Class, caste, and gender among cashew workers in the South Indian State of Kerala 1930-2000

International Review of Social History

Volumn 46, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 155-184

  Lindberg, Anna ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BEHAVIOR; CULTURAL FACTOR; ECONOMICS; EDUCATION; EMPLOYMENT; ETHNOLOGY; FAMILY SIZE; FEMALE; GENDER IDENTITY; HISTORY; HOSPITAL SERVICE; INDIA; LEGAL ASPECT; PERCEPTION; PERCEPTIVE DISCRIMINATION; PHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL CLASS; SOCIAL DOMINANCE; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SPOUSE; WOMEN'S HEALTH; WOMEN'S RIGHTS;

CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS; DISCRIMINATION (PSYCHOLOGY); EMPLOYMENT; FAMILY CHARACTERISTICS; GENDER IDENTITY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HOUSEKEEPING; INDIA; POWER (PSYCHOLOGY); PREJUDICE; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL CLASS; SOCIAL DOMINANCE; SOCIAL IDENTIFICATION; SOCIAL PERCEPTION; SPOUSES; STEREOTYPING; WOMEN; WOMEN'S HEALTH; WOMEN'S RIGHTS; WOMEN, WORKING;

EID: 0035603055     PISSN: 00208590     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0020859001000153     Document Type: Article

References (111)

1. Some workers expressed fear that their opinions would come to the attention of factory owners, so all workers names are pseudonymous.
2. Interview, 19 December 1997 with K. Bhanu, former journalist, born in 1913, Quilon district; interview, 14 September 1999 with K. Chellappan, former trade-union leader, born in 1914, Quilon district.
3. For a discussion of the Kerala Model, see Economic and Political Weekly, 25 (1990), 35-36, pp. 1951-2019, 2053-2107; Robin Jeffrey, Politics, Women and Well Being: How Kerala Became "A Model" (New Delhi, 1992); "The Kerala Model of Development: A Debate, Part 1 and 2, Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, 30 (1998), 3, pp. 25-36; 4, pp. 35-52; Monica Erwér, "Development Beyond the 'Status of Women': The Kerala Model from a Gender Perspective, South India" (M.Phil., Göteborg University, Department of Peace and Development Research, 1998); M.A. Oommen (ed.), Kerala's Development Experience, 2 vols (New Delhi, 1999); Govindan Parayil (ed.), Kerala, the Development Experience: Reflections on Sustainability and Replicability (New York, 2000).
4. For a discussion of the Kerala Model, see Economic and Political Weekly, 25 (1990), 35-36, pp. 1951-2019, 2053-2107; Robin Jeffrey, Politics, Women and Well Being: How Kerala Became "A Model" (New Delhi, 1992); "The Kerala Model of Development: A Debate, Part 1 and 2, Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, 30 (1998), 3, pp. 25-36; 4, pp. 35-52; Monica Erwér, "Development Beyond the 'Status of Women': The Kerala Model from a Gender Perspective, South India" (M.Phil., Göteborg University, Department of Peace and Development Research, 1998); M.A. Oommen (ed.), Kerala's Development Experience, 2 vols (New Delhi, 1999); Govindan Parayil (ed.), Kerala, the Development Experience: Reflections on Sustainability and Replicability (New York, 2000).
5. For a discussion of the Kerala Model, see Economic and Political Weekly, 25 (1990), 35-36, pp. 1951-2019, 2053-2107; Robin Jeffrey, Politics, Women and Well Being: How Kerala Became "A Model" (New Delhi, 1992); "The Kerala Model of Development: A Debate, Part 1 and 2, Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, 30 (1998), 3, pp. 25-36; 4, pp. 35-52; Monica Erwér, "Development Beyond the 'Status of Women': The Kerala Model from a Gender Perspective, South India" (M.Phil., Göteborg University, Department of Peace and Development Research, 1998); M.A. Oommen (ed.), Kerala's Development Experience, 2 vols (New Delhi, 1999); Govindan Parayil (ed.), Kerala, the Development Experience: Reflections on Sustainability and Replicability (New York, 2000).
6. For a discussion of the Kerala Model, see Economic and Political Weekly, 25 (1990), 35-36, pp. 1951-2019, 2053-2107; Robin Jeffrey, Politics, Women and Well Being: How Kerala Became "A Model" (New Delhi, 1992); "The Kerala Model of Development: A Debate, Part 1 and 2, Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, 30 (1998), 3, pp. 25-36; 4, pp. 35-52; Monica Erwér, "Development Beyond the 'Status of Women': The Kerala Model from a Gender Perspective, South India" (M.Phil., Göteborg University, Department of Peace and Development Research, 1998); M.A. Oommen (ed.), Kerala's Development Experience, 2 vols (New Delhi, 1999); Govindan Parayil (ed.), Kerala, the Development Experience: Reflections on Sustainability and Replicability (New York, 2000).
7. For a discussion of the Kerala Model, see Economic and Political Weekly, 25 (1990), 35-36, pp. 1951-2019, 2053-2107; Robin Jeffrey, Politics, Women and Well Being: How Kerala Became "A Model" (New Delhi, 1992); "The Kerala Model of Development: A Debate, Part 1 and 2, Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, 30 (1998), 3, pp. 25-36; 4, pp. 35-52; Monica Erwér, "Development Beyond the 'Status of Women': The Kerala Model from a Gender Perspective, South India" (M.Phil., Göteborg University, Department of Peace and Development Research, 1998); M.A. Oommen (ed.), Kerala's Development Experience, 2 vols (New Delhi, 1999); Govindan Parayil (ed.), Kerala, the Development Experience: Reflections on Sustainability and Replicability (New York, 2000).
8. For a discussion of the Kerala Model, see Economic and Political Weekly, 25 (1990), 35-36, pp. 1951-2019, 2053-2107; Robin Jeffrey, Politics, Women and Well Being: How Kerala Became "A Model" (New Delhi, 1992); "The Kerala Model of Development: A Debate, Part 1 and 2, Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, 30 (1998), 3, pp. 25-36; 4, pp. 35-52; Monica Erwér, "Development Beyond the 'Status of Women': The Kerala Model from a Gender Perspective, South India" (M.Phil., Göteborg University, Department of Peace and Development Research, 1998); M.A. Oommen (ed.), Kerala's Development Experience, 2 vols (New Delhi, 1999); Govindan Parayil (ed.), Kerala, the Development Experience: Reflections on Sustainability and Replicability (New York, 2000).
9. United Nations, Poverty, Unemployment and Development Policy: A Case Study of Selected Issues with Reference to Kerala (New York, 1975), p. 154.
10. Richard Franke and Barbara Chasin, Kerala: Radical Reform as Development in an Indian State (San Francisco, CA, 1989), pp. 10 ff.; M.D. Morris, Measuring the Condition of the World's Poor: the Physical Quality of Life Index (New York, 1979), pp. xi, 64, 138-145; Amartya Sen, Development as Freedom (Oxford, 1999), pp. 21-24, 46-49.
11. Richard Franke and Barbara Chasin, Kerala: Radical Reform as Development in an Indian State (San Francisco, CA, 1989), pp. 10 ff.; M.D. Morris, Measuring the Condition of the World's Poor: the Physical Quality of Life Index (New York, 1979), pp. xi, 64, 138-145; Amartya Sen, Development as Freedom (Oxford, 1999), pp. 21-24, 46-49.
12. Richard Franke and Barbara Chasin, Kerala: Radical Reform as Development in an Indian State (San Francisco, CA, 1989), pp. 10 ff.; M.D. Morris, Measuring the Condition of the World's Poor: the Physical Quality of Life Index (New York, 1979), pp. xi, 64, 138-145; Amartya Sen, Development as Freedom (Oxford, 1999), pp. 21-24, 46-49.
13. Jeffrey, Politics, Women and Well-Being.
14. Franke and Chasin, Kerala: Radical Reform as Development.
15. Several scholars have argued against the concept of "Kerala Model", preferring to name it the "Kerala experience" in order to stress that it is not a model that can be applied anywhere. For a discussion of this and a defence of the concept of the "Kerala Model", see Govindan Parayil (ed.), Kerala, the Development Experience, pp. 1-15.
16. Government of Kerala, Economic Review (Trivandrum, 1960-1998).
17. The figure at an all-India level has remained fairly constant at around ten per cent during the postcolonial era. Government of India, Statistical Profile on Women Labour (Simla, 1985), p. 33; Government of India, Statistical Profile on Women Labour (Simla, 1998), p. 23.
18. The figure at an all-India level has remained fairly constant at around ten per cent during the postcolonial era. Government of India, Statistical Profile on Women Labour (Simla, 1985), p. 33; Government of India, Statistical Profile on Women Labour (Simla, 1998), p. 23.
19. Diane Elson and Ruth Pearson, "The Subordination of Women and the Internationalisation of Factory Production", in Kate Young, Carol Wolkowitz, and Roslyn McCullagh (eds), Of Market and the Market: Women's Subordination in International Perspective (London, 1981), pp. 145-166; Folke Fröbel, Jürgen Heinrichs, and Otto Kreye (eds), The New International Division of Labour (Cambridge, 1980); Swasti Mitter, Common Fate, Common Bond: Women in the Global Economy (London [etc.], 1986), especially pp. 25-64; Guy Standing, "Global Feminization through Flexible Labour", World Development, 17 (1989), pp. 1077-1095; Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Bases and Beaches: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics (London, 1990). For a contrasting view, see Linda Lim, "Women's Work in Export Factories: The Politics of a Cause", in Irene Tinker (ed.), Persistent Inequalities: Women and World Development (New York, 1990), pp. 101-119.
20. Diane Elson and Ruth Pearson, "The Subordination of Women and the Internationalisation of Factory Production", in Kate Young, Carol Wolkowitz, and Roslyn McCullagh (eds), Of Market and the Market: Women's Subordination in International Perspective (London, 1981), pp. 145-166; Folke Fröbel, Jürgen Heinrichs, and Otto Kreye (eds), The New International Division of Labour (Cambridge, 1980); Swasti Mitter, Common Fate, Common Bond: Women in the Global Economy (London [etc.], 1986), especially pp. 25-64; Guy Standing, "Global Feminization through Flexible Labour", World Development, 17 (1989), pp. 1077-1095; Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Bases and Beaches: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics (London, 1990). For a contrasting view, see Linda Lim, "Women's Work in Export Factories: The Politics of a Cause", in Irene Tinker (ed.), Persistent Inequalities: Women and World Development (New York, 1990), pp. 101-119.
21. Diane Elson and Ruth Pearson, "The Subordination of Women and the Internationalisation of Factory Production", in Kate Young, Carol Wolkowitz, and Roslyn McCullagh (eds), Of Market and the Market: Women's Subordination in International Perspective (London, 1981), pp. 145-166; Folke Fröbel, Jürgen Heinrichs, and Otto Kreye (eds), The New International Division of Labour (Cambridge, 1980); Swasti Mitter, Common Fate, Common Bond: Women in the Global Economy (London [etc.], 1986), especially pp. 25-64; Guy Standing, "Global Feminization through Flexible Labour", World Development, 17 (1989), pp. 1077-1095; Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Bases and Beaches: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics (London, 1990). For a contrasting view, see Linda Lim, "Women's Work in Export Factories: The Politics of a Cause", in Irene Tinker (ed.), Persistent Inequalities: Women and World Development (New York, 1990), pp. 101-119.
22. Diane Elson and Ruth Pearson, "The Subordination of Women and the Internationalisation of Factory Production", in Kate Young, Carol Wolkowitz, and Roslyn McCullagh (eds), Of Market and the Market: Women's Subordination in International Perspective (London, 1981), pp. 145-166; Folke Fröbel, Jürgen Heinrichs, and Otto Kreye (eds), The New International Division of Labour (Cambridge, 1980); Swasti Mitter, Common Fate, Common Bond: Women in the Global Economy (London [etc.], 1986), especially pp. 25-64; Guy Standing, "Global Feminization through Flexible Labour", World Development, 17 (1989), pp. 1077-1095; Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Bases and Beaches: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics (London, 1990). For a contrasting view, see Linda Lim, "Women's Work in Export Factories: The Politics of a Cause", in Irene Tinker (ed.), Persistent Inequalities: Women and World Development (New York, 1990), pp. 101-119.
23. Diane Elson and Ruth Pearson, "The Subordination of Women and the Internationalisation of Factory Production", in Kate Young, Carol Wolkowitz, and Roslyn McCullagh (eds), Of Market and the Market: Women's Subordination in International Perspective (London, 1981), pp. 145-166; Folke Fröbel, Jürgen Heinrichs, and Otto Kreye (eds), The New International Division of Labour (Cambridge, 1980); Swasti Mitter, Common Fate, Common Bond: Women in the Global Economy (London [etc.], 1986), especially pp. 25-64; Guy Standing, "Global Feminization through Flexible Labour", World Development, 17 (1989), pp. 1077-1095; Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Bases and Beaches: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics (London, 1990). For a contrasting view, see Linda Lim, "Women's Work in Export Factories: The Politics of a Cause", in Irene Tinker (ed.), Persistent Inequalities: Women and World Development (New York, 1990), pp. 101-119.
24. Diane Elson and Ruth Pearson, "The Subordination of Women and the Internationalisation of Factory Production", in Kate Young, Carol Wolkowitz, and Roslyn McCullagh (eds), Of Market and the Market: Women's Subordination in International Perspective (London, 1981), pp. 145-166; Folke Fröbel, Jürgen Heinrichs, and Otto Kreye (eds), The New International Division of Labour (Cambridge, 1980); Swasti Mitter, Common Fate, Common Bond: Women in the Global Economy (London [etc.], 1986), especially pp. 25-64; Guy Standing, "Global Feminization through Flexible Labour", World Development, 17 (1989), pp. 1077-1095; Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Bases and Beaches: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics (London, 1990). For a contrasting view, see Linda Lim, "Women's Work in Export Factories: The Politics of a Cause", in Irene Tinker (ed.), Persistent Inequalities: Women and World Development (New York, 1990), pp. 101-119.
25. During the last fifty years their proportion in the value of the total exports from Kerala has fluctuated between nineteen and thirty-three per cent. T.M. Thomas Isaac, "The Trend and Pattern of External Trade of Kerala", in B.A. Prakash (ed.), Kerala's Economy: Performance, Problems and Prospects (New Delhi, 1994), pp. 371 ff. It was recently stated that cashew was the most important earner of foreign exchange among the agricultural products of India. See Government of Kerala, Economic Review (Trivandrum, 1995), p. 100; Cashew Bulletin (Cochin, 1995). 8,p. 1.
26. During the last fifty years their proportion in the value of the total exports from Kerala has fluctuated between nineteen and thirty-three per cent. T.M. Thomas Isaac, "The Trend and Pattern of External Trade of Kerala", in B.A. Prakash (ed.), Kerala's Economy: Performance, Problems and Prospects (New Delhi, 1994), pp. 371 ff. It was recently stated that cashew was the most important earner of foreign exchange among the agricultural products of India. See Government of Kerala, Economic Review (Trivandrum, 1995), p. 100; Cashew Bulletin (Cochin, 1995). 8,p. 1.
27. During the last fifty years their proportion in the value of the total exports from Kerala has fluctuated between nineteen and thirty-three per cent. T.M. Thomas Isaac, "The Trend and Pattern of External Trade of Kerala", in B.A. Prakash (ed.), Kerala's Economy: Performance, Problems and Prospects (New Delhi, 1994), pp. 371 ff. It was recently stated that cashew was the most important earner of foreign exchange among the agricultural products of India. See Government of Kerala, Economic Review (Trivandrum, 1995), p. 100; Cashew Bulletin (Cochin, 1995). 8,p. 1.
28. Balan K. Pillai, "The Economic Impact of Collective Bargaining on Cashew Industry in Kerala" (Ph.D., University of Kerala, 1986), p. 158.
29. Interview, 13 August 1998, with R.S. Unni, former trade-union leader in Quilon; interview, 12 January 1998, with J. Chitharanjan, former trade-union leader in Quilon.
30. Government of Kerala, Quarterly Bulletin of Statistics (Trivandrum, 1959);
31. Government of Kerala, Statistics for Planning (Trivandrum, 1972, 1988, and 1993).
32. Chandra Talpade Mohanty. "Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourse", in Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Ann Russo, and Lourdes Torres (eds), Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism (Bloomington, IN, 1991), pp. 51-80. For discussions on "Third-World Women" see Haleh Afshar and Bina Agarwal (eds), Women, Poverty and Ideology in Asia (London, 1989); Hilary Standing, "Employment", in Lise Östergaard (ed.), Gender and Development: A Practical Guide (London, 1992), pp. 57-75; Janet Momsen Henshall, Women and Development in The Third World (London, 1991), pp. 44-92.
33. Chandra Talpade Mohanty. "Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourse", in Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Ann Russo, and Lourdes Torres (eds), Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism (Bloomington, IN, 1991), pp. 51-80. For discussions on "Third-World Women" see Haleh Afshar and Bina Agarwal (eds), Women, Poverty and Ideology in Asia (London, 1989); Hilary Standing, "Employment", in Lise Östergaard (ed.), Gender and Development: A Practical Guide (London, 1992), pp. 57-75; Janet Momsen Henshall, Women and Development in The Third World (London, 1991), pp. 44-92.
34. Chandra Talpade Mohanty. "Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourse", in Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Ann Russo, and Lourdes Torres (eds), Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism (Bloomington, IN, 1991), pp. 51-80. For discussions on "Third-World Women" see Haleh Afshar and Bina Agarwal (eds), Women, Poverty and Ideology in Asia (London, 1989); Hilary Standing, "Employment", in Lise Östergaard (ed.), Gender and Development: A Practical Guide (London, 1992), pp. 57-75; Janet Momsen Henshall, Women and Development in The Third World (London, 1991), pp. 44-92.
35. Chandra Talpade Mohanty. "Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourse", in Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Ann Russo, and Lourdes Torres (eds), Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism (Bloomington, IN, 1991), pp. 51-80. For discussions on "Third-World Women" see Haleh Afshar and Bina Agarwal (eds), Women, Poverty and Ideology in Asia (London, 1989); Hilary Standing, "Employment", in Lise Östergaard (ed.), Gender and Development: A Practical Guide (London, 1992), pp. 57-75; Janet Momsen Henshall, Women and Development in The Third World (London, 1991), pp. 44-92.
36. The Kerala Cashew Workers Welfare Board in Quilon estimated this in 2000. For Kerala in general, see M. Mohandas, "Poverty in Kerala", inPrakash, Kerala's Economy, pp. 78-94, 87-88.
37. See also K.P. Kannan, "Poverty Alleviation as Advancing Basic Human Capabilities", in Parayil, Kerala, the Development Experience, pp. 40-65.
38. E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (Aylesbury, 1980).
39. Leela Fernandes, Producing Workers: The Politics of Gender, Class, and Culture in the Calcutta Jute Mills (Philadelphia, PA, 1997), p. 10.
40. For a discussion of the concept of identity, see Harriet Bradley, Fractured Identities: Changing Patterns of Inequality (Cambridge, 1997), especially pp. 23-27, 202-214.
41. Joan W. Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (New York, 1988).
42. Neville Kirk has argued that Joan Scott, along with other postmodernists like Gareth Stedman Jones and Patrick Joyce, has fallen into an "epistemological trap" by failing to make a distinction between "existence and interpretation/understanding"; Neville Kirk, "History, Language, Ideas and Postmodernism", in Keith Jenkins (ed.), The Postmodern History Reader (London [etc.], 1997), pp. 333-334.
43. Neville Kirk has argued that Joan Scott, along with other postmodernists like Gareth Stedman Jones and Patrick Joyce, has fallen into an "epistemological trap" by failing to make a distinction between "existence and interpretation/understanding"; Neville Kirk, "History, Language, Ideas and Postmodernism", in Keith Jenkins (ed.), The Postmodern History Reader (London [etc.], 1997), pp. 333-334.
44. Bradley, Fractured Identities, p. 9.
45. Dipesh Chakrabarty, Rethinking Working-Class History, Bengal 1890-1940 (New Delhi, 1989); Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, The Post-Colonial Critic: Interviews, Strategies, Dialogues (London, 1990).
46. Dipesh Chakrabarty, Rethinking Working-Class History, Bengal 1890-1940 (New Delhi, 1989); Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, The Post-Colonial Critic: Interviews, Strategies, Dialogues (London, 1990).
47. For a critical discussion of the subaltern studies see, for example, Rosalind O'Hanlon, "Recovering the Subject: Subaltern Studies and Histories of Resistance in Colonial South Asia", Modern Asian Studies, 22 (1988), pp. 189-224; Gyan Prakash, "Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Perspectives from Indian Historigraphy", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 32 (1990), pp. 383-408; Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook, "After Orientalism: Culture, Criticism, and Politics in the Third World", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 34 (1992), pp. 141-167; Gyan Prakash, "Can the 'Subaltern' Ride? A Reply to O'Hanlon and Washbrook", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 34 (1992), pp. 168-184.
48. For a critical discussion of the subaltern studies see, for example, Rosalind O'Hanlon, "Recovering the Subject: Subaltern Studies and Histories of Resistance in Colonial South Asia", Modern Asian Studies, 22 (1988), pp. 189-224; Gyan Prakash, "Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Perspectives from Indian Historigraphy", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 32 (1990), pp. 383-408; Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook, "After Orientalism: Culture, Criticism, and Politics in the Third World", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 34 (1992), pp. 141-167; Gyan Prakash, "Can the 'Subaltern' Ride? A Reply to O'Hanlon and Washbrook", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 34 (1992), pp. 168-184.
49. For a critical discussion of the subaltern studies see, for example, Rosalind O'Hanlon, "Recovering the Subject: Subaltern Studies and Histories of Resistance in Colonial South Asia", Modern Asian Studies, 22 (1988), pp. 189-224; Gyan Prakash, "Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Perspectives from Indian Historigraphy", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 32 (1990), pp. 383-408; Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook, "After Orientalism: Culture, Criticism, and Politics in the Third World", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 34 (1992), pp. 141-167; Gyan Prakash, "Can the 'Subaltern' Ride? A Reply to O'Hanlon and Washbrook", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 34 (1992), pp. 168-184.
50. For a critical discussion of the subaltern studies see, for example, Rosalind O'Hanlon, "Recovering the Subject: Subaltern Studies and Histories of Resistance in Colonial South Asia", Modern Asian Studies, 22 (1988), pp. 189-224; Gyan Prakash, "Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Perspectives from Indian Historigraphy", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 32 (1990), pp. 383-408; Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook, "After Orientalism: Culture, Criticism, and Politics in the Third World", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 34 (1992), pp. 141-167; Gyan Prakash, "Can the 'Subaltern' Ride? A Reply to O'Hanlon and Washbrook", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 34 (1992), pp. 168-184.
51. Ranajit Das Gupta, "Indian Working Class and Some Recent Historiographical Issues", Economic and Political Weekly, 31:8 (1996), pp. L-27ff.;
52. See also Vinay Bahl, "Relevance (or Irrelevance) of Subaltern Studies", Economic and Political Weekly, 32:23 (1997), pp. 1333-1334;
53. Vinay Bahl, "Caste or Class", International Journal of Contemporary Sociology, 27 (1992), pp. 227-249.
54. For a criticism of Chakrabarty's use of official reports to interpret the workers' identity see Amiya Kumar Bagchi, "Working Class Consciousness", Economic and Political Weekly, 25:30 (1990), pp. PE-54-60.
55. Ramachandra Guha, "Subaltern and Bhadralok Studies", Economic and Political Weekly, 30:33 (1995), pp. 2056-2058; Richard M. Eaton, "(Re)imag(in)ing Otherness: A Postmortem for the Postmodern in India", Journal of World History, 11 (2000), pp. 57-78.
56. Ramachandra Guha, "Subaltern and Bhadralok Studies", Economic and Political Weekly, 30:33 (1995), pp. 2056-2058; Richard M. Eaton, "(Re)imag(in)ing Otherness: A Postmortem for the Postmodern in India", Journal of World History, 11 (2000), pp. 57-78.
57. Himani Bannerji, "Projects of Hegemony: Towards a Critique of Subaltern Studies 'Resolution of the Women's Question", Economic and Political Weekly, 35 (2000), pp. 902-920.
58. Fernandes, Producing Workers, p. 15.
59. Karin Kapadia, Siva and Her Sisters: Gender, Caste, and Class in Rural South India (Boulder, CO [etc.], 1995); Fernandes, Producing Workers; Amrita Chhachhi and Renée Pittin, "Multiple Identities and Multiple Strategies: Confronting State, Capital and Patriarchy", in Ronaldo Munck and Peter Waterman (eds), Labour Worldwide in the Era of Globalization: Alternative Union Models in the New World Order (New York, 1999), pp. 64-79; Kalpana Ram, Mukkuvar Women: Gender, Hegemony and Capitalist Transformation in a South Indian Fishing Community (New Delhi, 1992).
60. Karin Kapadia, Siva and Her Sisters: Gender, Caste, and Class in Rural South India (Boulder, CO [etc.], 1995); Fernandes, Producing Workers; Amrita Chhachhi and Renée Pittin, "Multiple Identities and Multiple Strategies: Confronting State, Capital and Patriarchy", in Ronaldo Munck and Peter Waterman (eds), Labour Worldwide in the Era of Globalization: Alternative Union Models in the New World Order (New York, 1999), pp. 64-79; Kalpana Ram, Mukkuvar Women: Gender, Hegemony and Capitalist Transformation in a South Indian Fishing Community (New Delhi, 1992).
61. Karin Kapadia, Siva and Her Sisters: Gender, Caste, and Class in Rural South India (Boulder, CO [etc.], 1995); Fernandes, Producing Workers; Amrita Chhachhi and Renée Pittin, "Multiple Identities and Multiple Strategies: Confronting State, Capital and Patriarchy", in Ronaldo Munck and Peter Waterman (eds), Labour Worldwide in the Era of Globalization: Alternative Union Models in the New World Order (New York, 1999), pp. 64-79; Kalpana Ram, Mukkuvar Women: Gender, Hegemony and Capitalist Transformation in a South Indian Fishing Community (New Delhi, 1992).
62. Karin Kapadia, Siva and Her Sisters: Gender, Caste, and Class in Rural South India (Boulder, CO [etc.], 1995); Fernandes, Producing Workers; Amrita Chhachhi and Renée Pittin, "Multiple Identities and Multiple Strategies: Confronting State, Capital and Patriarchy", in Ronaldo Munck and Peter Waterman (eds), Labour Worldwide in the Era of Globalization: Alternative Union Models in the New World Order (New York, 1999), pp. 64-79; Kalpana Ram, Mukkuvar Women: Gender, Hegemony and Capitalist Transformation in a South Indian Fishing Community (New Delhi, 1992).
63. Samita Sen, Women and Labour in Late Colonial India: The Bengal Jute Industry (Cambridge, 1999); Fernandes, Producing Workers; Karin Kapadia, "Gender Ideologies and the Formation of Rural Industrial Classes in South India Today", in Jonathan P. Parry, Jan Breman, and Karin Kapadia (eds), The Worlds of Indian Industrial Labour (New Delhi, 1999), pp. 329-352.
64. Samita Sen, Women and Labour in Late Colonial India: The Bengal Jute Industry (Cambridge, 1999); Fernandes, Producing Workers; Karin Kapadia, "Gender Ideologies and the Formation of Rural Industrial Classes in South India Today", in Jonathan P. Parry, Jan Breman, and Karin Kapadia (eds), The Worlds of Indian Industrial Labour (New Delhi, 1999), pp. 329-352.
65. Samita Sen, Women and Labour in Late Colonial India: The Bengal Jute Industry (Cambridge, 1999); Fernandes, Producing Workers; Karin Kapadia, "Gender Ideologies and the Formation of Rural Industrial Classes in South India Today", in Jonathan P. Parry, Jan Breman, and Karin Kapadia (eds), The Worlds of Indian Industrial Labour (New Delhi, 1999), pp. 329-352.
66. Bradley, Fractured Identities, pp. 25-26.
67. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, "Can the Subaltern Speak?", in Patrick Williams and Laura Chrisman (eds), Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory (New York, 1993).
68. For a comprehensive discussion on oral history see Robert Perks and Alistair Thomson (eds), The Oral History Reader (London [etc.], 1998).
69. Jayati Lal, "Situating Locations: The Politics of Self, Identity, and 'Other' in Living and Writing the Text", in Dianne Wolf (ed.), Feminist Dilemmas in Field Work (New York, 1996), pp. 185-214.
70. Kirin Narayan, "How Native Is a 'Native' Anthropologist?", in Louise Lamphere, Helena Ragoné, and Patricia Zavella (eds), Situated Lives: Gender and Culture in Everyday Life (New York, 1997), pp. 23-39.
71. Mohanty, "Under Western Eyes".
72. Interviews with factory owners, managers, civil servants, politicians, and trade-union leaders at higher levels were normally carried out in English, whereas interviews with workers were carried out in collaboration with an interpreter. I never learned the local language to the extent that I could carry on a deep conversation in an adequate way, but I learned enough to create an entré for my efforts and, of course, to amuse people with my mistakes.
73. Sen, Women and Labour in Late Colonial India.
74. For a general discussion of reasons for the declining employment of women, see Sujata Gothoskar (ed.), Struggles of Women at Work (New Delhi, 1992), pp. 4-11.
75. This tendency has also been seen in other labour-intensive industries in India a few decades later. Several examples are given in the contributions in Nirmala Banerjee (ed.), Indian Women in a Changing Industrial Scenario (New Delhi, 1991).
76. Government of India, Report of the Committee on Fair Wages (Simla, 1954); Government of Travancore-Cochin, Kerala Report of the Minimum Wages Committee for Cashew Industry (Trivandrum, 1953), pp. 19-20.
77. Government of India, Report of the Committee on Fair Wages (Simla, 1954); Government of Travancore-Cochin, Kerala Report of the Minimum Wages Committee for Cashew Industry (Trivandrum, 1953), pp. 19-20.
78. For a discussion of semiproletarians, see Immanuel Wallerstein, Historical Capitalism (London, 1983). For a similar discussion of housewives, see Claudia von Werlhof, "Women's Work: The Blind Spot in the Critique of Political Economy", in Maria Mies, Veronika Bennholdt-Thomsen, and Claudia von Werlhof (eds), Women: The Last Colony (New Delhi, 1988).
79. For a discussion of semiproletarians, see Immanuel Wallerstein, Historical Capitalism (London, 1983). For a similar discussion of housewives, see Claudia von Werlhof, "Women's Work: The Blind Spot in the Critique of Political Economy", in Maria Mies, Veronika Bennholdt-Thomsen, and Claudia von Werlhof (eds), Women: The Last Colony (New Delhi, 1988).
80. For a discussion of the concepts of formal and informal sectors, see Jan Breman, "A Dualistic Labour System? A Critique of the 'Informal Sector' Concept, part I, II and III", Economic and Political Weekly, 11 (1976), pp. 1870-1876, 1905-1908, 1939-1944. See also the contributions in Parry, Breman, and Kapadia, The Worlds of Indian Industrial Labour.
81. For a discussion of the concepts of formal and informal sectors, see Jan Breman, "A Dualistic Labour System? A Critique of the 'Informal Sector' Concept, part I, II and III", Economic and Political Weekly, 11 (1976), pp. 1870-1876, 1905-1908, 1939-1944. See also the contributions in Parry, Breman, and Kapadia, The Worlds of Indian Industrial Labour.
82. Beedis are small, hand-rolled Indian cigarettes. See T.M. Thomas Isaac, Richard W. Franke and Pyaralal Raghavan, Democracy at Work in an Indian Industrial Cooperative: The Story of Kerala Dinesh Beedi (New York, 1998).
83. Chakrabarty, Rethinking Working-Class History.
84. K.P. Kannan, Employment, Wages and Conditions of Work in the Cashew Processing Industry, Working Paper No. 77, Centre for Development Studies (Trivandrum, 1978); idem, Evolution of Unionisation and Changes in Labour Process under Lower Forms of Capitalist Production, Working Paper No. 128, Centre for Development Studies (Trivandrum, 1981).
85. K.P. Kannan, Employment, Wages and Conditions of Work in the Cashew Processing Industry, Working Paper No. 77, Centre for Development Studies (Trivandrum, 1978); idem, Evolution of Unionisation and Changes in Labour Process under Lower Forms of Capitalist Production, Working Paper No. 128, Centre for Development Studies (Trivandrum, 1981).
86. Pillai, "The Economic Impact of Collective Bargaining on Cashew Industry in Kerala". For a discussion of corruption and egoism among trade union leaders, see Jan Breman, "Industrial Labour in Post-Colonial India, I: Industrializing the Economy and Formalizing Labour", International Review of Socal History, 44 (1999), pp. 249-300, 292-299. See also K. Mamkoottam, Trade Unionism: Myth and Reality; Unionism in the Tata Iron and Steel Company (New Delhi, 1982), and Fernandes, Producing Workers, p. 81. For a discussion of leardership in Indian trade unions, see Peter Waterman, "Seeing" the Straws, Riding the Whirlwind: Reflections on Unions and Popular Movements in India", Journal of Contemporary Asia, 12 (1982), pp. 464-483.
87. Pillai, "The Economic Impact of Collective Bargaining on Cashew Industry in Kerala". For a discussion of corruption and egoism among trade union leaders, see Jan Breman, "Industrial Labour in Post-Colonial India, I: Industrializing the Economy and Formalizing Labour", International Review of Socal History, 44 (1999), pp. 249-300, 292-299. See also K. Mamkoottam, Trade Unionism: Myth and Reality; Unionism in the Tata Iron and Steel Company (New Delhi, 1982), and Fernandes, Producing Workers, p. 81. For a discussion of leardership in Indian trade unions, see Peter Waterman, "Seeing" the Straws, Riding the Whirlwind: Reflections on Unions and Popular Movements in India", Journal of Contemporary Asia, 12 (1982), pp. 464-483.
88. Pillai, "The Economic Impact of Collective Bargaining on Cashew Industry in Kerala". For a discussion of corruption and egoism among trade union leaders, see Jan Breman, "Industrial Labour in Post-Colonial India, I: Industrializing the Economy and Formalizing Labour", International Review of Socal History, 44 (1999), pp. 249-300, 292-299. See also K. Mamkoottam, Trade Unionism: Myth and Reality; Unionism in the Tata Iron and Steel Company (New Delhi, 1982), and Fernandes, Producing Workers, p. 81. For a discussion of leardership in Indian trade unions, see Peter Waterman, "Seeing" the Straws, Riding the Whirlwind: Reflections on Unions and Popular Movements in India", Journal of Contemporary Asia, 12 (1982), pp. 464-483.
89. Pillai, "The Economic Impact of Collective Bargaining on Cashew Industry in Kerala". For a discussion of corruption and egoism among trade union leaders, see Jan Breman, "Industrial Labour in Post-Colonial India, I: Industrializing the Economy and Formalizing Labour", International Review of Socal History, 44 (1999), pp. 249-300, 292-299. See also K. Mamkoottam, Trade Unionism: Myth and Reality; Unionism in the Tata Iron and Steel Company (New Delhi, 1982), and Fernandes, Producing Workers, p. 81. For a discussion of leardership in Indian trade unions, see Peter Waterman, "Seeing" the Straws, Riding the Whirlwind: Reflections on Unions and Popular Movements in India", Journal of Contemporary Asia, 12 (1982), pp. 464-483.
90. Pillai, "The Economic Impact of Collective Bargaining on Cashew Industry in Kerala". For a discussion of corruption and egoism among trade union leaders, see Jan Breman, "Industrial Labour in Post-Colonial India, I: Industrializing the Economy and Formalizing Labour", International Review of Socal History, 44 (1999), pp. 249-300, 292-299. See also K. Mamkoottam, Trade Unionism: Myth and Reality; Unionism in the Tata Iron and Steel Company (New Delhi, 1982), and Fernandes, Producing Workers, p. 81. For a discussion of leardership in Indian trade unions, see Peter Waterman, "Seeing" the Straws, Riding the Whirlwind: Reflections on Unions and Popular Movements in India", Journal of Contemporary Asia, 12 (1982), pp. 464-483.
91. With regard to Kerala, K. T. Rammohan has discussed the growth of a trade-union bourgeoisie in "Kerala CPI(M): All That is Solid Melts into Air", Economic and Political Weekly, 33 (1998), pp. 2579-2582. K.K. George has a more generalizing view of Keralite trade unions, labelling them "managerial barons and marauders of public treasury";
92. see his "Historical Roots of the Kerala Model and its Present Crisis", Bulletin of Concerned Asian Schoolars, 30:4 (1998), pp. 35-40.
93. Breman, "Industrial Labour in Post-Colonial India, I" p. 294.
94. For a similar conclusion, see E.A. Ramaswamy, The Worker and his Union: A Study in South India (Bombay, 1977), p. 189.
95. Fernandes, Producing Workers, p. 155.
96. For an analysis of patriarchal trade unions in India, see Nivedita Menon, "Women in Trade Unions: A Study of AITUC, INTUC and CITU in the Seventies", in Gothoskar (ed.), Struggles of Women at Work, pp. 186-196.
97. M.K. Sukumaran Nair, "Labour Shortage in a Labour Surplus Economy? A Study of the Rural Labour Market in Kerala", in Oommen (ed.), Kerala's Development Experience, vol. 2, pp. 247-268, 267.
98. The historian, Joan W. Scott, has strongly argued that the Chartists in nineteenth-century England used a masculine class language which placed "women (and children) in auxiliary and dependent positions"; Scott, Gender and the Politics of History, p. 64.
99. The historian, Joan W. Scott, has strongly argued that the Chartists in nineteenth-century England used a masculine class language which placed "women (and children) in auxiliary and dependent positions"; Scott, Gender and the Politics of History, p. 64.
100. B. Rajeevan, "From Caste to Sex: A Study on Sexuality and the Formation of Modern Subject in Kerala", in Oommen, Kerala's Development Experience, vol. 1, pp. 45-59.
101. Joanna Liddle and Rama Joshi, Daughters of Independence: Gender, Caste and Class in India (London, 1986), pp. 57-69.
102. M.N. Srinivas, Caste in Modern India and Other Essays (London, 1962), p. 46; J.H. Hutton, Caste in India: Its Nature, Function and Origins (Bombay, 1963), p. 129, cited in Liddle and Joshi, Daughters of Independence, p. 59.
103. M.N. Srinivas, Caste in Modern India and Other Essays (London, 1962), p. 46; J.H. Hutton, Caste in India: Its Nature, Function and Origins (Bombay, 1963), p. 129, cited in Liddle and Joshi, Daughters of Independence, p. 59.
104. M.N. Srinivas, Caste in Modern India and Other Essays (London, 1962), p. 46; J.H. Hutton, Caste in India: Its Nature, Function and Origins (Bombay, 1963), p. 129, cited in Liddle and Joshi, Daughters of Independence, p. 59.
105. Scott, Gender and the Politics of History; Anita Göransson, Meaning and Materiality: An Attempt to Synthesize or A Reconciliation of Realist and Poststructuralist Positions? Paper presented at the Nordic Feminist Thought Conference, University of Trondheim, 22 May 1996.
106. Scott, Gender and the Politics of History; Anita Göransson, Meaning and Materiality: An Attempt to Synthesize or A Reconciliation of Realist and Poststructuralist Positions? Paper presented at the Nordic Feminist Thought Conference, University of Trondheim, 22 May 1996.
107. See, for example, Ruth Pearson, "Gender Relations, Capitalism and Third World Industrialization", in L. Sklair (ed.), Capitalism and Development (London, 1994), pp. 339-358.
108. James Scott, in a study of peasants in Malaysia, stressed poverty, physical coercion, and power relations, and thereby rejected hegemonic ideologies or "false consciousness", as the real hindrance for radical actions. See James C. Scott, Weapons of The Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven, CT, 1985).
109. Maria Mies, The Lace Makers of Narsapur: Indian Housewives Produce for the World Market (London, 1982), p. 180.
110. Diana Mulinari, Motherwork and Politics in Revolutionary Nicaragua (Lund, 1995), pp. 118-120.
111. For a view of absence of resistance as a recognition of structural constraints, see Pierre Bourdieu, "The Social Space and the Genesis of Groups", Theory and Society, 14 (1985), pp. 723-744.