The Height of the German Challenge: The Venezuela Blockade, 1902-3

Diplomatic History

Volumn 20, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 185-210

  Mitchell, Nancy ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0345936253     PISSN: 01452096     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7709.1996.tb00622.x     Document Type: Article

References (120)

1. Woodrow Wilson, quoted in Walter Hines Page, The Life and Letters of Walter Hines Page, 3 vols., ed. B. J. Hendrick (London, 1923-25), 1:204.
2. Hamburger Nachrichten, 9 February 1896. The classic text on the German threat is Alfred Vagts, Deutschland und die Vereinigten Staaten in der Weltpolitik [Germany and the United States in Weltpolitik), 2 vols. (New York, 1935). Vagts relentlessly demolished the notion of a German threat to the hemisphere. His book, however, was based on a very limited array of sources. Although frequently cited, the book's thesis was either dismissed or adopted without further ado. Four decades would pass before scholars would reopen the case. To date, several monographs on Wilhelm's policy toward specific Latin American countries have appeared. Two scholars have written general studies of Wilhelmine policy in the region. Both turn Vagts on his head, arguing that there was indeed a German threat to the hemisphere: Holger Herwig, The Politics of Frustration: The United States in German Naval Planning, 1889-1941 (Boston, 1976); and Ragnhild Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika als Konfliktherd der deutsch-amerikanischen Beziehungen, 1890-1903 [Latin America as the seedbed of conflict in German-American relations, 1890-1903] (Göttingen, 1985). disagree. Nancy Mitchell, "The Danger of Dreams: Weltpolitik vs. Protective Imperialism" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1992) and "Germans in the Backyard," Prologue 24 (Summer 1992): 174-80.
3. Hamburger Nachrichten, 9 February 1896. The classic text on the German threat is Alfred Vagts, Deutschland und die Vereinigten Staaten in der Weltpolitik [Germany and the United States in Weltpolitik), 2 vols. (New York, 1935). Vagts relentlessly demolished the notion of a German threat to the hemisphere. His book, however, was based on a very limited array of sources. Although frequently cited, the book's thesis was either dismissed or adopted without further ado. Four decades would pass before scholars would reopen the case. To date, several monographs on Wilhelm's policy toward specific Latin American countries have appeared. Two scholars have written general studies of Wilhelmine policy in the region. Both turn Vagts on his head, arguing that there was indeed a German threat to the hemisphere: Holger Herwig, The Politics of Frustration: The United States in German Naval Planning, 1889-1941 (Boston, 1976); and Ragnhild Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika als Konfliktherd der deutsch-amerikanischen Beziehungen, 1890-1903 [Latin America as the seedbed of conflict in German-American relations, 1890-1903] (Göttingen, 1985). disagree. Nancy Mitchell, "The Danger of Dreams: Weltpolitik vs. Protective Imperialism" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1992) and "Germans in the Backyard," Prologue 24 (Summer 1992): 174-80.
4. Hamburger Nachrichten, 9 February 1896. The classic text on the German threat is Alfred Vagts, Deutschland und die Vereinigten Staaten in der Weltpolitik [Germany and the United States in Weltpolitik), 2 vols. (New York, 1935). Vagts relentlessly demolished the notion of a German threat to the hemisphere. His book, however, was based on a very limited array of sources. Although frequently cited, the book's thesis was either dismissed or adopted without further ado. Four decades would pass before scholars would reopen the case. To date, several monographs on Wilhelm's policy toward specific Latin American countries have appeared. Two scholars have written general studies of Wilhelmine policy in the region. Both turn Vagts on his head, arguing that there was indeed a German threat to the hemisphere: Holger Herwig, The Politics of Frustration: The United States in German Naval Planning, 1889-1941 (Boston, 1976); and Ragnhild Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika als Konfliktherd der deutsch-amerikanischen Beziehungen, 1890-1903 [Latin America as the seedbed of conflict in German-American relations, 1890-1903] (Göttingen, 1985). disagree. Nancy Mitchell, "The Danger of Dreams: Weltpolitik vs. Protective Imperialism" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1992) and "Germans in the Backyard," Prologue 24 (Summer 1992): 174-80.
5. Hamburger Nachrichten, 9 February 1896. The classic text on the German threat is Alfred Vagts, Deutschland und die Vereinigten Staaten in der Weltpolitik [Germany and the United States in Weltpolitik), 2 vols. (New York, 1935). Vagts relentlessly demolished the notion of a German threat to the hemisphere. His book, however, was based on a very limited array of sources. Although frequently cited, the book's thesis was either dismissed or adopted without further ado. Four decades would pass before scholars would reopen the case. To date, several monographs on Wilhelm's policy toward specific Latin American countries have appeared. Two scholars have written general studies of Wilhelmine policy in the region. Both turn Vagts on his head, arguing that there was indeed a German threat to the hemisphere: Holger Herwig, The Politics of Frustration: The United States in German Naval Planning, 1889-1941 (Boston, 1976); and Ragnhild Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika als Konfliktherd der deutsch-amerikanischen Beziehungen, 1890-1903 [Latin America as the seedbed of conflict in German-American relations, 1890-1903] (Göttingen, 1985). disagree. Nancy Mitchell, "The Danger of Dreams: Weltpolitik vs. Protective Imperialism" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1992) and "Germans in the Backyard," Prologue 24 (Summer 1992): 174-80.
6. Hamburger Nachrichten, 9 February 1896. The classic text on the German threat is Alfred Vagts, Deutschland und die Vereinigten Staaten in der Weltpolitik [Germany and the United States in Weltpolitik), 2 vols. (New York, 1935). Vagts relentlessly demolished the notion of a German threat to the hemisphere. His book, however, was based on a very limited array of sources. Although frequently cited, the book's thesis was either dismissed or adopted without further ado. Four decades would pass before scholars would reopen the case. To date, several monographs on Wilhelm's policy toward specific Latin American countries have appeared. Two scholars have written general studies of Wilhelmine policy in the region. Both turn Vagts on his head, arguing that there was indeed a German threat to the hemisphere: Holger Herwig, The Politics of Frustration: The United States in German Naval Planning, 1889-1941 (Boston, 1976); and Ragnhild Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika als Konfliktherd der deutsch-amerikanischen Beziehungen, 1890-1903 [Latin America as the seedbed of conflict in German-American relations, 1890-1903] (Göttingen, 1985). I disagree. Nancy Mitchell, "The Danger of Dreams: Weltpolitik vs. Protective Imperialism" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1992) and "Germans in the Backyard," Prologue 24 (Summer 1992): 174-80.
7. Hamburger Nachrichten, 9 February 1896. The classic text on the German threat is Alfred Vagts, Deutschland und die Vereinigten Staaten in der Weltpolitik [Germany and the United States in Weltpolitik), 2 vols. (New York, 1935). Vagts relentlessly demolished the notion of a German threat to the hemisphere. His book, however, was based on a very limited array of sources. Although frequently cited, the book's thesis was either dismissed or adopted without further ado. Four decades would pass before scholars would reopen the case. To date, several monographs on Wilhelm's policy toward specific Latin American countries have appeared. Two scholars have written general studies of Wilhelmine policy in the region. Both turn Vagts on his head, arguing that there was indeed a German threat to the hemisphere: Holger Herwig, The Politics of Frustration: The United States in German Naval Planning, 1889-1941 (Boston, 1976); and Ragnhild Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika als Konfliktherd der deutsch-amerikanischen Beziehungen, 1890-1903 [Latin America as the seedbed of conflict in German-American relations, 1890-1903] (Göttingen, 1985). disagree. Nancy Mitchell, "The Danger of Dreams: Weltpolitik vs. Protective Imperialism" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1992) and "Germans in the Backyard," Prologue 24 (Summer 1992): 174-80.
8. See Mitchell, "Dreams."
9. See, for example, Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 846-1044; Herwig, Politics, 76-80; David Healy, Drive to Hegemony: The United States in the Caribbean, 1898-1917 (Madison, 1988), 100-106; and Richard H. Collin, Theodore Roosevelt's Caribbean (Baton Rouge, 1990), 95-123.
10. See, for example, Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 846-1044; Herwig, Politics, 76-80; David Healy, Drive to Hegemony: The United States in the Caribbean, 1898-1917 (Madison, 1988), 100-106; and Richard H. Collin, Theodore Roosevelt's Caribbean (Baton Rouge, 1990), 95-123.
11. See, for example, Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 846-1044; Herwig, Politics, 76-80; David Healy, Drive to Hegemony: The United States in the Caribbean, 1898-1917 (Madison, 1988), 100-106; and Richard H. Collin, Theodore Roosevelt's Caribbean (Baton Rouge, 1990), 95-123.
12. See, for example, Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 846-1044; Herwig, Politics, 76-80; David Healy, Drive to Hegemony: The United States in the Caribbean, 1898-1917 (Madison, 1988), 100-106; and Richard H. Collin, Theodore Roosevelt's Caribbean (Baton Rouge, 1990), 95-123.
13. Herbert Bowen (U.S. minister at Caracas) to John Hay (U.S. secretary of state), 28 November 1902, Record Group 59, M79:T56, National Archives, Washington, DC (hereafter RC; 59, followed by microfilm number).
14. On the superior strength of the German navy see "Solution of the Problem of 1903," RG 12, envelope C-1, Naval War College Archives, Newport, RI; "Germany War Plan," RG 80, box 10, General Board War Portfolio no. 1:5-Y, National Archives; "War with Germany," RG 8, U.S. Naval Operations Plans 1896 to 1900, subfile 1 (hereafter UNOpP), box 47, Naval War College Archives; Rogers. "Tactical Study of the Black Fleet," RG 12; Bernadou, "Tactical Study of the Black Fleet," RG 12; "Joint Army and Navy War Plans. Problem no. 2: Table Showing the Comparative Strength of the Naval Forces of Germany and the United States," RG 8. UNOpP, box 48; Evans to Long, 27 March 1902, RG 80, GB420-2, General Board Letters; Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 500-506, 819-25; Harold and Margaret Sprout, The Rise of American Naval Power (Princeton, 1942), 252-55; and Ronald Spector, "Roosevelt, the Navy, and the Venezuela Controversy: 1902-1903," American Nepture 32 (1972): 259-63.
15. On the superior strength of the German navy see "Solution of the Problem of 1903," RG 12, envelope C-1, Naval War College Archives, Newport, RI; "Germany War Plan," RG 80, box 10, General Board War Portfolio no. 1:5-Y, National Archives; "War with Germany," RG 8, U.S. Naval Operations Plans 1896 to 1900, subfile 1 (hereafter UNOpP), box 47, Naval War College Archives; Rogers. "Tactical Study of the Black Fleet," RG 12; Bernadou, "Tactical Study of the Black Fleet," RG 12; "Joint Army and Navy War Plans. Problem no. 2: Table Showing the Comparative Strength of the Naval Forces of Germany and the United States," RG 8. UNOpP, box 48; Evans to Long, 27 March 1902, RG 80, GB420-2, General Board Letters; Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 500-506, 819-25; Harold and Margaret Sprout, The Rise of American Naval Power (Princeton, 1942), 252-55; and Ronald Spector, "Roosevelt, the Navy, and the Venezuela Controversy: 1902-1903," American Nepture 32 (1972): 259-63.
16. On the superior strength of the German navy see "Solution of the Problem of 1903," RG 12, envelope C-1, Naval War College Archives, Newport, RI; "Germany War Plan," RG 80, box 10, General Board War Portfolio no. 1:5-Y, National Archives; "War with Germany," RG 8, U.S. Naval Operations Plans 1896 to 1900, subfile 1 (hereafter UNOpP), box 47, Naval War College Archives; Rogers. "Tactical Study of the Black Fleet," RG 12; Bernadou, "Tactical Study of the Black Fleet," RG 12; "Joint Army and Navy War Plans. Problem no. 2: Table Showing the Comparative Strength of the Naval Forces of Germany and the United States," RG 8. UNOpP, box 48; Evans to Long, 27 March 1902, RG 80, GB420-2, General Board Letters; Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 500-506, 819-25; Harold and Margaret Sprout, The Rise of American Naval Power (Princeton, 1942), 252-55; and Ronald Spector, "Roosevelt, the Navy, and the Venezuela Controversy: 1902-1903," American Nepture 32 (1972): 259-63.
17. See Bülow to Wilhelm II, 30 December 1901, Venezuela 1, vol. 18, Auswartiges Amt-Politisches Archiv, Bonn (hereafter Vz1, followed by volume); Bülow to Wilhelm II, 1 September 1902, in Johannes Lepsius et al., eds., Die Grosse Politik der europäischen Kabinette, 1871-1914 [The great policy of the European cabinets], 40 vols. (Berlin, 1922-27), 17:244-46 (hereafter GP); Bülow to Wilhelm II, 3 November 1902, GP 17:246-49. See also Georg Hebbinghaus (Admiralstab) memorandum, 24 August 1901, RM 5/5966, Bundesarchiv-Militararchiv, Freiburg (hereafter RM 5, followed by volume); Bülow, "Memo on German Claims in Venezuela," presented to the Reichstag on 8 December 1902, Stenographische Berichte über die Verhandlungen des Reichstages [Stenographical reports of the sessions of the Reichstag], 10th leg., 2d sess. 1900/ 1903 (Berlin, 1903), sup. 7, doc. 786:4957-59; Bülow's speech in the Reichstag, 19 March 1903, ibid., 287th sitting, 10:8719. On the German community in Venezuela (about one thousand strong) see Vagts, Deutschland, 1525-1635; Holger Herwig, Germany's Vision of Empire in Venezuela, 1871-1914 (Princeton, 1986), 17-79, 87-92; and Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 44-88, 120-40.
18. See Bülow to Wilhelm II, 30 December 1901, Venezuela 1, vol. 18, Auswartiges Amt-Politisches Archiv, Bonn (hereafter Vz1, followed by volume); Bülow to Wilhelm II, 1 September 1902, in Johannes Lepsius et al., eds., Die Grosse Politik der europäischen Kabinette, 1871-1914 [The great policy of the European cabinets], 40 vols. (Berlin, 1922-27), 17:244-46 (hereafter GP); Bülow to Wilhelm II, 3 November 1902, GP 17:246-49. See also Georg Hebbinghaus (Admiralstab) memorandum, 24 August 1901, RM 5/5966, Bundesarchiv-Militararchiv, Freiburg (hereafter RM 5, followed by volume); Bülow, "Memo on German Claims in Venezuela," presented to the Reichstag on 8 December 1902, Stenographische Berichte über die Verhandlungen des Reichstages [Stenographical reports of the sessions of the Reichstag], 10th leg., 2d sess. 1900/ 1903 (Berlin, 1903), sup. 7, doc. 786:4957-59; Bülow's speech in the Reichstag, 19 March 1903, ibid., 287th sitting, 10:8719. On the German community in Venezuela (about one thousand strong) see Vagts, Deutschland, 1525-1635; Holger Herwig, Germany's Vision of Empire in Venezuela, 1871-1914 (Princeton, 1986), 17-79, 87-92; and Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 44-88, 120-40.
19. See Bülow to Wilhelm II, 30 December 1901, Venezuela 1, vol. 18, Auswartiges Amt-Politisches Archiv, Bonn (hereafter Vz1, followed by volume); Bülow to Wilhelm II, 1 September 1902, in Johannes Lepsius et al., eds., Die Grosse Politik der europäischen Kabinette, 1871-1914 [The great policy of the European cabinets], 40 vols. (Berlin, 1922-27), 17:244-46 (hereafter GP); Bülow to Wilhelm II, 3 November 1902, GP 17:246-49. See also Georg Hebbinghaus (Admiralstab) memorandum, 24 August 1901, RM 5/5966, Bundesarchiv-Militararchiv, Freiburg (hereafter RM 5, followed by volume); Bülow, "Memo on German Claims in Venezuela," presented to the Reichstag on 8 December 1902, Stenographische Berichte über die Verhandlungen des Reichstages [Stenographical reports of the sessions of the Reichstag], 10th leg., 2d sess. 1900/ 1903 (Berlin, 1903), sup. 7, doc. 786:4957-59; Bülow's speech in the Reichstag, 19 March 1903, ibid., 287th sitting, 10:8719. On the German community in Venezuela (about one thousand strong) see Vagts, Deutschland, 1525-1635; Holger Herwig, Germany's Vision of Empire in Venezuela, 1871-1914 (Princeton, 1986), 17-79, 87-92; and Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 44-88, 120-40.
20. See Bülow to Wilhelm II, 30 December 1901, Venezuela 1, vol. 18, Auswartiges Amt-Politisches Archiv, Bonn (hereafter Vz1, followed by volume); Bülow to Wilhelm II, 1 September 1902, in Johannes Lepsius et al., eds., Die Grosse Politik der europäischen Kabinette, 1871-1914 [The great policy of the European cabinets], 40 vols. (Berlin, 1922-27), 17:244-46 (hereafter GP); Bülow to Wilhelm II, 3 November 1902, GP 17:246-49. See also Georg Hebbinghaus (Admiralstab) memorandum, 24 August 1901, RM 5/5966, Bundesarchiv-Militararchiv, Freiburg (hereafter RM 5, followed by volume); Bülow, "Memo on German Claims in Venezuela," presented to the Reichstag on 8 December 1902, Stenographische Berichte über die Verhandlungen des Reichstages [Stenographical reports of the sessions of the Reichstag], 10th leg., 2d sess. 1900/ 1903 (Berlin, 1903), sup. 7, doc. 786:4957-59; Bülow's speech in the Reichstag, 19 March 1903, ibid., 287th sitting, 10:8719. On the German community in Venezuela (about one thousand strong) see Vagts, Deutschland, 1525-1635; Holger Herwig, Germany's Vision of Empire in Venezuela, 1871-1914 (Princeton, 1986), 17-79, 87-92; and Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 44-88, 120-40.
21. Kölnische Zeitung, 24 August 1901. For the domestic pressures on the chancellor see Immediatbericht Bülows, 30 December 1901, Vz1:18; and Otto von Mühlberg (German undersecretary of state for foreign affairs) to Paul Count von Wolff-Metternich zur Gracht (German ambassador at London), no. IIIb.8423, 17 July 1902, Vz1:21.
22. See Bülow to Wilhelm II, 30 December 1901, Vz1:18; and diary, 11 January 1902, in Norman Rich and M. Fisher, eds., The Holstein Papers, vol. 4, Correspondence, 1897-1909 (Cambridge, England, 1963), 245-46. On Bülow and the kaiser see Katharine Lerman, The Chancellor as Courtier: Bernhard von Bülow and the Governance of Germany, 1900-1909 (Cambridge, England, 1990), 29-40, 86-102.
23. See Bülow to Wilhelm II, 30 December 1901, Vz1:18; and diary, 11 January 1902, in Norman Rich and M. Fisher, eds., The Holstein Papers, vol. 4, Correspondence, 1897-1909 (Cambridge, England, 1963), 245-46. On Bülow and the kaiser see Katharine Lerman, The Chancellor as Courtier: Bernhard von Bülow and the Governance of Germany, 1900-1909 (Cambridge, England, 1990), 29-40, 86-102.
24. See Holger Herwig and J. León Helguera, Alemania y el bloqueo internacional de Venezuela, 1902/03 [Germany and the international blockade of Venezuela, 1902-1903] (Caracas, 1977), 22-23; and the kaiser's marginalia on Bülow to Wilhelm II, 20 January 1902, GP 17:241-43.
25. See Holger Herwig and J. León Helguera, Alemania y el bloqueo internacional de Venezuela, 1902/03 [Germany and the international blockade of Venezuela, 1902-1903] (Caracas, 1977), 22-23; and the kaiser's marginalia on Bülow to Wilhelm II, 20 January 1902, GP 17:241-43.
26. Alfred von Kiderlen-Wächter (adviser to Wilhelm, diplomat, and foreign secretary 1910-1912) quoted in A. J. F. Taylor, The Course of German History (London, 1945), 147. lor Bülow's Anglophobia see diary, 7 November 1902, in Rich and Fisher, eds., Holstein 4:270; and Peter Winzen, Bülows Weltmachtkonzept, Untersuchungen zur Frühphase seiner Aussenpolitik, 1897-1901 (Bülow's world power concept: an investigation of the early phase of his foreign policy, 1897-1901) (Boppard-am-Rhein, 1977), 353-94.
27. Alfred von Kiderlen-Wächter (adviser to Wilhelm, diplomat, and foreign secretary 1910-1912) quoted in A. J. F. Taylor, The Course of German History (London, 1945), 147. lor Bülow's Anglophobia see diary, 7 November 1902, in Rich and Fisher, eds., Holstein 4:270; and Peter Winzen, Bülows Weltmachtkonzept, Untersuchungen zur Frühphase seiner Aussenpolitik, 1897-1901 (Bülow's world power concept: an investigation of the early phase of his foreign policy, 1897-1901) (Boppard-am-Rhein, 1977), 353-94.
28. Alfred von Kiderlen-Wächter (adviser to Wilhelm, diplomat, and foreign secretary 1910-1912) quoted in A. J. F. Taylor, The Course of German History (London, 1945), 147. lor Bülow's Anglophobia see diary, 7 November 1902, in Rich and Fisher, eds., Holstein 4:270; and Peter Winzen, Bülows Weltmachtkonzept, Untersuchungen zur Frühphase seiner Aussenpolitik, 1897-1901 (Bülow's world power concept: an investigation of the early phase of his foreign policy, 1897-1901) (Boppard-am-Rhein, 1977), 353-94.
29. Warren Kneer, Great Britain and the Caribbean, 1901-1913 (East Lansing, 1975), 11; Herwig, Vision, 223.
30. Warren Kneer, Great Britain and the Caribbean, 1901-1913 (East Lansing, 1975), 11; Herwig, Vision, 223.
31. Hermann Baron von Eckardstein (first secretary at London) to Auswartiges Amt (hereafter AA), no. 6, 2 January 1902, Vz1:19; Mühlberg to Metternich, no. IIIb.8423, 17 July 1902, Vz1:21. On 12 July, Oswald von Richthofen (state secretary), Bülow, Sack (Reichsmarineamt), and Wilhelm Büchsel (Admiralstab) had met and recommended joint action in the fall. "Remarks on the Meeting of 12 July 1902," Vz1:21.
32. Lansdowne to Villiers, filed with Arthur Larcom's (senior clerk, American department) memorandum, 20 July 1902, Foreign Office Records, FO 80/443, Public Record Office, Kew, England (hereafter FO, with series and volume). See also Lansdowne to George Buchanan (British chargé at Caracas), 23 July 1902, FO 420/206. For Lansdowne's hopes of better relations with Germany see Lansdowne to Krank Lascelles (ambassador at Berlin), 22 April 1902, FO 800/roll 11.
33. Daily Mail, 16 December 1902. See also Lansdowne to Buchanan, 11 November 1902, FO 80/445. The British press's suspicions about the Sandringham visit were not stirred until the height of the crisis, when it was trying to determine how Britain had ended up in the mess. The press had covered the visit itself as a social and familial affair.
34. Lord George Hamilton (secretary of state for India) quoted in George Monger, The End of Isolation, British Foreign Policy, 1900-1907 (London, 1963), 105-6. Lansdowne was preoccupied with the Education Bill, just as Bülow was absorbed with the tariff debate.
35. See, for example, Edmund Morris, "'A Few Pregnant Days': Theodore Roosevelt and the Venezuelan Crisis of 1902," Theodore Roosevelt Association Journal (Winter 1989): 2-13; Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 880-900; Frederick W. Marks III, Velvet on Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt (Lincoln, NE, 1979), 37-54; Edward Parsons, "The German-American Crisis of 1902-1903," Historian 33 (May 1971): 436-52; Howard Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power (Baltimore, 1956), 403-32; and Seward Livermore, "Theodore Roosevelt, the American Navy, and the Venezuelan Crisis of 1902-1903," American Historical Review 51 (April 1946): 452-71.
36. See, for example, Edmund Morris, "'A Few Pregnant Days': Theodore Roosevelt and the Venezuelan Crisis of 1902," Theodore Roosevelt Association Journal (Winter 1989): 2-13; Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 880-900; Frederick W. Marks III, Velvet on Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt (Lincoln, NE, 1979), 37-54; Edward Parsons, "The German-American Crisis of 1902-1903," Historian 33 (May 1971): 436-52; Howard Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power (Baltimore, 1956), 403-32; and Seward Livermore, "Theodore Roosevelt, the American Navy, and the Venezuelan Crisis of 1902-1903," American Historical Review 51 (April 1946): 452-71.
37. See, for example, Edmund Morris, "'A Few Pregnant Days': Theodore Roosevelt and the Venezuelan Crisis of 1902," Theodore Roosevelt Association Journal (Winter 1989): 2-13; Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 880-900; Frederick W. Marks III, Velvet on Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt (Lincoln, NE, 1979), 37-54; Edward Parsons, "The German-American Crisis of 1902-1903," Historian 33 (May 1971): 436-52; Howard Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power (Baltimore, 1956), 403-32; and Seward Livermore, "Theodore Roosevelt, the American Navy, and the Venezuelan Crisis of 1902-1903," American Historical Review 51 (April 1946): 452-71.
38. See, for example, Edmund Morris, "'A Few Pregnant Days': Theodore Roosevelt and the Venezuelan Crisis of 1902," Theodore Roosevelt Association Journal (Winter 1989): 2-13; Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 880-900; Frederick W. Marks III, Velvet on Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt (Lincoln, NE, 1979), 37-54; Edward Parsons, "The German-American Crisis of 1902-1903," Historian 33 (May 1971): 436-52; Howard Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power (Baltimore, 1956), 403-32; and Seward Livermore, "Theodore Roosevelt, the American Navy, and the Venezuelan Crisis of 1902-1903," American Historical Review 51 (April 1946): 452-71.
39. See, for example, Edmund Morris, "'A Few Pregnant Days': Theodore Roosevelt and the Venezuelan Crisis of 1902," Theodore Roosevelt Association Journal (Winter 1989): 2-13; Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 880-900; Frederick W. Marks III, Velvet on Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt (Lincoln, NE, 1979), 37-54; Edward Parsons, "The German-American Crisis of 1902-1903," Historian 33 (May 1971): 436-52; Howard Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power (Baltimore, 1956), 403-32; and Seward Livermore, "Theodore Roosevelt, the American Navy, and the Venezuelan Crisis of 1902-1903," American Historical Review 51 (April 1946): 452-71.
40. See, for example, Edmund Morris, "'A Few Pregnant Days': Theodore Roosevelt and the Venezuelan Crisis of 1902," Theodore Roosevelt Association Journal (Winter 1989): 2-13; Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 880-900; Frederick W. Marks III, Velvet on Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt (Lincoln, NE, 1979), 37-54; Edward Parsons, "The German-American Crisis of 1902-1903," Historian 33 (May 1971): 436-52; Howard Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power (Baltimore, 1956), 403-32; and Seward Livermore, "Theodore Roosevelt, the American Navy, and the Venezuelan Crisis of 1902-1903," American Historical Review 51 (April 1946): 452-71.
41. Theodore Roosevelt, "Message of the President," 3 December 1901, U.S. Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1901 (Washington, 1903), xxxvi-xxxvii (hereafter FRUS, followed by year).
42. The Foreign Office initiated the joint pressure in March 1901; the elaborate scheme evolved over the course of the year, and its every twist and turn is preserved in voluminous documentation. The United States is not mentioned once, not even in a minute. See especially FO 15/344 and FO 15/352. See also Hay to Hunter (U.S. minister to Guatemala), 22 March and 10 April 1902, RG 59, M77:roll 34; Alvey A. Adee (second assistant secretary of state) to Bowen, 10 August 1901, RG 59, M77-roll 175; Hunter to Hay, 22 March 1902, and James Bailey (U.S. chargé) to Hay, 24 July 1902, RG 59, M219:roll 65. The New York Times did not mention the incident. For a very good account see Kneer, Great Britain, 1-31.
43. Commander of Falke (Lt.-Commander Musculus) to Admiralstab, 26 June 1902 in Hebbinghaus to Richthofen, no. B.2957II, 21 July 1902, Vz1:21; Le Temps, 29 June 1902; Bowen to Hay, 10 August 1902, RG 59, M79:T56. See also Le Figaro, 28 and 29 June 1902; L'Intransigeant, 29 June 1902; Le Temps, 30 June 1902.
44. Vagts, Deutschland, 1497; Moore to Adee, 15 September 1902, John Hay Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC; New York Times, 11 September 1902. The kaiser's comment was leaked to the American and British press. See, for example, New York Times, 26 January 1903; New York Herald, 22 January 1903; Manchester Guardian, 26 January 1903. See also Schröder (Admiralstab) to Richthofen, no. B4094. II, 31 October 1902, with enclosed Military Political Reports of Captain Eckermann of the Panther, Haiti 1, vol. 12, Auswartiges AmtPolitisches Archiv, Bonn.
45. Vagts, Deutschland, 1497; Moore to Adee, 15 September 1902, John Hay Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC; New York Times, 11 September 1902. The kaiser's comment was leaked to the American and British press. See, for example, New York Times, 26 January 1903; New York Herald, 22 January 1903; Manchester Guardian, 26 January 1903. See also Schröder (Admiralstab) to Richthofen, no. B4094. II, 31 October 1902, with enclosed Military Political Reports of Captain Eckermann of the Panther, Haiti 1, vol. 12, Auswartiges AmtPolitisches Archiv, Bonn.
46. Vagts, Deutschland, 1497; Moore to Adee, 15 September 1902, John Hay Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC; New York Times, 11 September 1902. The kaiser's comment was leaked to the American and British press. See, for example, New York Times, 26 January 1903; New York Herald, 22 January 1903; Manchester Guardian, 26 January 1903. See also Schröder (Admiralstab) to Richthofen, no. B4094. II, 31 October 1902, with enclosed Military Political Reports of Captain Eckermann of the Panther, Haiti 1, vol. 12, Auswartiges AmtPolitisches Archiv, Bonn.
47. Vagts, Deutschland, 1497; Moore to Adee, 15 September 1902, John Hay Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC; New York Times, 11 September 1902. The kaiser's comment was leaked to the American and British press. See, for example, New York Times, 26 January 1903; New York Herald, 22 January 1903; Manchester Guardian, 26 January 1903. See also Schröder (Admiralstab) to Richthofen, no. B4094. II, 31 October 1902, with enclosed Military Political Reports of Captain Eckermann of the Panther, Haiti 1, vol. 12, Auswartiges AmtPolitisches Archiv, Bonn.
48. Villiers's minute on C. P. Lucas (undersecretary of state, Colonial Office) to Villiers, 24 January 1902, FO 80/468. On the British claim to Patos see especially FO 80/468; and Admiralty Series 1/7696, Public Record Office (hereafter ADM series, followed by volume). The New York Times reported the dispute in a most cursory fashion on 21 and 23 September and 24 November 1902. In 1943, Britain ceded Patos to Venezuela.
49. W. W. Russell (U.S. chargé at Caracas) to Hay, 30 June 1901, and Hay to Russell, 17 July 1901, FRUS 1901, 550, 551.
50. Holleben to Hay, 13 December 1902, enclosing Imperial German Embassy, "Promemoria," 11 December 1901, and Hay to Holleben, 16 December 1901, enclosing Department of State, "Memorandum," 16 December 1902, FRUS 1901, 192-94, 195. The U.S. press, when informed of the German memorandum (printed in FRUS 1901), was the opposite of alarmed. The New York Times commented on the German government's "perfect consideration and politeness" (29 August 1902).
51. Lansdowne, "Proposed Coercion of Venezuela," memo no. 144, 17 October 1902, Cabinet and Committee of Imperial Defence Series 37/roll 18, vol. 63, Public Record Office (hereafter CAB series, followed by volume); Hay to Michael Herbert (British ambassador at Washington), 11 November 1902, U.S. Senate Documents, 58th Cong., 3d sess., no. 119, 782-83.
52. Metternich to AA, 15 December 1902, GP 17:263; Lansdowne, 2 March 1903, Parliamentary Debates 118:1067.
53. Lansdowne, "Proposed Coercion of Venezuela," memo no. 144, 17 October 1902, CAB 37/roll 18, vol. 63. See also Villiers memorandum for Lansdowne, 18 October 1902, FO 80/445; and Lansdowne to Herbert, 11 November 1902, FO 420/206.
54. Lansdowne minute on admiralty to Foreign Office, 14 August 1902, and Thomas H. Sanderson (permanent undersecretary of state) memorandum, 16 August 1902, with Lansdowne's minute, both in FO 80/444; Lansdowne to Lascelles, 19 August 1902, FO 420/206; Metternich to Bülow, 17 August 1902, and Mühlberg to Metternich, undated, both in Vz1:21.
55. Lord Selborne (first lord of the admiralty) minute on Villiers to Admiralty, 22 October 1902, ADM 1/7620; Haggard to Lansdowne, 29 November 1902, with Villiers's minute, FO 80446.
56. See Quadt to Bülow, 23 August 1902, GP 17:111; Holleben to AA, no. 114, 30 November 1901, Vz1:18, and Holleben to Richthofen, 21 September 1901, Germany 138, vol. 21, Auswartiges Amt-Politisches Archiv (hereafter Ge138, followed by volume).
57. Eckardstein to AA, no. 6, 2 January 1902, with Bülow's and Richthofen's comments, Vz1:19; Wilhelm II, marginalia no. 2 on Bülow to Wilhelm II, 20 January 1902, GP 17:241-43. See also Bülow to Wilhelm II, 1 September 1902, GP 17:244-46. "Iron-clad" used in New York Times, 26 January 1903.
58. Bülow to Wilhelm II, 1 September 1902, GP 17:244-46. For the navy's welcome of British participation also see Bülow to Wilhelm II, 3 November 1902, GP 17:246-49.
59. For German stonewalling see, for example, Bülow to Wilhelm II, 20 January 1902, GP 17:242. For the British response see, for example, Haggard to Lansdowne, 30 November 1902, FO 80/446; Buchanan to Lansdowne, 2 December 1902, with Larcom's minute, FO 80/447; C. J. Thomas (Admiralstab) to Lord Walter Kerr (first sea lord), 6 December 1902, ADM 1/7620. For the linkage with Somalia see Lansdowne to Sir Rennell Rodd (British ambassador at Rome), 4 December 1902 (draft), FO 80/447; Giulio Prinetti (Italian foreign minister) to Alberto Panza (Italian ambassador at London), 4 December 1902, in Maurizio Vernassa, Emigrazione, diplomazia e cannoniere. L'intervento italiano in Venezuela. (1902-1903) [Emigration, diplomacy, and gunboats: the Italian intervention in Venezuela, 1902-1903] (Leghorn, 1980), 138; Lansdowne to Rodd, 5 December 1902, and memorandum reporting conversation with Panza, no date (filed after 5 December 1902), no signature, FO 80/447; and Lansdowne to Rodd, 20 December 1902, FO 800/roll 132. For Germany's continuing reservations about Italian participation see Lansdowne to Buchanan, 7 December 1902 (draft), and Metternich to Lansdowne, 10 December 1902, both in FO 80/447; and Bülow to Wilhelm II, 12 December 1902, GP 17:258-59.
60. Lansdowne's memorandum on Cabinet meeting, 21 October 1902, FO 80/445. See Bülow to Wilhelm II, 3 November 1902, with Wilhelm's marginalia, GP 17:246-49.
61. Bülow to Wilhelm II, 12 December 1902, GP 17:258. Neutral ships running a pacific blockade were turned away; those running a war blockade were sequestered. The correspondence on this issue is extensive. See especially Bülow to Wilhelm II, 20 January 1902, GP 17:241-43; Metternich to Lansdowne, 21 November 1902, FO 80/446; Richthofen to Metternich, 5 December 1902, GP 17:257; William Edward Davidson (legal adviser) memorandum, 8 December 1902, FO 80/448; Metternich to AA, 9 December 1902, GP 17:257-58; Bülow to Wilhelm II, 12 December 1902, ibid., 258-60; and Villiers's minute to Lansdowne, 13 December 1902, FO 80/448. Bülow consistently recommended a pacific blockade. See especially Johannes Kriege (adviser, AA), memo no. A328, 7 January 1902, and Admiral Otto von Diederichs (Chief, Admiralstab) to Richthofen, B.58, 8 January 1902, both in Vz1:19. On Germany's yielding to the British demand see Scheder (commander, east America division) to de Jong van Beek (governor, Curaçao), no. B485, 29 December 1902, RM38/131.
62. Mr. Phillips, 15 December 1902, Parliamentary Debates 116:1257; Manuel Rodríguez Campo, Venezuela 1902: la crísis fiscal y el bloqueo [Venezuela 1902: the fiscal crisis and the blockade] (Caracas, 1977), 227. See also Vice Admiral Archibald Douglas (British commander in chief, North Atlantic station) to Admiralty, 11 December 1902, ADM 1/7620.
63. Mr. Phillips, 15 December 1902, Parliamentary Debates 116:1257; Manuel Rodríguez Campo, Venezuela 1902: la crísis fiscal y el bloqueo [Venezuela 1902: the fiscal crisis and the blockade] (Caracas, 1977), 227. See also Vice Admiral Archibald Douglas (British commander in chief, North Atlantic station) to Admiralty, 11 December 1902, ADM 1/7620.
64. Commodore Montgomerie (British senior naval officer) to Admiralty, 16 December 1902, ADM 1/7620; Volkmar (U.S. consul at Puerto Cabello) to David Hill (acting secretary of state), 16 December 1902, RG 59, T229:roll 12. See also ship's log, Charybdis, 13 and 14 December 1902, ADM 53/18468; Montgomerie to Scheder, 16 December 1902, RM38/131; and "Blockade of Venezuela, Vol. 3," RM38/132. For a vivid description of the sinking of the Venezuelan boats see Haggard to Lansdowne, 14 December 1902, FO 80/448.
65. Montgomerie to Admiralty, 16 December 1902, ADM 1/7620; Wilhelm's marginalia on Bülow to Wilhelm II, 12 December 1902, GP 17:260.
66. Bowen to Hay, 9 December 1902, FRUS 1902, 790; Hay to Charlemagne Tower (U.S. ambassador at Berlin), 12 December 1902, ibid., 420; Hay to Henry White (U.S. chargé at London, acting ambassador), 12 December 1902, ibid., 453; White to Hay, 13 December 1902, RG 59, M30:roll 193; White to Lansdowne, 13 December 1902, FO 80/448.
67. lower to Hay, 18 and 19 December 1902, RG 59, M44:roll 96; White to Hay, 18 December 1902, RG 59, M30:roll 193. For the delays see Douglas to Admiralty, 2 December 1902, ADM 1/7620; Villiers's minute on Douglas to Admiralty, 13 December 1902, and Lansdowne's minute on Montgomerie to Admiralty, 16 December 1902, both in FO 80/448; Douglas to Admiralty, 17 December 1902, with Lansdowne's minute, FO 80/448; Montgomerie to Douglas, 18 December 1902, RM38/131. For the German blockade see Plumacher (U.S. consul at Maracaibo) to Scheder, no. 1, 24 December 1902, RM38/137; Mathais Brewer (U.S. consul at La Guaira) to Scheder, 23 December 1902, RM38/137; Scheder, "Military Political Report: 27 December 1902-5 January 1903," Curaçao, no. 497, 5 January 1903, enclosed in Schröder to Richthofen, no. B.450II, 4 February 1903, Vz1:23; Douglas to Admiralty, 22 December 1902, FO 80/449; and Bowen to Hay, 22 December 1902, RG 59, M79:T56. An "unofficial" blockade had been in force since the seizure of the ships.
68. For Roosevelt's claim see Roosevelt to William Thayer, 21, 23, and 27 August 1916, in Elting Morison and John Blum, eds., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, MA, 1951-54), 8:1101-8. For the believers see Morris, "Pregnant Days," 2-13; Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 880-900; Marks, Velvet, 37-54; Parsons, "Crisis," 436-52; Beale, Roosevelt, 403-32; and Livermore, "Roosevelt," 452-71 . For the mildly skeptical see Paul Holbo, "Perilous Obscurity: Public Diplomacy and the Press in the Venezuelan Crisis, 1902-1903," Historian 32 (1970): 428-48; Spector, "Controversy," 257-63. For the incredulous see Vagts, Deutschland, 1555-57, 1567-68, 1593-94, 1622; Dexter Perkins, A History of the Monroe Doctrine (Boston, 1941), 215-27; and Herwig, Vision, 205-7.
69. For Roosevelt's claim see Roosevelt to William Thayer, 21, 23, and 27 August 1916, in Elting Morison and John Blum, eds., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, MA, 1951-54), 8:1101-8. For the believers see Morris, "Pregnant Days," 2-13; Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 880-900; Marks, Velvet, 37-54; Parsons, "Crisis," 436-52; Beale, Roosevelt, 403-32; and Livermore, "Roosevelt," 452-71 . For the mildly skeptical see Paul Holbo, "Perilous Obscurity: Public Diplomacy and the Press in the Venezuelan Crisis, 1902-1903," Historian 32 (1970): 428-48; Spector, "Controversy," 257-63. For the incredulous see Vagts, Deutschland, 1555-57, 1567-68, 1593-94, 1622; Dexter Perkins, A History of the Monroe Doctrine (Boston, 1941), 215-27; and Herwig, Vision, 205-7.
70. For Roosevelt's claim see Roosevelt to William Thayer, 21, 23, and 27 August 1916, in Elting Morison and John Blum, eds., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, MA, 1951-54), 8:1101-8. For the believers see Morris, "Pregnant Days," 2-13; Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 880-900; Marks, Velvet, 37-54; Parsons, "Crisis," 436-52; Beale, Roosevelt, 403-32; and Livermore, "Roosevelt," 452-71 . For the mildly skeptical see Paul Holbo, "Perilous Obscurity: Public Diplomacy and the Press in the Venezuelan Crisis, 1902-1903," Historian 32 (1970): 428-48; Spector, "Controversy," 257-63. For the incredulous see Vagts, Deutschland, 1555-57, 1567-68, 1593-94, 1622; Dexter Perkins, A History of the Monroe Doctrine (Boston, 1941), 215-27; and Herwig, Vision, 205-7.
71. For Roosevelt's claim see Roosevelt to William Thayer, 21, 23, and 27 August 1916, in Elting Morison and John Blum, eds., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, MA, 1951-54), 8:1101-8. For the believers see Morris, "Pregnant Days," 2-13; Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 880-900; Marks, Velvet, 37-54; Parsons, "Crisis," 436-52; Beale, Roosevelt, 403-32; and Livermore, "Roosevelt," 452-71 . For the mildly skeptical see Paul Holbo, "Perilous Obscurity: Public Diplomacy and the Press in the Venezuelan Crisis, 1902-1903," Historian 32 (1970): 428-48; Spector, "Controversy," 257-63. For the incredulous see Vagts, Deutschland, 1555-57, 1567-68, 1593-94, 1622; Dexter Perkins, A History of the Monroe Doctrine (Boston, 1941), 215-27; and Herwig, Vision, 205-7.
72. For Roosevelt's claim see Roosevelt to William Thayer, 21, 23, and 27 August 1916, in Elting Morison and John Blum, eds., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, MA, 1951-54), 8:1101-8. For the believers see Morris, "Pregnant Days," 2-13; Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 880-900; Marks, Velvet, 37-54; Parsons, "Crisis," 436-52; Beale, Roosevelt, 403-32; and Livermore, "Roosevelt," 452-71 . For the mildly skeptical see Paul Holbo, "Perilous Obscurity: Public Diplomacy and the Press in the Venezuelan Crisis, 1902-1903," Historian 32 (1970): 428-48; Spector, "Controversy," 257-63. For the incredulous see Vagts, Deutschland, 1555-57, 1567-68, 1593-94, 1622; Dexter Perkins, A History of the Monroe Doctrine (Boston, 1941), 215-27; and Herwig, Vision, 205-7.
73. For Roosevelt's claim see Roosevelt to William Thayer, 21, 23, and 27 August 1916, in Elting Morison and John Blum, eds., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, MA, 1951-54), 8:1101-8. For the believers see Morris, "Pregnant Days," 2-13; Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 880-900; Marks, Velvet, 37-54; Parsons, "Crisis," 436-52; Beale, Roosevelt, 403-32; and Livermore, "Roosevelt," 452-71 . For the mildly skeptical see Paul Holbo, "Perilous Obscurity: Public Diplomacy and the Press in the Venezuelan Crisis, 1902-1903," Historian 32 (1970): 428-48; Spector, "Controversy," 257-63. For the incredulous see Vagts, Deutschland, 1555-57, 1567-68, 1593-94, 1622; Dexter Perkins, A History of the Monroe Doctrine (Boston, 1941), 215-27; and Herwig, Vision, 205-7.
74. For Roosevelt's claim see Roosevelt to William Thayer, 21, 23, and 27 August 1916, in Elting Morison and John Blum, eds., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, MA, 1951-54), 8:1101-8. For the believers see Morris, "Pregnant Days," 2-13; Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 880-900; Marks, Velvet, 37-54; Parsons, "Crisis," 436-52; Beale, Roosevelt, 403-32; and Livermore, "Roosevelt," 452-71 . For the mildly skeptical see Paul Holbo, "Perilous Obscurity: Public Diplomacy and the Press in the Venezuelan Crisis, 1902-1903," Historian 32 (1970): 428-48; Spector, "Controversy," 257-63. For the incredulous see Vagts, Deutschland, 1555-57, 1567-68, 1593-94, 1622; Dexter Perkins, A History of the Monroe Doctrine (Boston, 1941), 215-27; and Herwig, Vision, 205-7.
75. For Roosevelt's claim see Roosevelt to William Thayer, 21, 23, and 27 August 1916, in Elting Morison and John Blum, eds., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, MA, 1951-54), 8:1101-8. For the believers see Morris, "Pregnant Days," 2-13; Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 880-900; Marks, Velvet, 37-54; Parsons, "Crisis," 436-52; Beale, Roosevelt, 403-32; and Livermore, "Roosevelt," 452-71 . For the mildly skeptical see Paul Holbo, "Perilous Obscurity: Public Diplomacy and the Press in the Venezuelan Crisis, 1902-1903," Historian 32 (1970): 428-48; Spector, "Controversy," 257-63. For the incredulous see Vagts, Deutschland, 1555-57, 1567-68, 1593-94, 1622; Dexter Perkins, A History of the Monroe Doctrine (Boston, 1941), 215-27; and Herwig, Vision, 205-7.
76. For Roosevelt's claim see Roosevelt to William Thayer, 21, 23, and 27 August 1916, in Elting Morison and John Blum, eds., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, MA, 1951-54), 8:1101-8. For the believers see Morris, "Pregnant Days," 2-13; Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 880-900; Marks, Velvet, 37-54; Parsons, "Crisis," 436-52; Beale, Roosevelt, 403-32; and Livermore, "Roosevelt," 452-71 . For the mildly skeptical see Paul Holbo, "Perilous Obscurity: Public Diplomacy and the Press in the Venezuelan Crisis, 1902-1903," Historian 32 (1970): 428-48; Spector, "Controversy," 257-63. For the incredulous see Vagts, Deutschland, 1555-57, 1567-68, 1593-94, 1622; Dexter Perkins, A History of the Monroe Doctrine (Boston, 1941), 215-27; and Herwig, Vision, 205-7.
77. For Roosevelt's claim see Roosevelt to William Thayer, 21, 23, and 27 August 1916, in Elting Morison and John Blum, eds., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, MA, 1951-54), 8:1101-8. For the believers see Morris, "Pregnant Days," 2-13; Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 880-900; Marks, Velvet, 37-54; Parsons, "Crisis," 436-52; Beale, Roosevelt, 403-32; and Livermore, "Roosevelt," 452-71 . For the mildly skeptical see Paul Holbo, "Perilous Obscurity: Public Diplomacy and the Press in the Venezuelan Crisis, 1902-1903," Historian 32 (1970): 428-48; Spector, "Controversy," 257-63. For the incredulous see Vagts, Deutschland, 1555-57, 1567-68, 1593-94, 1622; Dexter Perkins, A History of the Monroe Doctrine (Boston, 1941), 215-27; and Herwig, Vision, 205-7.
78. For Roosevelt's claim see Roosevelt to William Thayer, 21, 23, and 27 August 1916, in Elting Morison and John Blum, eds., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, MA, 1951-54), 8:1101-8. For the believers see Morris, "Pregnant Days," 2-13; Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 880-900; Marks, Velvet, 37-54; Parsons, "Crisis," 436-52; Beale, Roosevelt, 403-32; and Livermore, "Roosevelt," 452-71 . For the mildly skeptical see Paul Holbo, "Perilous Obscurity: Public Diplomacy and the Press in the Venezuelan Crisis, 1902-1903," Historian 32 (1970): 428-48; Spector, "Controversy," 257-63. For the incredulous see Vagts, Deutschland, 1555-57, 1567-68, 1593-94, 1622; Dexter Perkins, A History of the Monroe Doctrine (Boston, 1941), 215-27; and Herwig, Vision, 205-7.
79. For Roosevelt's claim see Roosevelt to William Thayer, 21, 23, and 27 August 1916, in Elting Morison and John Blum, eds., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, MA, 1951-54), 8:1101-8. For the believers see Morris, "Pregnant Days," 2-13; Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 880-900; Marks, Velvet, 37-54; Parsons, "Crisis," 436-52; Beale, Roosevelt, 403-32; and Livermore, "Roosevelt," 452-71 . For the mildly skeptical see Paul Holbo, "Perilous Obscurity: Public Diplomacy and the Press in the Venezuelan Crisis, 1902-1903," Historian 32 (1970): 428-48; Spector, "Controversy," 257-63. For the incredulous see Vagts, Deutschland, 1555-57, 1567-68, 1593-94, 1622; Dexter Perkins, A History of the Monroe Doctrine (Boston, 1941), 215-27; and Herwig, Vision, 205-7.
80. Not only is the alleged ultimatum not mentioned, the sole reference to the American admiral in the British Foreign Office and Admiralty archives is the following terse telegram: "The United States squadron . . . arrived on 21st d 23d December, and left again on 27th and 28th December. The visit was apparently merely for purpose of giving leave to the men, and had no political significance." Douglas to Admiralty, 1 January 1903, ADM 1/7696.
81. ADM 12/1371-1376.
82. Marks, Velvet, 37-54. For a recent restatement of Marks's thesis see Morris, "Pregnant Days," 2-13.
83. Marks, Velvet, 37-54. For a recent restatement of Marks's thesis see Morris, "Pregnant Days," 2-13.
84. Lascelles to Sanderson, 27 December 1902, FO 800/roll 11. See also Lascelles to Lord Francis Knollys (private secretary to Edward VII), 9 January 1903, Lascelles to Lansdowne, 30 January 1903, and Lascelles to Lansdowne, 6 February 1903, all in FO 800/roll 11.
85. See Metternich to Bülow, 1, 16, 17, 20, 22, 23, and 27 December 1902, and 23, 24, and 30 January and 3, 4, 9, 17, and 22 February 1903, Vz1.
86. Manchester Guardian, 16 December 1902. This analysis of the British press is based on a close reading of the following British papers: The Times, the Morning Post, the Daily Chronicle, the Pall Mall Gazette, the Daily Mail, the Spectator, the Westminster Gazette, the London Daily News, the Manchester Guardian, the Observer, and The Saturday Review; and the following U.S. papers: the New York Times, the New York Sun, the Wall Street Journal, the New York World, the New York Herald, the Chicago Daily News, the Atlanta Constitution, the New Orleans Daily Picayune, the Washington Evening Star, the San Francisco Chronicle, and the Nation. For a detailed analysis see Mitchell, "Dreams," 204-17.
87. During the first week of December 1902, the naval war games were well covered by several U.S. papers, but until 11 December only a tew explicitly linked Dewey's presence to the events in Venezuela. Only the World (17 December) and Evening Star (15 December) indicated what the fleet might do: escort U.S. ships to Venezuela it Germany insisted on imposing a peace blockade, which the United States would not recognize.
88. See Parliamentary Debates 116:237-38, 653-55, 914-15, 1105-9, 1212-13, 1224, 1245-87 (the debate), 1289-90, 1335, 1487-92, 1612.
89. In his study of Roosevelt's use of the press to signal American naval preparedness in the Caribbean, Paul Holbo concludes that the president's public diplomacy was ambiguous and subject to differing interpretations abroad. As tor the British press's handling of the U.S. fleet maneuvers, he notes that the Manchester Guardian did not mention them (in fact, it did, twice, but only obliquely, on 5 and 13 December), that The Times mentioned them in the first week of December and then let the subject drop, and that the Daily News became alarmed as soon as it heard about them. But both The Times and the Daily News are anomalous in that they mention the U.S. fleet at all, and Holbo's interpretation of the latter is inaccurate: Its concerns were not linked to the fleet. The article that Holbo cites in support of this notion was penned by a chatty columnist whose opinions were distinct in tone and content from the paper's reportorial and editorial line. Holbo's study indicates the perils of reiving on a small sample, even one that should have been, on the face of it, representative. Had he looked at more British newspapers, he would have seen that in England, Roosevelt's signal - if it was indeed a signal -was worse than ambiguous; it was invisible. Furthermore, scholars who have relied on Holbo's work - the only analysis of the press and the Venezuela crisis - have tended to ignore his nuanced and modest conclusions and have taken from his article the bald notion that the press, worldwide, was concerned with the U.S. fleet maneuvers. Holbo, "Perilous," 428-48. For other scholars' use of Holbo see Collin, Theodore, 106; and Fiebig-von Hase, Lateinamerika, 849.
90. In his study of Roosevelt's use of the press to signal American naval preparedness in the Caribbean, Paul Holbo concludes that the president's public diplomacy was ambiguous and subject to differing interpretations abroad. As tor the British press's handling of the U.S. fleet maneuvers, he notes that the Manchester Guardian did not mention them (in fact, it did, twice, but only obliquely, on 5 and 13 December), that The Times mentioned them in the first week of December and then let the subject drop, and that the Daily News became alarmed as soon as it heard about them. But both The Times and the Daily News are anomalous in that they mention the U.S. fleet at all, and Holbo's interpretation of the latter is inaccurate: Its concerns were not linked to the fleet. The article that Holbo cites in support of this notion was penned by a chatty columnist whose opinions were distinct in tone and content from the paper's reportorial and editorial line. Holbo's study indicates the perils of reiving on a small sample, even one that should have been, on the face of it, representative. Had he looked at more British newspapers, he would have seen that in England, Roosevelt's signal - if it was indeed a signal - was worse than ambiguous; it was invisible. Furthermore, scholars who have relied on Holbo's
91. Pall Mall Gazette, 15 December 1902; Daily News, 16 December 1902.
92. Pall Mall Gazette, 15 December 1902; Daily News, 16 December 1902.
93. Daily Mail, 16 December 1902. See also Daily Chronicle, 12 December 1902; Westminster Gazette, 16 December 1902; and Saturday Review, 20 December 1902.
94. Metternieh to AA, 15 December 1902, and Bülow to Metternich, 17 December 1902, GP 17:262, 266-67. "Inevitable bow" is from Metternich to Bülow, no. 74, 1 February 1903, Vz1:23.
95. Metternich to Bülow, 4 February 1903, with Bülow's marginalia no. 4, GP 17:288-89.
96. Holleben to AA, 16 December 1902, with Bülow's marginalia no. 1, GP 17:264.
97. White to Hay, 17 and 18 December 1902, RG 59, M30:roll 193; White memorandum tor Lansdowne, 17 December 1902, FO 80/442.
98. Roosevelt to Thayer, 21 August 1916, in Morison and Blum, eds., Letters 7:1102-3.
99. Haggard to Lansdowne, 21 September 1901, FO 80/427. See also Pilgrim-Baltazzi to Bülow, no. B.132, 27 September 1901, Vz1:18; and Commander of Vineta (de Fonseca-Volleim) to Admiralstab, 14 November 1901, enclosed in Admiralstab to Richtholen, no. B.4155II, 9 January 1902, commander of Stein (Bacher) to Admiralstab, 1 December 1901, enclosed in Admiralstab to Riehthofen, no. B4323II, 9 January 1902, and commander of Moltke (Frantz) to Admiralstab, 23 December, 1901, enclosed in Admiralstab to Riehthoten, no. B.220.II, 29 January 1902, all in Yz1:19.
100. Wilhelm's marginalia on Bülow to Wilhelm II, 20 January 1902, GP 17:241-43.
101. Metternich to Bülow, 9 November 1902, GP 17:115n.1.
102. Wilhelm II to Bülow, 12 November 1902, GP 17:116; Bülow to Wilhelm II, 13 November 1902, GP 17:118; Mühlberg to Metternich, no. IIIb. 8423, 17 July 1902, Vz1:21.
103. Wilhelm's marginalia on Bülow to Wilhelm II, 3 November 1902, GP 17:246-49.
104. Bülow to Wilhelm II, 23 January 1902, wi Wilhelm's marginalia, GP 17:275-76.
105. Vagts, Deutschland, 1497. For the impact of Wilhelm's personality on the court see John Röhl, "The Emperor's New Clothes: A Character Sketch of Kaiser Wilhelm II," in Kaiser Wilhelm II: New Interpretations, ed. John Röhl and Nicolaus Sombart (Cambridge, England, 1982), 23-62.
106. Vagts, Deutschland, 1497. For the impact of Wilhelm's personality on the court see John Röhl, "The Emperor's New Clothes: A Character Sketch of Kaiser Wilhelm II," in Kaiser Wilhelm II: New Interpretations, ed. John Röhl and Nicolaus Sombart (Cambridge, England, 1982), 23-62.
107. Metternich to AA, 28 January 1903, with Wilhelm's marginalia no. 1, GP 17:281-82; Bülow to Metternich, 4 February 1903, GP 17:286.
108. The Washington Times, 15 February 1903. The discrepancy in settlement awards was due to the fact that Germany's first-rank claims far surpassed Britain's. Also, England was eager to settle the affair before Parliament reconvened on 17 February. The details were hammered out at The Hague, where the negotiations dragged on until February 1904. By 1907, Venezuela had, to the surprise of most people, paid its debt in full. The best account of the claims negotiations is Wayne Guthrie, "The Anglo-German Intervention in Venezuela, 1902-3" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, San Diego, 1983), 193-315.
109. For the Venezuelans' allegations see Russell to Hay, 23 and 28 January 1903, RG 59, M79:roll 56. For a recent restatement of this view see Rodríguez Campo, Venezuela, 225. Maracaibo, to the west of Caracas, was Gibraltar to the large, pendant-shaped lagoon. The waters were shallow and tidal, and treacherous to the large foreign blockading vessels, particularly after the Venezuelans had removed all buoys. See Herald, 18 December 1902. The last Venezuelan boat - which was the navy's finest - had eluded the Germans by entering the lagoon. See New York Times, 23 December 1902. (Fear of this simple tactic had prompted the British Admiralty to recommend strict secrecy for the operation.) Castro had ridiculed the blockade before the attack on Fort San Carlos, saying that Venezuela could break it at will as long as the allies did not control the lagoon. See New York Times, 26 January 1903.
110. Scheder, "Military Political Report: 14-24 January 1903," no. B.809II/GB.615, 24 January 1903, enclosed in Admiralstab to Richthofen, no. B.725II, 18 February 1903, Vz1:24; Scheder, "Military Political Report, 16-26 December 1902," 26 December 1902, enclosed in Schröder to Richthofen, no. B.254II, Vz1:23.
111. Richthofen to Quadt, no. 14, 24 January 1903, Vz1.23.
112. The Nation, 29 January 1903, 81; Quadt to AA, 23 January 1903, GP 17:274.
113. For Wilson in Mexico in 1913 see Thomas Baecker, Die deutsche Mexikopolitik, 1913/1914 [German policy toward Mexico, 1913-1914] (Berlin, 1971), 32ff; Peter Calvert, The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1914 (Cambridge, 1968), 167-284; Friedrich Katz, The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United State, and the Mexican Revolution (Chicago, 1981), 156-202; Arthur Link, The New Freedom (Princeton, 1956), 347-77; and Mitchell, "Dreams," 249-314.
114. For Wilson in Mexico in 1913 see Thomas Baecker, Die deutsche Mexikopolitik, 1913/1914 [German policy toward Mexico, 1913-1914] (Berlin, 1971), 32ff; Peter Calvert, The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1914 (Cambridge, 1968), 167-284; Friedrich Katz, The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United State, and the Mexican Revolution (Chicago, 1981), 156-202; Arthur Link, The New Freedom (Princeton, 1956), 347-77; and Mitchell, "Dreams," 249-314.
115. For Wilson in Mexico in 1913 see Thomas Baecker, Die deutsche Mexikopolitik, 1913/1914 [German policy toward Mexico, 1913-1914] (Berlin, 1971), 32ff; Peter Calvert, The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1914 (Cambridge, 1968), 167-284; Friedrich Katz, The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United State, and the Mexican Revolution (Chicago, 1981), 156-202; Arthur Link, The New Freedom (Princeton, 1956), 347-77; and Mitchell, "Dreams," 249-314.
116. For Wilson in Mexico in 1913 see Thomas Baecker, Die deutsche Mexikopolitik, 1913/1914 [German policy toward Mexico, 1913-1914] (Berlin, 1971), 32ff; Peter Calvert, The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1914 (Cambridge, 1968), 167-284; Friedrich Katz, The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United State, and the Mexican Revolution (Chicago, 1981), 156-202; Arthur Link, The New Freedom (Princeton, 1956), 347-77; and Mitchell, "Dreams," 249-314.
117. For Wilson in Mexico in 1913 see Thomas Baecker, Die deutsche Mexikopolitik, 1913/1914 [German policy toward Mexico, 1913-1914] (Berlin, 1971), 32ff; Peter Calvert, The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1914 (Cambridge, 1968), 167-284; Friedrich Katz, The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United State, and the Mexican Revolution (Chicago, 1981), 156-202; Arthur Link, The New Freedom (Princeton, 1956), 347-77; and Mitchell, "Dreams," 249-314.
118. See Mitchell, "Dreams."
119. See Herbert to Lansdowne, 25 February 1903, FO 420/214.
120. For the earliest U.S. war plan against Germany see "War with Germany," (1897, no. 266), RG 8, UNOpP, box 47. For the General Board's discussions of war with Germany see 22-24 November 1900, 20-21 March 1901, 23 and 25 April 1901, 22-23 May 1901, 25-26 June 1901, 21-22 and 24 August 1901, 19-20 December 1901, Meetings of the General Board, Minutes of Proceedings, RG 80. For the navy's war plan against Germany see War Portfolio No. 1, box 1, War Portfolios of the General Board, RG 80. On the date of the plan see Mitchell, "Dreams," 28-34.