Modernization and the military in Latin America

British Journal of Political Science

Volumn 31, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 475-496

  DeRouen Jr , Karl ^b   Heo, Uk ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MILWAUKEE   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035606801     PISSN: 00071234     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007123401000187     Document Type: Article

References (145)

1. For example, see Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press); John Johnson, ed., The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962); John Johnson, The Military and Society in Latin America (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1964); Edwin Lieuwen, Arms and Politics in Latin America (New York: Praeger, 1960);
2. For example, see Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press); John Johnson, ed., The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962); John Johnson, The Military and Society in Latin America (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1964); Edwin Lieuwen, Arms and Politics in Latin America (New York: Praeger, 1960);
3. For example, see Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press); John Johnson, ed., The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962); John Johnson, The Military and Society in Latin America (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1964); Edwin Lieuwen, Arms and Politics in Latin America (New York: Praeger, 1960);
4. For example, see Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press); John Johnson, ed., The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962); John Johnson, The Military and Society in Latin America (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1964); Edwin Lieuwen, Arms and Politics in Latin America (New York: Praeger, 1960);
5. Edwin Lieuwen, 'Militarism and Politics in Latin America', in Johnson, ed., The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries, pp. 131-63;
6. Martin Needler, 'Political Development and Military Intervention', American Political Science Review, 60 (1966), 616-26;
7. Martin Needler, Political Development in Latin America (New York: Random House, 1968);
8. Lucian Pye, 'Armies in the Process of Political Modernization', in Johnson, ed., The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries, pp. 69-89.
9. Gary Wynia, The Politics of Latin American Development (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 113-24.
10. G. Pope Atkins, Latin America in the International Political System (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1989), p. 634.
11. Henry Bienen,ed., The Military and Modernization (Chicago: Aldine Atherton, 1971).
12. See Robert M. Solow, 'A Contribution to the Theory of Economic Growth', Quarterly Journal of Economics, 70 (1956), 65-94.
13. Wynia, The Politics of Latin American Development, p. 117.
14. US Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Hearing before the Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere Affairs (91st Congress, 1st session, 24 June and 8 July 1969), pp 20-1 and 58.
15. Tulio Halperin Donghi, The Contemporary History of Latin America, trans. John Charles Chasteen (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993, p. 295.
16. Peter C. Frederiksen and Robert E. Looney, 'Defense Expenditures and Economic Growth in Developing Countries; Armed Forces and Society, 9 (1983), 633-45; Peter C. Frederiksen and Robert E. Looney, 'Another Look at Defense Spending and Development Hypothesis', Defense Analysis, 3 (1985) 205-10; Robert Looney, Third World Military Expenditures and Arms Production (New York: St Martin's Press, 1988); Robert Looney, 'The Economic Impact of Rent-Seeking and Military Expenditures: A Comparison of Third World Military and Civilian Regimes', American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 48 (1989), 11-29; Robert Looney, 'Militarization, Military Regimes, and the General Quality of Life in the Third World', Armed Forces and Society, 17 (1990), 127-39; James Murdoch, Chungron Pi and Todd Sandler, 'The Impact of Defense and Non-Defense Public Spending on Growth in Asia and Latin America', Defence and Peace Economics, 8 (1997), 205-24.
17. Peter C. Frederiksen and Robert E. Looney, 'Defense Expenditures and Economic Growth in Developing Countries; Armed Forces and Society, 9 (1983), 633-45; Peter C. Frederiksen and Robert E. Looney, 'Another Look at Defense Spending and Development Hypothesis', Defense Analysis, 3 (1985) 205-10; Robert Looney, Third World Military Expenditures and Arms Production (New York: St Martin's Press, 1988); Robert Looney, 'The Economic Impact of Rent-Seeking and Military Expenditures: A Comparison of Third World Military and Civilian Regimes', American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 48 (1989), 11-29; Robert Looney, 'Militarization, Military Regimes, and the General Quality of Life in the Third World', Armed Forces and Society, 17 (1990), 127-39; James Murdoch, Chungron Pi and Todd Sandler, 'The Impact of Defense and Non-Defense Public Spending on Growth in Asia and Latin America', Defence and Peace Economics, 8 (1997), 205-24.
18. Peter C. Frederiksen and Robert E. Looney, 'Defense Expenditures and Economic Growth in Developing Countries; Armed Forces and Society, 9 (1983), 633-45; Peter C. Frederiksen and Robert E. Looney, 'Another Look at Defense Spending and Development Hypothesis', Defense Analysis, 3 (1985) 205-10; Robert Looney, Third World Military Expenditures and Arms Production (New York: St Martin's Press, 1988); Robert Looney, 'The Economic Impact of Rent-Seeking and Military Expenditures: A Comparison of Third World Military and Civilian Regimes', American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 48 (1989), 11-29; Robert Looney, 'Militarization, Military Regimes, and the General Quality of Life in the Third World', Armed Forces and Society, 17 (1990), 127-39; James Murdoch, Chungron Pi and Todd Sandler, 'The Impact of Defense and Non-Defense Public Spending on Growth in Asia and Latin America', Defence and Peace Economics, 8 (1997), 205-24.
19. Peter C. Frederiksen and Robert E. Looney, 'Defense Expenditures and Economic Growth in Developing Countries; Armed Forces and Society, 9 (1983), 633-45; Peter C. Frederiksen and Robert E. Looney, 'Another Look at Defense Spending and Development Hypothesis', Defense Analysis, 3 (1985) 205-10; Robert Looney, Third World Military Expenditures and Arms Production (New York: St Martin's Press, 1988); Robert Looney, 'The Economic Impact of Rent-Seeking and Military Expenditures: A Comparison of Third World Military and Civilian Regimes', American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 48 (1989), 11-29; Robert Looney, 'Militarization, Military Regimes, and the General Quality of Life in the Third World', Armed Forces and Society, 17 (1990), 127-39; James Murdoch, Chungron Pi and Todd Sandler, 'The Impact of Defense and Non-Defense Public Spending on Growth in Asia and Latin America', Defence and Peace Economics, 8 (1997), 205-24.
20. Peter C. Frederiksen and Robert E. Looney, 'Defense Expenditures and Economic Growth in Developing Countries; Armed Forces and Society, 9 (1983), 633-45; Peter C. Frederiksen and Robert E. Looney, 'Another Look at Defense Spending and Development Hypothesis', Defense Analysis, 3 (1985) 205-10; Robert Looney, Third World Military Expenditures and Arms Production (New York: St Martin's Press, 1988); Robert Looney, 'The Economic Impact of Rent-Seeking and Military Expenditures: A Comparison of Third World Military and Civilian Regimes', American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 48 (1989), 11-29; Robert Looney, 'Militarization, Military Regimes, and the General Quality of Life in the Third World', Armed Forces and Society, 17 (1990), 127-39; James Murdoch, Chungron Pi and Todd Sandler, 'The Impact of Defense and Non-Defense Public Spending on Growth in Asia and Latin America', Defence and Peace Economics, 8 (1997), 205-24.
21. Peter C. Frederiksen and Robert E. Looney, 'Defense Expenditures and Economic Growth in Developing Countries; Armed Forces and Society, 9 (1983), 633-45; Peter C. Frederiksen and Robert E. Looney, 'Another Look at Defense Spending and Development Hypothesis', Defense Analysis, 3 (1985) 205-10; Robert Looney, Third World Military Expenditures and Arms Production (New York: St Martin's Press, 1988); Robert Looney, 'The Economic Impact of Rent-Seeking and Military Expenditures: A Comparison of Third World Military and Civilian Regimes', American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 48 (1989), 11-29; Robert Looney, 'Militarization, Military Regimes, and the General Quality of Life in the Third World', Armed Forces and Society, 17 (1990), 127-39; James Murdoch, Chungron Pi and Todd Sandler, 'The Impact of Defense and Non-Defense Public Spending on Growth in Asia and Latin America', Defence and Peace Economics, 8 (1997), 205-24.
22. See Morris Janowitz, The Military in the Political Development of New Nations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964); Johnson, The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries; Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter, 'Tentative Conclusions About Uncertain Democracies', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe Schmitter and L. Whitehead, eds, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule (Baltimore., Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 3-78; James Malloy 'The Politics of Transition in Latin America', in James Malloy and Mitchell Seligson, eds, Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transitions in Latin America (Pittsburgh, Pa: Pittsburgh University Press, 1987), pp. 235-58.
23. See Morris Janowitz, The Military in the Political Development of New Nations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964); Johnson, The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries; Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter, 'Tentative Conclusions About Uncertain Democracies', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe Schmitter and L. Whitehead, eds, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule (Baltimore., Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 3-78; James Malloy 'The Politics of Transition in Latin America', in James Malloy and Mitchell Seligson, eds, Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transitions in Latin America (Pittsburgh, Pa: Pittsburgh University Press, 1987), pp. 235-58.
24. See Morris Janowitz, The Military in the Political Development of New Nations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964); Johnson, The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries; Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter, 'Tentative Conclusions About Uncertain Democracies', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe Schmitter and L. Whitehead, eds, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule (Baltimore., Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 3-78; James Malloy 'The Politics of Transition in Latin America', in James Malloy and Mitchell Seligson, eds, Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transitions in Latin America (Pittsburgh, Pa: Pittsburgh University Press, 1987), pp. 235-58.
25. See Morris Janowitz, The Military in the Political Development of New Nations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964); Johnson, The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries; Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter, 'Tentative Conclusions About Uncertain Democracies', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe Schmitter and L. Whitehead, eds, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule (Baltimore., Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 3-78; James Malloy 'The Politics of Transition in Latin America', in James Malloy and Mitchell Seligson, eds, Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transitions in Latin America (Pittsburgh, Pa: Pittsburgh University Press, 1987), pp. 235-58.
26. Emile Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth in Developing Countries (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1973).
27. Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth in Developing Countries'; Emile Benoit, 'Growth and Defense in Developing Countries; Economic Development and Cultural Change, 26 (1978), 271-87; D. Dabelko and James McCormick, 'Opportunity Costs of Defense: Some Cross-National Evidence', Journal of Peace Research, 14 (1977), 145-54; Gavin Kennedy, Defense Economics (New York: St Martin's Press, 1983); Looney, Third World Military Expenditures and Arms Production; Murdoch, Pi and Sandler, 'The Impact of Defense and Non-Defense Public Spending on Growth in Asia and Latin America'.
28. Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth in Developing Countries'; Emile Benoit, 'Growth and Defense in Developing Countries; Economic Development and Cultural Change, 26 (1978), 271-87; D. Dabelko and James McCormick, 'Opportunity Costs of Defense: Some Cross-National Evidence', Journal of Peace Research, 14 (1977), 145-54; Gavin Kennedy, Defense Economics (New York: St Martin's Press, 1983); Looney, Third World Military Expenditures and Arms Production; Murdoch, Pi and Sandler, 'The Impact of Defense and Non-Defense Public Spending on Growth in Asia and Latin America'.
29. Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth in Developing Countries'; Emile Benoit, 'Growth and Defense in Developing Countries; Economic Development and Cultural Change, 26 (1978), 271-87; D. Dabelko and James McCormick, 'Opportunity Costs of Defense: Some Cross-National Evidence', Journal of Peace Research, 14 (1977), 145-54; Gavin Kennedy, Defense Economics (New York: St Martin's Press, 1983); Looney, Third World Military Expenditures and Arms Production; Murdoch, Pi and Sandler, 'The Impact of Defense and Non-Defense Public Spending on Growth in Asia and Latin America'.
30. Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth in Developing Countries'; Emile Benoit, 'Growth and Defense in Developing Countries; Economic Development and Cultural Change, 26 (1978), 271-87; D. Dabelko and James McCormick, 'Opportunity Costs of Defense: Some Cross-National Evidence', Journal of Peace Research, 14 (1977), 145-54; Gavin Kennedy, Defense Economics (New York: St Martin's Press, 1983); Looney, Third World Military Expenditures and Arms Production; Murdoch, Pi and Sandler, 'The Impact of Defense and Non-Defense Public Spending on Growth in Asia and Latin America'.
31. Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth in Developing Countries'; Emile Benoit, 'Growth and Defense in Developing Countries; Economic Development and Cultural Change, 26 (1978), 271-87; D. Dabelko and James McCormick, 'Opportunity Costs of Defense: Some Cross-National Evidence', Journal of Peace Research, 14 (1977), 145-54; Gavin Kennedy, Defense Economics (New York: St Martin's Press, 1983); Looney, Third World Military Expenditures and Arms Production; Murdoch, Pi and Sandler, 'The Impact of Defense and Non-Defense Public Spending on Growth in Asia and Latin America'.
32. Benoit, Defense and Economic Growth in Developing Countries'; Emile Benoit, 'Growth and Defense in Developing Countries; Economic Development and Cultural Change, 26 (1978), 271-87; D. Dabelko and James McCormick, 'Opportunity Costs of Defense: Some Cross-National Evidence', Journal of Peace Research, 14 (1977), 145-54; Gavin Kennedy, Defense Economics (New York: St Martin's Press, 1983); Looney, Third World Military Expenditures and Arms Production; Murdoch, Pi and Sandler, 'The Impact of Defense and Non-Defense Public Spending on Growth in Asia and Latin America'.
33. Nicole Ball, Security and Economy in the Third World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1988); Saadet Deger, Military Expenditures in Third World Countries (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1986); Saadet Deger and Somnath Sen, 'Military Expenditure, Spin-off, and Economic Development', Journal of Development Economics, 3 (1983), 67-83; Riccardo Faini, Patricia Annez and Lance Taylor, 'Defense Spending, Economic Structure and Growth: Evidence Among Countries and Over Time', Economic Development and Cultural Change, 32 (1980), 487-98; Uk Heo, 'Modeling the Defense-Growth Relationship around the Globe', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 42 (1998), 637-57; Uk Heo, The Political Economy of Defense Spending around the World (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen, 1999); Uk Heo and Karl DeRouen Jr, 'Military Expenditures, Technological Change, and Economic Growth in the East Asian NICs', Journal of Politics, 60 (1998), 830-46; James Lebovic and Ashafaq Ishaq, 'Military Burden, Security Needs, and Economic Growth in the Middle East', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 31 (1987), 106-38.
34. Nicole Ball, Security and Economy in the Third World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1988); Saadet Deger, Military Expenditures in Third World Countries (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1986); Saadet Deger and Somnath Sen, 'Military Expenditure, Spin-off, and Economic Development', Journal of Development Economics, 3 (1983), 67-83; Riccardo Faini, Patricia Annez and Lance Taylor, 'Defense Spending, Economic Structure and Growth: Evidence Among Countries and Over Time', Economic Development and Cultural Change, 32 (1980), 487-98; Uk Heo, 'Modeling the Defense-Growth Relationship around the Globe', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 42 (1998), 637-57; Uk Heo, The Political Economy of Defense Spending around the World (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen, 1999); Uk Heo and Karl DeRouen Jr, 'Military Expenditures, Technological Change, and Economic Growth in the East Asian NICs', Journal of Politics, 60 (1998), 830-46; James Lebovic and Ashafaq Ishaq, 'Military Burden, Security Needs, and Economic Growth in the Middle East', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 31 (1987), 106-38.
35. Nicole Ball, Security and Economy in the Third World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1988); Saadet Deger, Military Expenditures in Third World Countries (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1986); Saadet Deger and Somnath Sen, 'Military Expenditure, Spin-off, and Economic Development', Journal of Development Economics, 3 (1983), 67-83; Riccardo Faini, Patricia Annez and Lance Taylor, 'Defense Spending, Economic Structure and Growth: Evidence Among Countries and Over Time', Economic Development and Cultural Change, 32 (1980), 487-98; Uk Heo, 'Modeling the Defense-Growth Relationship around the Globe', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 42 (1998), 637-57; Uk Heo, The Political Economy of Defense Spending around the World (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen, 1999); Uk Heo and Karl DeRouen Jr, 'Military Expenditures, Technological Change, and Economic Growth in the East Asian NICs', Journal of Politics, 60 (1998), 830-46; James Lebovic and Ashafaq Ishaq, 'Military Burden, Security Needs, and Economic Growth in the Middle East', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 31 (1987), 106-38.
36. Nicole Ball, Security and Economy in the Third World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1988); Saadet Deger, Military Expenditures in Third World Countries (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1986); Saadet Deger and Somnath Sen, 'Military Expenditure, Spin-off, and Economic Development', Journal of Development Economics, 3 (1983), 67-83; Riccardo Faini, Patricia Annez and Lance Taylor, 'Defense Spending, Economic Structure and Growth: Evidence Among Countries and Over Time', Economic Development and Cultural Change, 32 (1980), 487-98; Uk Heo, 'Modeling the Defense-Growth Relationship around the Globe', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 42 (1998), 637-57; Uk Heo, The Political Economy of Defense Spending around the World (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen, 1999); Uk Heo and Karl DeRouen Jr, 'Military Expenditures, Technological Change, and Economic Growth in the East Asian NICs', Journal of Politics, 60 (1998), 830-46; James Lebovic and Ashafaq Ishaq, 'Military Burden, Security Needs, and Economic Growth in the Middle East', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 31 (1987), 106-38.
37. Nicole Ball, Security and Economy in the Third World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1988); Saadet Deger, Military Expenditures in Third World Countries (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1986); Saadet Deger and Somnath Sen, 'Military Expenditure, Spin-off, and Economic Development', Journal of Development Economics, 3 (1983), 67-83; Riccardo Faini, Patricia Annez and Lance Taylor, 'Defense Spending, Economic Structure and Growth: Evidence Among Countries and Over Time', Economic Development and Cultural Change, 32 (1980), 487-98; Uk Heo, 'Modeling the Defense-Growth Relationship around the Globe', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 42 (1998), 637-57; Uk Heo, The Political Economy of Defense Spending around the World (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen, 1999); Uk Heo and Karl DeRouen Jr, 'Military Expenditures, Technological Change, and Economic Growth in the East Asian NICs', Journal of Politics, 60 (1998), 830-46; James Lebovic and Ashafaq Ishaq, 'Military Burden, Security Needs, and Economic Growth in the Middle East', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 31 (1987), 106-38.
38. Nicole Ball, Security and Economy in the Third World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1988); Saadet Deger, Military Expenditures in Third World Countries (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1986); Saadet Deger and Somnath Sen, 'Military Expenditure, Spin-off, and Economic Development', Journal of Development Economics, 3 (1983), 67-83; Riccardo Faini, Patricia Annez and Lance Taylor, 'Defense Spending, Economic Structure and Growth: Evidence Among Countries and Over Time', Economic Development and Cultural Change, 32 (1980), 487-98; Uk Heo, 'Modeling the Defense-Growth Relationship around the Globe', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 42 (1998), 637-57; Uk Heo, The Political Economy of Defense Spending around the World (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen, 1999); Uk Heo and Karl DeRouen Jr, 'Military Expenditures, Technological Change, and Economic Growth in the East Asian NICs', Journal of Politics, 60 (1998), 830-46; James Lebovic and Ashafaq Ishaq, 'Military Burden, Security Needs, and Economic Growth in the Middle East', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 31 (1987), 106-38.
39. Nicole Ball, Security and Economy in the Third World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1988); Saadet Deger, Military Expenditures in Third World Countries (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1986); Saadet Deger and Somnath Sen, 'Military Expenditure, Spin-off, and Economic Development', Journal of Development Economics, 3 (1983), 67-83; Riccardo Faini, Patricia Annez and Lance Taylor, 'Defense Spending, Economic Structure and Growth: Evidence Among Countries and Over Time', Economic Development and Cultural Change, 32 (1980), 487-98; Uk Heo, 'Modeling the Defense-Growth Relationship around the Globe', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 42 (1998), 637-57; Uk Heo, The Political Economy of Defense Spending around the World (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen, 1999); Uk Heo and Karl DeRouen Jr, 'Military Expenditures, Technological Change, and Economic Growth in the East Asian NICs', Journal of Politics, 60 (1998), 830-46; James Lebovic and Ashafaq Ishaq, 'Military Burden, Security Needs, and Economic Growth in the Middle East', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 31 (1987), 106-38.
40. Nicole Ball, Security and Economy in the Third World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1988); Saadet Deger, Military Expenditures in Third World Countries (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1986); Saadet Deger and Somnath Sen, 'Military Expenditure, Spin-off, and Economic Development', Journal of Development Economics, 3 (1983), 67-83; Riccardo Faini, Patricia Annez and Lance Taylor, 'Defense Spending, Economic Structure and Growth: Evidence Among Countries and Over Time', Economic Development and Cultural Change, 32 (1980), 487-98; Uk Heo, 'Modeling the Defense-Growth Relationship around the Globe', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 42 (1998), 637-57; Uk Heo, The Political Economy of Defense Spending around the World (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen, 1999); Uk Heo and Karl DeRouen Jr, 'Military Expenditures, Technological Change, and Economic Growth in the East Asian NICs', Journal of Politics, 60 (1998), 830-46; James Lebovic and Ashafaq Ishaq, 'Military Burden, Security Needs, and Economic Growth in the Middle East', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 31 (1987), 106-38.
41. Basudeb Biswas and Rati Ram, 'Military Expenditures and Economic Growth in Less Developed Countries: An Augmented Model and Further Evidence', Economic Development and Cultural Change, 34 (1986), 361-72; Karl DeRouen Jr, 'Defense Spending and Economic Growth in Latin America: The Externalities Effects', International Interactions, 19 (1993), 193-212; David Kinsella, 'Defense Spending and Economic Performance in the United States', Defence Economics, 1 (1991), 295-309; Alex Mintz and Randolph Stevenson, 'Defense Expenditures, Economic Growth and the "Peace Dividend": A Longitudinal Analysis of 103 Countries', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 39 (1995), 283-305; James E. Payne and Anandi P. Sahu, Defense Spending and Economic Growth (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1993).
42. Basudeb Biswas and Rati Ram, 'Military Expenditures and Economic Growth in Less Developed Countries: An Augmented Model and Further Evidence', Economic Development and Cultural Change, 34 (1986), 361-72; Karl DeRouen Jr, 'Defense Spending and Economic Growth in Latin America: The Externalities Effects', International Interactions, 19 (1993), 193-212; David Kinsella, 'Defense Spending and Economic Performance in the United States', Defence Economics, 1 (1991), 295-309; Alex Mintz and Randolph Stevenson, 'Defense Expenditures, Economic Growth and the "Peace Dividend": A Longitudinal Analysis of 103 Countries', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 39 (1995), 283-305; James E. Payne and Anandi P. Sahu, Defense Spending and Economic Growth (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1993).
43. Basudeb Biswas and Rati Ram, 'Military Expenditures and Economic Growth in Less Developed Countries: An Augmented Model and Further Evidence', Economic Development and Cultural Change, 34 (1986), 361-72; Karl DeRouen Jr, 'Defense Spending and Economic Growth in Latin America: The Externalities Effects', International Interactions, 19 (1993), 193-212; David Kinsella, 'Defense Spending and Economic Performance in the United States', Defence Economics, 1 (1991), 295-309; Alex Mintz and Randolph Stevenson, 'Defense Expenditures, Economic Growth and the "Peace Dividend": A Longitudinal Analysis of 103 Countries', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 39 (1995), 283-305; James E. Payne and Anandi P. Sahu, Defense Spending and Economic Growth (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1993).
44. Basudeb Biswas and Rati Ram, 'Military Expenditures and Economic Growth in Less Developed Countries: An Augmented Model and Further Evidence', Economic Development and Cultural Change, 34 (1986), 361-72; Karl DeRouen Jr, 'Defense Spending and Economic Growth in Latin America: The Externalities Effects', International Interactions, 19 (1993), 193-212; David Kinsella, 'Defense Spending and Economic Performance in the United States', Defence Economics, 1 (1991), 295-309; Alex Mintz and Randolph Stevenson, 'Defense Expenditures, Economic Growth and the "Peace Dividend": A Longitudinal Analysis of 103 Countries', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 39 (1995), 283-305; James E. Payne and Anandi P. Sahu, Defense Spending and Economic Growth (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1993).
45. Basudeb Biswas and Rati Ram, 'Military Expenditures and Economic Growth in Less Developed Countries: An Augmented Model and Further Evidence', Economic Development and Cultural Change, 34 (1986), 361-72; Karl DeRouen Jr, 'Defense Spending and Economic Growth in Latin America: The Externalities Effects', International Interactions, 19 (1993), 193-212; David Kinsella, 'Defense Spending and Economic Performance in the United States', Defence Economics, 1 (1991), 295-309; Alex Mintz and Randolph Stevenson, 'Defense Expenditures, Economic Growth and the "Peace Dividend": A Longitudinal Analysis of 103 Countries', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 39 (1995), 283-305; James E. Payne and Anandi P. Sahu, Defense Spending and Economic Growth (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1993).
46. Barry Ames, 'Military and Society in Latin America', Latin America Research Review, 23 (1988) 157-69; Robert Jackman, 'Politicians in Uniform: Military Governments and Social Change in the Third World', American Political Science Review, 70 (1976), 1078-97; Karen Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America (Boston, Mass.: Unwin Hyman, 1989). Research on defence spending by Latin American military regimes has at times generated contradictory findings. Zuk and Thompson's summary reveals either a curvilinear or negative relationship between military regime and defence spending (see Gary Zuk and William Thompson, 'The Post-Coup Military Spending Question: A Pooled Cross-Sectional Time Series Analysis', American Political Science Review, 76 (1982), 60-74, p. 62).
47. Barry Ames, 'Military and Society in Latin America', Latin America Research Review, 23 (1988) 157-69; Robert Jackman, 'Politicians in Uniform: Military Governments and Social Change in the Third World', American Political Science Review, 70 (1976), 1078-97; Karen Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America (Boston, Mass.: Unwin Hyman, 1989). Research on defence spending by Latin American military regimes has at times generated contradictory findings. Zuk and Thompson's summary reveals either a curvilinear or negative relationship between military regime and defence spending (see Gary Zuk and William Thompson, 'The Post-Coup Military Spending Question: A Pooled Cross-Sectional Time Series Analysis', American Political Science Review, 76 (1982), 60-74, p. 62).
48. Barry Ames, 'Military and Society in Latin America', Latin America Research Review, 23 (1988) 157-69; Robert Jackman, 'Politicians in Uniform: Military Governments and Social Change in the Third World', American Political Science Review, 70 (1976), 1078-97; Karen Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America (Boston, Mass.: Unwin Hyman, 1989). Research on defence spending by Latin American military regimes has at times generated contradictory findings. Zuk and Thompson's summary reveals either a curvilinear or negative relationship between military regime and defence spending (see Gary Zuk and William Thompson, 'The Post-Coup Military Spending Question: A Pooled Cross-Sectional Time Series Analysis', American Political Science Review, 76 (1982), 60-74, p. 62).
49. Barry Ames, 'Military and Society in Latin America', Latin America Research Review, 23 (1988) 157-69; Robert Jackman, 'Politicians in Uniform: Military Governments and Social Change in the Third World', American Political Science Review, 70 (1976), 1078-97; Karen Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America (Boston, Mass.: Unwin Hyman, 1989). Research on defence spending by Latin American military regimes has at times generated contradictory findings. Zuk and Thompson's summary reveals either a curvilinear or negative relationship between military regime and defence spending (see Gary Zuk and William Thompson, 'The Post-Coup Military Spending Question: A Pooled Cross-Sectional Time Series Analysis', American Political Science Review, 76 (1982), 60-74, p. 62).
50. Zuk and Thompson do find, however, that military regimes divert greater portions of the budget to defence. Remmer found that, in general, defence spending increases during Latin American military regimes. Since the late 1960s the bureaucratic-authoritarian model was often used to explain the military's role in governing in Latin America. The model assumes the military applies technical prowess and bureaucratic efficiency to problems of state (Donghi, The Contemporary History of Latin America', pp. 311-12;
51. see also O'Donnell and Schmitter, 'Tentative Conclusions About Uncertain Democracies';
52. Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America).
53. Marion Levy, Modernization and the Structure of Societies (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1966);
54. Pye, 'Armies in the Process of Political Modernization'.
55. Pye, 'Armies in the Process of Political Modernization'.
56. Janowitz, The Military in the Political Development of New Nations, pp. 80-3.
57. Atkins, Latin America in the International Political System, p. 284.
58. Alfred Stepan, 'The New Professionalism of Internal Warfare and Military Role Expansion', in Abraham Lowenthal and J. Samuel Fitch, eds, Armies and Politics in Latin America (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1986), pp. 134-50.
59. Johnson, The Military and Society in Latin America, p. 77;
60. Donghi, The Contemporary History of Latin America, p. 297.
61. Martin Needler, 'The Latin American Military: Predatory Reactionaries or Modernizing Patriots?' Journal of Inter-American Studies, 11 (1969), 237-44.
62. José Nun 'The Middle Class Military Coup Revisited', in Abraham Lowenthal and J. Samuel Fitch, eds, Armies and Politics in Latin America (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1986), pp. 59-95.
63. J. Samuel Valenzuela and Arturo Valenzuela, 'Modernization and Dependency', Comparative Politics, 11 (1978), 535-57, p. 554.
64. Lieuwen, Arms and Politics in Latin America; Needler, 'The Latin American Military'; Eric Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977); Nun, 'The Middle Class Military Coup Revisited'.
65. Lieuwen, Arms and Politics in Latin America; Needler, 'The Latin American Military'; Eric Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977); Nun, 'The Middle Class Military Coup Revisited'.
66. Lieuwen, Arms and Politics in Latin America; Needler, 'The Latin American Military'; Eric Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977); Nun, 'The Middle Class Military Coup Revisited'.
67. Lieuwen, Arms and Politics in Latin America; Needler, 'The Latin American Military'; Eric Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977); Nun, 'The Middle Class Military Coup Revisited'.
68. Samuel Hungtington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Have, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1968). See Also Barry Ames and Ed Goff, 'Education and Defencse Expenditures in Latin America: 1948-1968', in Craig Liske, William Loehr and John McCamnat, eds, Comparative Public Policy (New York: Sage, 1975), pp. 175-97; Margaret Hayes, 'Policy Consequences of Military Participation in Politics: An Analysis of Tradeoffs in Brazilian Federal Expenditures', in Craig Liske et al., eds, Comparative Public Policy (New York: Sage, 1975), pp. 21-52; J. Verner, 'Budgetary Tradeoffs between Education and Defense in Latin America', Journal of Developing Areas, 18 (1983), 77-91.
69. Samuel Hungtington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Have, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1968). See Also Barry Ames and Ed Goff, 'Education and Defencse Expenditures in Latin America: 1948-1968', in Craig Liske, William Loehr and John McCamnat, eds, Comparative Public Policy (New York: Sage, 1975), pp. 175-97; Margaret Hayes, 'Policy Consequences of Military Participation in Politics: An Analysis of Tradeoffs in Brazilian Federal Expenditures', in Craig Liske et al., eds, Comparative Public Policy (New York: Sage, 1975), pp. 21-52; J. Verner, 'Budgetary Tradeoffs between Education and Defense in Latin America', Journal of Developing Areas, 18 (1983), 77-91.
70. Samuel Hungtington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Have, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1968). See Also Barry Ames and Ed Goff, 'Education and Defencse Expenditures in Latin America: 1948-1968', in Craig Liske, William Loehr and John McCamnat, eds, Comparative Public Policy (New York: Sage, 1975), pp. 175-97; Margaret Hayes, 'Policy Consequences of Military Participation in Politics: An Analysis of Tradeoffs in Brazilian Federal Expenditures', in Craig Liske et al., eds, Comparative Public Policy (New York: Sage, 1975), pp. 21-52; J. Verner, 'Budgetary Tradeoffs between Education and Defense in Latin America', Journal of Developing Areas, 18 (1983), 77-91.
71. Samuel Hungtington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Have, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1968). See Also Barry Ames and Ed Goff, 'Education and Defencse Expenditures in Latin America: 1948-1968', in Craig Liske, William Loehr and John McCamnat, eds, Comparative Public Policy (New York: Sage, 1975), pp. 175-97; Margaret Hayes, 'Policy Consequences of Military Participation in Politics: An Analysis of Tradeoffs in Brazilian Federal Expenditures', in Craig Liske et al., eds, Comparative Public Policy (New York: Sage, 1975), pp. 21-52; J. Verner, 'Budgetary Tradeoffs between Education and Defense in Latin America', Journal of Developing Areas, 18 (1983), 77-91.
72. Robert Looney and Peter Frederiksen, 'Consequences of Military and Civilian Rule in Argentina', Comparative Political Studies, 20 (1987), 34-46, p. 44.
73. Murdoch et al., 'The Impact of Defense and Non-Defense Public Spending on Growth in Asia and Latin America'.
74. Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America; Yi Feng, 'Regime, Polity, and Economic Growth: The Latin American Experience', Growth and Change, 26 (1995), 77-105.
75. Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America; Yi Feng, 'Regime, Polity, and Economic Growth: The Latin American Experience', Growth and Change, 26 (1995), 77-105.
76. DeRouen, 'Defense Spending and Economic Growth in Latin America'.
77. See Richard Cornes and Todd Sandler, The Theory of Externalities, Public Goods, and Club Goods (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). Externalities are spillover effects associated with goods, services or economic transactions such as spending on government programmes. Externalities attached to transactions can have positive social benefits or negative social costs. The use of abundant coal helped fuel the industrial revolution but the negative externality associated with its use has been pollution. When the British patrolled the Atlantic sea lanes in the nineteenth century to protect its own shipping interests, the unintended consequence was that the US shipping interest benefited from heightened security.
78. See Charles Kegley and Eugene Wittkopf, World Politics: Trends and Transformations, 6th edn (New York: St Martin's Press, 1997), p. 325;
79. Bruce Russett and Harvey Starr, World Politics: The Menu for Choice, 5th edn (New York: W. H. Freeman), p. 396. Defence spending can have positive or negative externality effects on a nation's economy.
80. See DeRouen, 'Defense Spending and Economic Growth in Latin America: The Externalities Effects';
81. Michael J. Mueller and H. Sonmez Atesoglu, 'Defense Spending, Technological Change, and Economic Growth in the United States', Defence Economics, 4 (1993), 259-69;
82. Alex Mintz and Chi Huang, 'Defense Expenditures, Economic Growth and the "Peace Dividend"', American Political Science Review, 84 (1990), 1283-93;
83. Alex Mintz and Chi Huang, 'Guns versus Butter: The Indirect Link', American Journal of Political Science, 35 (1991), 738-57.
84. Robert M. Solow, 'Technical Change and the Aggregate Production Function', Review of Economics and Statistics, 39 (1957), 312-20.
85. Robert M. Solow, Growth Theory: An Exposition (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), p. 35.
86. Steve Chan, 'The Impact of Defense Spending on Economic Performance: A Survey of Evidence and Problems', Orbis, 29 (1985), 403-34;
87. Heo, The Political Economy of Defense Spending around the World;
88. Heo and DeRouen, 'Military Expenditures, Technological Change, and Economic Growth in the East Asian NICs';
89. Mueller and Atesoglu, 'Defense Spending, Technological Change, and Economic Growth in the United States'.
90. Philippe Schmitter, 'Foreign Military Assistance, National Military Spending, and Military Rule in Latin America', in Phillippe Schmitter, ed., Military Rule in Latin America: Function, Consequences, and Perspectives (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1973), pp. 117-87.
91. Solow, Growth Theory.
92. Solow, 'Technical Change and the Aggregate Production Function'.
93. Solow, Growth Theory, p. 35.
94. See Chan, 'The Impact of Defense Spending on Economic Performance'.
95. Edward Denison, Trends in American Economic Growth, 1929-1982 (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1985).
96. Mueller and Atesoglu, 'Defense Spending, Technological Change, and Economic Growth in the United State'.
97. Michael Ward and David Davis, 'Sizing up the Peace Dividend: Economic Growth and Military Spending in the United States, 1948-1996', American Political Science Review, 86 (1992), 748-55.
98. Gershon Feder, 'On Exports and Economic Growth,' Journal of Development Economics, 12 (1983), 59-73.
99. Solow, 'Technical Change and the Aggregate Production Function'; Mueller and Atesoglu, 'Defense Spending, Technological Change, and Economic Growth in the United States'.
100. Solow, 'Technical Change and the Aggregate Production Function'; Mueller and Atesoglu, 'Defense Spending, Technological Change, and Economic Growth in the United States'.
101. Mueller and Atesoglu, 'Defense Spending, Technological Change, and Economic Growth in the United States'.
102. See Cornes and Sandler, The Theory of Externalities, Public Goods, and Club Goods;
103. Mintz and Huang, 'Defense Expenditures, Economic Growth and the "Peace Dividend"'.
104. m; see Heo and DeRouen, 'Military Expenditures, Technological Change, and Economic Growth in the East Asian NICs' for a full derivation of the model.
105. Mueller and Atesoglu, 'Defense Spending, Technological Change, and Economic Growth in the United States'.
106. See Somnath Sen, 'Military Expenditure Data for Developing Countries: Methods and Measurement', in Geoffrey Lamb, ed., Military Expenditure and Economic Development (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1995), pp. 1-18.
107. W. Robert Alexander, 'The Impact of Defence Spending on Economic Growth: A Multi-Sectoral Approach to Defence Spending and Economic Growth with Evidence from Developed Economies', Defence Economics, 2 (1990), 39-55.
108. DeRouen, 'Defense Spending and Economic Growth in Latin America'; Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, SIPRI Yearbook: World Armaments and Disarmament (London: Taylor and Francis, various years).
109. DeRouen, 'Defense Spending and Economic Growth in Latin America'; Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, SIPRI Yearbook: World Armaments and Disarmament (London: Taylor and Francis, various years).
110. International Monetary Fund, International Financial Statistics Yearbook (New York: International Monetary Fund, various years).
111. See Alexander, 'The Impact of Defence Spending on Economic Growth'; Rati Ram, 'Government Size and Economic Growth: A New Framework and Some Evidence from Cross-section and Time-series Data', American Economic Review, 76 (1986), 191-203.
112. See Alexander, 'The Impact of Defence Spending on Economic Growth'; Rati Ram, 'Government Size and Economic Growth: A New Framework and Some Evidence from Cross-section and Time-series Data', American Economic Review, 76 (1986), 191-203.
113. Elizabeth Macnair, James C. Murdoch, Chung-Ron Pi and Todd Sandler, 'Growth and Defense: Pooled Estimates for the NATO Alliance, 1951-1988', Southern Economic Journal, 61 (1995), 846-60.
114. See Chan, 'The Impact of Defense Spending on Economic Performance'.
115. See Arnold Zellner, 'An Efficient Method of Estimating Seemingly Unrelated Regression and Tests of Aggregation Bias', Journal of the American Statistical Association, 57 (1962), 358-68; George G. Judge, W. E. Griffiths, R. Carter Hill, Helmut Lutkepohl and Tsoung-Chou Lee, Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Econometrics, 2nd edn (New York: Wiley, 1988), p. 452.
116. See Arnold Zellner, 'An Efficient Method of Estimating Seemingly Unrelated Regression and Tests of Aggregation Bias', Journal of the American Statistical Association, 57 (1962), 358-68; George G. Judge, W. E. Griffiths, R. Carter Hill, Helmut Lutkepohl and Tsoung-Chou Lee, Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Econometrics, 2nd edn (New York: Wiley, 1988), p. 452.
117. Takeaki Kariya, 'Tests for the Independence between Two Seemingly Unrelated Regression Equations', Annals of Statistics, 9 (1981), 381-90.
118. Lois W. Sayrs, Pooled Time Series Analysis (London: Sage Publication, 1989).
119. C. W. J. Granger and Paul Newbold, 'Spurious Regressions in Econometrics', Journal of Econometrics, 2 (1974), 111-20.
120. See Peter Kennedy, A Guide to Economtrics (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). The non-linear least squares regression employs an iterative technique which generates the sum of squared residuals to be minimized. This computation process can be summarized in the following four steps. First, it starts with an approximation of the parameter values provided by the researcher (available from the authors). Secondly, it computes the residuals and then the sum of squared residuals. Thirdly, it changes one of the parameter values slightly, re-computes the residuals and analyses how the sum of squared residuals change (become larger or smaller). Finally, it keeps changing parameter values in directions that lead to smaller sums of squared residuals until it finds the set of parameter values that when changed slightly in any direction, causes the sum of squared residuals to rise.
121. Kenneth J. White, 'The Durbin-Watson Test for Autocorrelation in Non-linear Models', Review of Economics and Statistics, 74 (1992), 370-3.
122. Adrian Pagan, 'A Generalized Approach to the Treatment of Autocorrelation', Austrian Economic Papers, 13 (1974), 267-80.
123. Like thirteen of the eighteen individual time-series models, the elasticity of GDP with respect to the military share of GDP is negative in the pooled analysis. However, whereas the elasticity of GDP with respect to the non-military government spending was negative for ten of the eighteen countries, in the pooled model it was positive. See Murdoch et al., 'The Impact of Defense and Non-Defense Public Spending on Growth in Asia and Latin America'.
124. See David A. Leblang, 'Property Rights, Democracy and Economic Growth', Political Research Quarterly, 49 (1996), 5-26; see also Feng, 'Regime, Polity, and Economic Growth: The Latin American Experience'; Jackman, 'Politicians in Uniform: Military Governments and Social Change in the Third World'; Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics.
125. See David A. Leblang, 'Property Rights, Democracy and Economic Growth', Political Research Quarterly, 49 (1996), 5-26; see also Feng, 'Regime, Polity, and Economic Growth: The Latin American Experience'; Jackman, 'Politicians in Uniform: Military Governments and Social Change in the Third World'; Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics.
126. See David A. Leblang, 'Property Rights, Democracy and Economic Growth', Political Research Quarterly, 49 (1996), 5-26; see also Feng, 'Regime, Polity, and Economic Growth: The Latin American Experience'; Jackman, 'Politicians in Uniform: Military Governments and Social Change in the Third World'; Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics.
127. See David A. Leblang, 'Property Rights, Democracy and Economic Growth', Political Research Quarterly, 49 (1996), 5-26; see also Feng, 'Regime, Polity, and Economic Growth: The Latin American Experience'; Jackman, 'Politicians in Uniform: Military Governments and Social Change in the Third World'; Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics.
128. Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America.
129. Looney, 'The Economic Impact of Rent-Seeking and Military Expenditures'.
130. Hayes, 'Policy Consequences of Military Participation in Politics'; US Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Hearings before the Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere Affairs.
131. Hayes, 'Policy Consequences of Military Participation in Politics'; US Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Hearings before the Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere Affairs.
132. US Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Hearings before the Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere Affairs, pp. 23-9 and 44.
133. The role of the United States in the region may begin to change as the United States lifts its Latin American high-technology arms embargo. See Philip Butterworth-Hayes, 'All Eyes Turn to Latin America', Aerospace America (July 1998), 48-52.
134. Atkins, Latin America in the International Political System, p. 324.
135. Nehama Babin, 'Military Spending, Economic Growth, and the Time Factor', Armed Forces and Society, 15 (1990), 249-62.
136. See Johnson, 'The Latin American Military as a Politically Competing Group', in Johnson, ed., The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries, pp. 94-127; Lieuven, 'Militarism and Politics in Latin America'; Malloy, 'The Politics of Transition in Latin America'; Robert Looney and Peter Frederiksen, 'Consequences of Military and Civilian Rule in Argentina; Murdoch et al., 'The Impact of Defense and Non-Defense Public Spending on Growth in Asia and Latin Amenca'.
137. See Johnson, 'The Latin American Military as a Politically Competing Group', in Johnson, ed., The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries, pp. 94-127; Lieuven, 'Militarism and Politics in Latin America'; Malloy, 'The Politics of Transition in Latin America'; Robert Looney and Peter Frederiksen, 'Consequences of Military and Civilian Rule in Argentina; Murdoch et al., 'The Impact of Defense and Non-Defense Public Spending on Growth in Asia and Latin Amenca'.
138. See Johnson, 'The Latin American Military as a Politically Competing Group', in Johnson, ed., The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries, pp. 94-127; Lieuven, 'Militarism and Politics in Latin America'; Malloy, 'The Politics of Transition in Latin America'; Robert Looney and Peter Frederiksen, 'Consequences of Military and Civilian Rule in Argentina; Murdoch et al., 'The Impact of Defense and Non-Defense Public Spending on Growth in Asia and Latin Amenca'.
139. See Johnson, 'The Latin American Military as a Politically Competing Group', in Johnson, ed., The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries,
140. See Johnson, 'The Latin American Military as a Politically Competing Group', in Johnson, ed., The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries, pp. 94-127; Lieuven, 'Militarism and Politics in Latin America'; Malloy, 'The Politics of Transition in Latin America'; Robert Looney and Peter Frederiksen, 'Consequences of Military and Civilian Rule in Argentina; Murdoch et al., 'The Impact of Defense and Non-Defense Public Spending on Growth in Asia and Latin Amenca'.
141. Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America, p. 78;
142. Feng, 'Regime, Polity, and Economic Growth'.
143. See H. J. Bruton, 'Productivity Growth in Latin America', American Economic Review, 57(1967), 1099-116.
144. Murdoch et al., 'The Impact of Defense and Non-Defense Public Spending on Growth in Asia and Latin America'.
145. Murdoch et al., 'The Impact of Defense and Non-Defense Public Spending on Growth in Asia and Latin America', pp. 219-20.