Relations in the Twentieth Century (Routledge: London and New York 1995) pp.22-4; Charles Campbell, Anglo-American Understanding, 1898-1903 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins 1957) pp.17-24. Sir Julian Pauceforte, ambassador in Washington from 1889 to 1902, prime minister Salisbury, and Arthur Balfour and Joseph Chamberlain, both in the cabinet, were, according to Tilchin (note 34 p.8), the chief British supporters of a policy friendly to the United States. Lord Lansdowne, British foreign secretary 1900-05, is conspicuously absent from this list.
75. H. C. Allen, Great Britain and the United States. A History of Anglo-American Relations (1783-1952) (New York: St. Martin's Press 1955) pp.557, 568-9, 602; Tilchin (note 34) pp.7-10; Ritchie Ovendale, Anglo-American Relations in the Twentieth Century (New York: Martin's Press 1998) pp.5-7; Alan P. Dobson, Anglo-American Relations in the Twentieth Century (Routledge: London and New York 1995) pp.22-4; Charles Campbell, Anglo-American Understanding, 1898-1903 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins 1957) pp.17-24. Sir Julian Pauceforte, ambassador in Washington from 1889 to 1902, prime minister Salisbury, and Arthur Balfour and Joseph Chamberlain, both in the cabinet, were, according to Tilchin (note 34 p.8), the chief British supporters of a policy friendly to the United States. Lord Lansdowne, British foreign secretary 1900-05, is conspicuously absent from this list.
76. H. C. Allen, Great Britain and the United States. A History of Anglo-American Relations (1783-1952) (New York: St. Martin's Press 1955) pp.557, 568-9, 602; Tilchin (note 34) pp.7-10; Ritchie Ovendale, Anglo-American Relations in the Twentieth Century (New York: Martin's Press 1998) pp.5-7; Alan P. Dobson, Anglo-American Relations in the Twentieth Century (Routledge: London and New York 1995) pp.22-4; Charles Campbell, Anglo-American Understanding, 1898-1903 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins 1957) pp.17-24. Sir Julian Pauceforte, ambassador in Washington from 1889 to 1902, prime minister Salisbury, and Arthur Balfour and Joseph Chamberlain, both in the cabinet, were, according to Tilchin (note 34 p.8), the chief British supporters of a policy friendly to the United States. Lord Lansdowne, British foreign secretary 1900-05, is conspicuously absent from this list.
77. H. C. Allen, Great Britain and the United States. A History of Anglo-American Relations (1783-1952) (New York: St. Martin's Press 1955) pp.557, 568-9, 602; Tilchin (note 34) pp.7-10; Ritchie Ovendale, Anglo-American Relations in the Twentieth Century (New York: Martin's Press 1998) pp.5-7; Alan P. Dobson, Anglo-American Relations in the Twentieth Century (Routledge: London and New York 1995) pp.22-4; Charles Campbell, Anglo-American Understanding, 1898-1903 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins 1957) pp.17-24. Sir Julian Pauceforte, ambassador in Washington from 1889 to 1902, prime minister Salisbury, and Arthur Balfour and Joseph Chamberlain, both in the cabinet, were, according to Tilchin (note 34 p.8), the chief British supporters of a policy friendly to the United States. Lord Lansdowne, British foreign secretary 1900-05, is conspicuously absent from this list.
78. H. C. Allen, Great Britain and the United States. A History of Anglo-American Relations (1783-1952) (New York: St. Martin's Press 1955) pp.557, 568-9, 602; Tilchin (note 34) pp.7-10; Ritchie Ovendale, Anglo-American Relations in the Twentieth Century (New York: Martin's Press 1998) pp.5-7; Alan P. Dobson, Anglo-American Relations in the Twentieth Century (Routledge: London and New York 1995) pp.22-4; Charles Campbell, Anglo-American Understanding, 1898-1903 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins 1957) pp.17-24. Sir Julian Pauceforte, ambassador in Washington from 1889 to 1902, prime minister Salisbury, and Arthur Balfour and Joseph Chamberlain, both in the cabinet, were, according to Tilchin (note 34 p.8), the chief British supporters of a policy friendly to the United States. Lord Lansdowne, British foreign secretary 1900-05, is conspicuously absent from this list.
79. Roosevelt to Arthur Lee, British military attaché and later member of Parliament, 25 July 1900, cited by Tilchin (note 34) p.17.
80. Tilchin (note 34) pp.7-8; 17-18; 26-7.
81. Tilchin (note 34) p.48, cites Warren Kneer, Great Britain and the Caribbean (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press 1975) p.99, and Richard Collin, 'by 1903, the United States and Theodore Roosevelt had consolidated with Great Britain the informal alliance that had started so stormily in 1895'. Theodore Roosevelt, Culture, Diplomacy, and Expansion (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press 1985) p.186.
82. Tilchin (note 34) p.48, cites Warren Kneer, Great Britain and the Caribbean (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press 1975) p.99, and Richard Collin, 'by 1903, the United States and Theodore Roosevelt had consolidated with Great Britain the informal alliance that had started so stormily in 1895'. Theodore Roosevelt, Culture, Diplomacy, and Expansion (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press 1985) p.186.
83. Diaries and Notebooks, 1904-1905, container 90, John Hay Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. This passage was not chosen for inclusion in Letters of John Hay and Extracts from Diary, ed. Henry Adams and Clara Louise Stone, 3 vols. (New York: Gordian Press 1969; printed but not published, Washington 1908).
84. Diaries and Notebooks, 1904-1905, container 90, John Hay Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. This passage was not chosen for inclusion in Letters of John Hay and Extracts from Diary, ed. Henry Adams and Clara Louise Stone, 3 vols. (New York: Gordian Press 1969; printed but not published, Washington 1908).
85. Diaries and Notebooks, 1904-1905, container 90, John Hay Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. This passage was not chosen for inclusion in Letters of John Hay and Extracts from Diary, ed. Henry Adams and Clara Louise Stone, 3 vols. (New York: Gordian Press 1969; printed but not published, Washington 1908).
86. Le Matin (Paris) printed a summary of the treaty and part of its text on 20 May 1904, p.1.
87. Lawrence Friedman, Crime and Punishment in American History (New York: BasicBooks 1993) p.326.
88. Memorandum, German Embassy to Department of State, Washington D.C., 15 December 1904, RG 59, Microfilm M 58, Reel T31, National Archives.
89. Memorandum, December 16, 1904, attached to ibid.
90. This was the number of field operatives in 1908-09 (Sherman [note 20] p.15). The size of the Secret Service was a closely kept secret. The New York Times estimated that each of its 38 offices (if one includes its Washington, D.C., headquarters) had four to five agents, which would lead to an exaggerated figure of 152 to 190 agents for the entire country. 'How The "Secret Service" Does Its Work', New York Times (27 December 1908), pt. 5, p. 6.
91. This was the number of field operatives in 1908-09 (Sherman [note 20] p.15). The size of the Secret Service was a closely kept secret. The New York Times estimated that each of its 38 offices (if one includes its Washington, D.C., headquarters) had four to five agents, which would lead to an exaggerated figure of 152 to 190 agents for the entire country. 'How The "Secret Service" Does Its Work', New York Times (27 December 1908), pt. 5, p. 6.
92. Records identifying prisoners in state and federal prisons existed at Leavenworth, Kansas. Their validity was suspect since the prisoners themselves compiled the records. Don Whitehead, The FBI Story (New York: Random House 1956) pp.134-5.
93. Duke of Arcos, Washington, D.C., to foreign minister, Madrid, reservado, n. 155, 19 October 1900, legajo 2751, expediente 35, Archiva Histórico, SFM.
94. Italian embassy, Washington, D.C., to Italian foreign ministry, Rome, 6 Aug. 1900, series P: politica, busta 47, IFM; consul general Branchi, New York, to foreign ministry, Rome, 4 Oct. 1900, series P: politica, busta 47, IFM. Dirk Hoerder, Plutocrats and Socialists. Reports by German Diplomats and Agents on the American Labor Movement, 1878-1917 (Munich: K.G. Saur 1981) p.377.
95. Consul general, New York, to foreign ministry, Rome, confidential, 9 February 1906, busta 119, Rappresentazioni diplomatiche italiane negli Stati Uniti (1901-09), IFM.
96. Hoerder (note 61) pp.366, 377.
97. Ibid. pp.371, 381-3; 'Russian Police Active', New York Times, 24 Feb. 1908, p.4.
98. Hsi-Huey Liang, The Rise of Modern Police and the European State System from Metternich to the Second World War (Cambridge: University Press 1992) pp.39-140; 160-1.
99. Ibid., pp.138-40; 159-61; Johann Langhard, Die politische Polizei der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft (Bern: Stampfli, 1909) pp.297-336.
100. Ibid., pp.138-40; 159-61; Johann Langhard, Die politische Polizei der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft (Bern: Stampfli, 1909) pp.297-336.
101. Porter (note 4) pp.122-3, and especially p.225 n54. The English police sometimes broke this rule and, without going through Whitehall, spontaneously replied to a foreign inquiry.
102. The Austrian note submitted by ambassador Hengelmueller, dated 1 Dec. 1902, is summarized in David J. Hill, acting secretary of state, to the secretary of the treasury, Washington, D.C., 22 Jan. 1903, RG 59, M 40 roll 157, National Archives.
103. Hay to Ladislaus Hengelmüller, Washington, D.C., 22 and 30 April 1903, RG 59, M99, Reel 4, National Archives; L. M. Shaw, secretary (initialed by John E. Wilkie, Chief) Secret Service, to Secretary of State, 17 April 1903, United States Secret Service, RG 87, Letters Sent, 1899-1914, Box 17, National Archives.
104. 'Over two hundred Superintendents and Chiefs of Police of this country, in conjunction with several from Canada, one from the City of Me-xico, the head of the Department of Guatemala, the principal in authority at Rotterdam, and others, have organized and have maintained for ten years an organization known as the International Association of Chiefs of Police'. Richard Sylvester to Francis B. Loomis, assistant secretary, department of state, Washington, D.C., 26 April 1903, RG 65, stack 230/row 32/compartment 25/shelf 5 [hereafter cited as 230/32/25/05], Box 1, National Archives. In 1904 the police chiefs of Tegucigalpa, Honduras; Buenos Aires, Argentina; Hobart, Australia; and, in 1905, Tokyo, Japan, joined the IACP. Proceedings of the Annual Conventions of the International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1893-1905 (New York: Arno Press and The New York Times 1971) vol. 1, pp.138, 148-57.
105. Copy of letter, Sylvester to Loomis, assistant secretary, department of state, Washington D.C., 26 April 1903, RG 65, 230/32/25/05, box 1, National Archives. Joining the NBI with full access to all its files would have cost an additional fifteen dollars.
106. The French criminologist Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914) invented the Bertillon system, which became France's official method of criminal identification in 1888. Also termed anthropometry, because originally based on the measurement of various body sections (such as the elbow to the wrist) that do not change after the age of twenty, this system was widely used throughout the world until fingerprinting began to displace it. In 1901 England became the first country to discontinue using Bertillonage and adopt fingerprinting; Sylvester's letter to Adee makes clear that the United States did not begin to make the changeover until 1904. Copy of letter, Sylvester to Adee, second assistant secretary of state, Washington D.C., 7 March 1904, RG 65, 230/32/25/05, box 1, National Archives.
107. RG 65, 230/32/25/05. Record Group 65 contains copies of the correspondence of the IACP and the National Bureau of Identification (also called the National Bureau of Criminal Identification) between 1897 and 1924.
108. Van Buskirk to Richard Sylvester, 20 July 1908, RG 65, 230/32/25/05, National Archives.
109. The text of the treaty and of Roosevelt's proclamation is in department of state, Foreign Relations (1908) pp.333-5.
110. Frederick Grittner, White Slavery: Myth, Ideology, and American Law (New York and London: Garland 1990) pp.62, 77n.
111. See internal State Department letter with attached Memorandum, J. R. Buck to S. Y. Smith, Washington, 12 February 1907, M862 roll 23, National Archives. The delay in the President's official proclamation of the treaty was also due to procedural issues. The Senate ratified an international anti-white slavery agreement submitted to it in December 1902, but later this was temporarily abandoned by the European states, although reconfirmed by them in a new treaty signed in May 1904. The two treaties were identical in their terms, but it was unclear for a time 'whether the advice of the Senate to adhere to the 1902 convention might properly be construed as authority for adherence by the United States to the 1904 convention'. Ibid.
112. Alexey Goldenberg, 'La commission internationale de police criminelle', (Ph.D. thesis, University of Paris 1953) pp.17-19. The Viennese organization was the International Criminal Police Commission.
113. Copy of memorandum, M862, roll 23, National Archives.
114. 'No part of any money appropriated by this Act shall be used in payment of compensation or expenses of any person detailed or transferred from the Secret Service Division of the Treasury Department...' Appropriations Act, 27 May 1908, HR 21260, 35 United States Statute, p. 328.
115. Melanson (note 1) p.7.
116. Whitehead (note 59) pp.18-19.
117. Congressmen Fitzgerald and Waldo, both of New York state, cited in Max Lowenthal, The Federal Bureau of Investigation (Westport, Conn.; Greenwood Press 1971) pp.3-4.
118. Whitehead (note 59) p.21; Lowenthal (note 83) p.14.
119. Copy of Bonaparte to M. C. Burch, c/o United States attorney, Denver, 29 June 1908. Box 184, vol. 9, Bonaparte Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
120. Congressional Record, 60th Cong., 1st sess., vol. XLII, part 5: [Senate, 9 April 1908] p.4526 and [House of Representatives, 13 April 1908] pp.4698-9; Washington Evening Star, 9 April 1908.
121. Congressional Record, 60th Cong., 1st sess., vol. XLII, part 5: [Senate, 9 April 1908] p.4526 and [House of Representatives, 13 April 1908] pp.4698-9; Washington Evening Star, 9 April 1908.
122. Lewis L. Gould, The Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt (Lawrence; University Press of Kansas 1991) p.282.
123. Avrich (note 11) p.190.
124. Goldman (note 12) pp.419, 448. 'Never in all the years since I had first gone on tour, with the exception of the Union Square demonstration in 1893, had I seen masses so eager and enthusiastic' (ibid., 427).
125. Avrich (note 11) pp.200-2.
126. Alia was initially misidentified as a man named 'Guarnacoto'. He told a policeman that 'I am an Anarchist, and I am proud of it...I have a grudge against all priests in general. They are all against the workingman'. New York Times, 24 Feb. 1908, p.1; 'Father Leo's Slayer Guilty', New York Times, 13 March 1908, p.13.
127. Alia was initially misidentified as a man named 'Guarnacoto'. He told a policeman that 'I am an Anarchist, and I am proud of it...I have a grudge against all priests in general. They are all against the workingman'. New York Times, 24 Feb. 1908, p.1; 'Father Leo's Slayer Guilty', New York Times, 13 March 1908, p.13.
128. New York Times, 3 March 1908, p.1.
129. Goldman, who spells Lazarus's last name 'Overbuch', also casts doubts on who shot whom during the scuffle with Police Chief Shippy (Goldman [note 12] pp.413-14).
130. New York Times, 29 March 1908, p.1; The New International Year Book for 1908, s.v . 'Anarchy', p.26; Goldman, (note 12) p.424, claims that police brutality and torture hastened the death of the severely wounded young anarchist, Selig Silverstein, or 'Cohen', according to one account.
131. New York Times, 29 March 1908, p.1; The New International Year Book for 1908, s.v . 'Anarchy', p.26; Goldman, (note 12) p.424, claims that police brutality and torture hastened the death of the severely wounded young anarchist, Selig Silverstein, or 'Cohen', according to one account.
132. New York Times, 29 March 1908, p.1; The New International Year Book for 1908, s.v . 'Anarchy', p.26; Goldman, (note 12) p.424, claims that police brutality and torture hastened the death of the severely wounded young anarchist, Selig Silverstein, or 'Cohen', according to one account.
133. 4 March 1908, p.1.
134. 'Eleven Anarchists Arrested', New York Times, 4 March 1908, p.2.
135. New York Times, 4 March 1908, p.1.
136. Preston (note 1) p.33.
137. Robert Bacon, assistant secretary of state, Washington, D.C., to Wilkie, 6 Nov. 1908; Wilkie to Bacon, 17 Nov. 1908, RG 87, box 10, file 74947, National Archives.
138. Huntington Wilson, assistant secretary of state, to Wilkie, Secret Service, treasury, 2 April 1910, RG 87, box 11, file 77335, National Archives.
139. Gary Mormino and George Pozzetta, 'Concord and Discord: Italians and Ethnic Interactions in Tampa, Florida, 1886-1930', in Italian Americans. New Perspectives in Italian Immigration and Ethnicity, ed. Lydio Tomasi (New York: Center for Migration Studies 1985) pp.341-57.
140. Copy and translation, Juan Rian̄o, legation of Spain, to P. C. Knox, secretary of state. Washington, D.C., 8 January 1912, RG 87, Box 15, National Archives.
141. Wilkie to secretary of state, 21 February 1912, RG 87, Box 49, file 52468-G, National Archives.
142. Copy of letter, F. Nistal, honorary Spanish viceconsul, Tampa, Florida, to Juan Riaño, Spanish legation, Washington, D.C., 28 November 1912, attached to Rian̄o to Spanish foreign minister, n. 470, 28 November 1912, Orden Público, Legajo 2758, SFM.
143. Index to Administrative Reports on Cases, 1908-1911, RG 65, 230/32/26/04, National Archives.
144. Spanish foreign minister Marqués de Lema, Madrid, to Spanish ambassador, Berlin, 22 Nov. 1913; and Spanish embassy, Berlin, to Spanish foreign minister, Madrid, no. 325/politica, 24 Dec. 1913, Orden Público, Legajo 2753, SFM.
145. Whitehead (note 59) p.23; Lowenthal (note 83) p.14.
146. For the 1910 figure, David Langum, Crossing Over the Line: Legislating Morality and the Mann Act (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press 1994) p.49; for 1917, Sanford Ungar, FBI (Boston and Toronto: Little, Brown 1976) p.41, and Whitehead (note 59) p.32.
147. For the 1910 figure, David Langum, Crossing Over the Line: Legislating Morality and the Mann Act (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press 1994) p.49; for 1917, Sanford Ungar, FBI (Boston and Toronto: Little, Brown 1976) p.41, and Whitehead (note 59) p.32.
148. Donald Marchand and Eva Bogan, A History and Background Assessment of the National Crime Information Center and Computerized Criminal History Program (Columbia, S.C.: Bureau of Governmental Research and Service 1979) pp.11-19; Samuel Walker, The Police In America (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992) pp.12-14.
149. Donald Marchand and Eva Bogan, A History and Background Assessment of the National Crime Information Center and Computerized Criminal History Program (Columbia, S.C.: Bureau of Governmental Research and Service 1979) pp.11-19; Samuel Walker, The Police In America (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992) pp.12-14.
150. Translation, Juan Riaño, legation of Spain, to P. C. Knox, secretary of state, confidential, Washington, D.C., 16 January, 1913, RG 87, Box 16, file 82865, National Archives. The justice department did not receive the Spanish request for information until 18 Jan. 1913.
151. Copy, William R. Harr, assistant attorney general, department of justice, to secretary of state, confidential, Washington, D.C., 1 Feb. 1913, RG 87, Box 16, file 82865, National Archives.
152. Treasury to secretary of state, 5 May 1913, RG 87, box 17, file 83223, National Archives.
153. Chief inspector C. B. Keene, post office department, to William Flynn, chief, Secret Service, treasury, 8 May 1913, RG 87, box 17, file 83223, National Archives.
154. Whitehead (note 59) pp.134-5.
155. A series of anarchist bombings, and a mass poisoning, took place in New York, Boston and Chicago during 1914-16. See Paul Avrich, Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background (Princeton: University Press 1991) pp.98-102.
156. No one has yet provided a completely satisfactory explanation for the decline of anarchist terrorism after 1901. I intend to discuss these issues more fully in my forthcoming book, The International Campaign Against Anarchist Terrorism, 1880-1914. For some older attempts, see Jensen (note 16) pp.339-42; Maitron (note 3) p.244-6; James Joll, The Anarchists, 2d ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1980) pp.126-127; G.D.H. Cole, A History of Socialist Thought (London: Macmillan, 1954) vol. II, pp.335-6; Vizetelly (note 6) pp.293-4, 300.
157. No one has yet provided a completely satisfactory explanation for the decline of anarchist terrorism after 1901. I intend to discuss these issues more fully in my forthcoming book, The International Campaign Against Anarchist Terrorism, 1880-1914. For some older attempts, see Jensen (note 16) pp.339-42; Maitron (note 3) p.244-6; James Joll, The Anarchists, 2d ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1980) pp.126-127; G.D.H. Cole, A History of Socialist Thought (London: Macmillan, 1954) vol. II, pp.335-6; Vizetelly (note 6) pp.293-4, 300.
158. No one has yet provided a completely satisfactory explanation for the decline of anarchist terrorism after 1901. I intend to discuss these issues more fully in my forthcoming book, The International Campaign Against Anarchist Terrorism, 1880-1914. For some older attempts, see Jensen (note 16) pp.339-42; Maitron (note 3) p.244-6; James Joll, The Anarchists, 2d ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1980) pp.126-127; G.D.H. Cole, A History of Socialist Thought (London: Macmillan, 1954) vol. II, pp.335-6; Vizetelly (note 6) pp.293-4, 300.
159. No one has yet provided a completely satisfactory explanation for the decline of anarchist terrorism after 1901. I intend to discuss these issues more fully in my forthcoming book, The International Campaign Against Anarchist Terrorism, 1880-1914. For some older attempts, see Jensen (note 16) pp.339-42; Maitron (note 3) p.244-6; James Joll, The Anarchists, 2d ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1980) pp.126-127; G.D.H. Cole, A History of Socialist Thought (London: Macmillan, 1954) vol. II, pp.335-6; Vizetelly (note 6) pp.293-4, 300.
160. No one has yet provided a completely satisfactory explanation for the
161. No one has yet provided a completely satisfactory explanation for the decline of anarchist terrorism after 1901. I intend to discuss these issues more fully in my forthcoming book, The International Campaign Against Anarchist Terrorism, 1880-1914. For some older attempts, see Jensen (note 16) pp.339-42; Maitron (note 3) p.244-6; James Joll, The Anarchists, 2d ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1980) pp.126-127; G.D.H. Cole, A History of Socialist Thought (London: Macmillan, 1954) vol. II, pp.335-6; Vizetelly (note 6) pp.293-4, 300.
162. Fiorenza Fiorentino, Ordine pubblico nell'Italia giolittiana (Rome: Edizioni Carecas 1978) pp. 35-8, 82-3, 87-8, 90-93, 110-13, 119-20.
163. As I have tried to show elsewhere, the case for the connection between police reform, social reform and The decline of widespread social violence (and terrorism) can be made persuasively for Italy. See Jensen, 'Police Reform and Social Reform: Italy from the Crisis of the 1890s to the Giolittian Era', Criminal Justice History: An International Annual 10 (1989) pp.179-200.
164. A good deal of historical irony exists in the fact that soon after the Roosevelt Administration refused in 1904 to join the anti-anarchist league and adhere to the anti-white slavery convention it proclaimed the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (Dec. 1904). The Roosevelt Corollary made the United States the policeman of the Western Hemisphere, intervening in Latin American states whenever it felt necessary to rectify cases of 'wrongdoing' or 'impotence' (LaFeber [note 45] p. 199; Marks [note 36] p.146). In a strange hypocrisy, the United States was happy enough, in the words of Roosevelt, to 'exercise...international police power' outside its borders, but was incapable of policing itself domestically (and therefore of joining international police organizations) because of the lack of a national police force and a national identification service of its own.