Corporatism goes global: International organizations, nongovernmental organization networks, and transnational business

Global Governance

Volumn 7, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 265-292

  Ottaway, Marina ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035600417     PISSN: 10752846     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/19426720-00703006     Document Type: Review

References (88)

1. For information on the Global Compact, see the UN Global Compact website at www.unglobalcompact.org (May 2000).
2. See the World Bank website, especially "NGOs and Civil Society," in the "Partners" section, at www.worldbank.org (May 2000).
3. Saad Eddine Ibrahim, "Nurturing Civil Society at the World Bank: An Assessment of Staff Attitudes Toward Civil Society," World Bank Social Development Papers No. 24, September 1998, p. 13. See also Paul J. Nelson, The World Bank and Non-Governmental Organizations: The Limits of Apolitical Development (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995).
4. Saad Eddine Ibrahim, "Nurturing Civil Society at the World Bank: An Assessment of Staff Attitudes Toward Civil Society," World Bank Social Development Papers No. 24, September 1998, p. 13. See also Paul J. Nelson, The World Bank and Non-Governmental Organizations: The Limits of Apolitical Development (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995).
5. See Jan Aart Scholte, "The IMF Meets Civil Society," Finance and Development 35, no. 3 (September 1998): 42-45; Jan Aart Scholte, Robert O'Brien, and Marc Williams, "The WTO and Civil Society," Journal of World Trade 33, no. 1 (February 1999): 107-123; "Embracing Greenery," The Economist (U.S. edition, 9 October 1999).
6. See Jan Aart Scholte, "The IMF Meets Civil Society," Finance and Development 35, no. 3 (September 1998): 42-45; Jan Aart Scholte, Robert O'Brien, and Marc Williams, "The WTO and Civil Society," Journal of World Trade 33, no. 1 (February 1999): 107-123; "Embracing Greenery," The Economist (U.S. edition, 9 October 1999).
7. See Jan Aart Scholte, "The IMF Meets Civil Society," Finance and Development 35, no. 3 (September 1998): 42-45; Jan Aart Scholte, Robert O'Brien, and Marc Williams, "The WTO and Civil Society," Journal of World Trade 33, no. 1 (February 1999): 107-123; "Embracing Greenery," The Economist (U.S. edition, 9 October 1999).
8. An overall view of corporatism and a bibliography are found in Philippe Schmitter's much-cited and reprinted "Still the Century of Corporatism?" Review of Politics (January 1974): 85-131; overviews are also found in Stein Rokkan, "Norway: Numerical Democracy and Corporate Pluralism," in Robert Dahl, ed., Political Oppositions in Western Democracies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965); Gabriel Almond, "Corporatism, Pluralism, and Professional Memory," World Politics (1983): 245-260; Peter J. Williamson, Varieties of Corporatism: A Conceptual Discussion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Alan Cawson, Corporatism and Political Theory (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986); Philippe Schmitter, "Corporatism Is Dead! Long Live Corporatism!" Government and Opposition (winter 1989): 54-73; Andrew Shonfield, Modern Capitalism (London: Oxford University Press, 1965); Martin O. Heisler, ed., Politics in Europe: Structures and Processes in Some Postindustrial Democracies (New York: McKay, 1974); Howard J. Wiarda, Corporatism and Development: The Portuguese Experience (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977); Gerhard Lehmbruch and Phillipe C. Schmitter, eds., Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979); Howard Wiarda, Corporatism and National Development in Latin America (Boulder: Westview, 1981); H. L. Wilensky, The New Corporatism, Centralization and the Welfare State (London: Sage, 1989); and David Collier, "Trajectory of a Concept: 'Corporatism' in the Study of Latin American Politics," in Peter H. Smith, ed., Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Methods and Analysis (Boulder: Westview, 1995).
9. An overall view of corporatism and a bibliography are found in Philippe Schmitter's much-cited and reprinted "Still the Century of Corporatism?" Review of Politics (January 1974): 85-131; overviews are also found in Stein Rokkan, "Norway: Numerical Democracy and Corporate Pluralism," in Robert Dahl, ed., Political Oppositions in Western Democracies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965); Gabriel Almond, "Corporatism, Pluralism, and Professional Memory," World Politics (1983): 245-260; Peter J. Williamson, Varieties of Corporatism: A Conceptual Discussion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Alan Cawson, Corporatism and Political Theory (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986); Philippe Schmitter, "Corporatism Is Dead! Long Live Corporatism!" Government and Opposition (winter 1989): 54-73; Andrew Shonfield, Modern Capitalism (London: Oxford University Press, 1965); Martin O. Heisler, ed., Politics in Europe: Structures and Processes in Some Postindustrial Democracies (New York: McKay, 1974); Howard J. Wiarda, Corporatism and Development: The Portuguese Experience (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977); Gerhard Lehmbruch and Phillipe C. Schmitter, eds., Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979); Howard Wiarda, Corporatism and National Development in Latin America (Boulder: Westview, 1981); H. L. Wilensky, The New Corporatism, Centralization and the Welfare State (London: Sage, 1989); and David Collier, "Trajectory of a Concept: 'Corporatism' in the Study of Latin American Politics," in Peter H. Smith, ed., Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Methods and Analysis (Boulder: Westview, 1995).
10. An overall view of corporatism and a bibliography are found in Philippe Schmitter's much-cited and reprinted "Still the Century of Corporatism?" Review of Politics (January 1974): 85-131; overviews are also found in Stein Rokkan, "Norway: Numerical Democracy and Corporate Pluralism," in Robert Dahl, ed., Political Oppositions in Western Democracies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965); Gabriel Almond, "Corporatism, Pluralism, and Professional Memory," World Politics (1983): 245-260; Peter J. Williamson, Varieties of Corporatism: A Conceptual Discussion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Alan Cawson, Corporatism and Political Theory (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986); Philippe Schmitter, "Corporatism Is Dead! Long Live Corporatism!" Government and Opposition (winter 1989): 54-73; Andrew Shonfield, Modern Capitalism (London: Oxford University Press, 1965); Martin O. Heisler, ed., Politics in Europe: Structures and Processes in Some Postindustrial Democracies (New York: McKay, 1974); Howard J. Wiarda, Corporatism and Development: The Portuguese Experience (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977); Gerhard Lehmbruch and Phillipe C. Schmitter, eds., Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979); Howard Wiarda, Corporatism and National Development in Latin America (Boulder: Westview, 1981); H. L. Wilensky, The New Corporatism, Centralization and the Welfare State (London: Sage, 1989); and David Collier, "Trajectory of a Concept: 'Corporatism' in the Study of Latin American Politics," in Peter H. Smith, ed., Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Methods and Analysis (Boulder: Westview, 1995).
11. An overall view of corporatism and a bibliography are found in Philippe Schmitter's much-cited and reprinted "Still the Century of Corporatism?" Review of Politics (January 1974): 85-131; overviews are also found in Stein Rokkan, "Norway: Numerical Democracy and Corporate Pluralism," in Robert Dahl, ed., Political Oppositions in Western Democracies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965); Gabriel Almond, "Corporatism, Pluralism, and Professional Memory," World Politics (1983): 245-260; Peter J. Williamson, Varieties of Corporatism: A Conceptual Discussion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Alan Cawson, Corporatism and Political Theory (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986); Philippe Schmitter, "Corporatism Is Dead! Long Live Corporatism!" Government and Opposition (winter 1989): 54-73; Andrew Shonfield, Modern Capitalism (London: Oxford University Press, 1965); Martin O. Heisler, ed., Politics in Europe: Structures and Processes in Some Postindustrial Democracies (New York: McKay, 1974); Howard J. Wiarda, Corporatism and Development: The Portuguese Experience (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977); Gerhard Lehmbruch and Phillipe C. Schmitter, eds., Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979); Howard Wiarda, Corporatism and National Development in Latin America (Boulder: Westview, 1981); H. L. Wilensky, The New Corporatism, Centralization and the Welfare State (London: Sage, 1989); and David Collier, "Trajectory of a Concept: 'Corporatism' in the Study of Latin American Politics," in Peter H. Smith, ed., Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Methods and Analysis (Boulder: Westview, 1995).
12. An overall view of corporatism and a bibliography are found in Philippe Schmitter's much-cited and reprinted "Still the Century of Corporatism?" Review of Politics (January 1974): 85-131; overviews are also found in Stein Rokkan, "Norway: Numerical Democracy and Corporate Pluralism," in Robert Dahl, ed., Political Oppositions in Western Democracies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965); Gabriel Almond, "Corporatism, Pluralism, and Professional Memory," World Politics (1983): 245-260; Peter J. Williamson, Varieties of Corporatism: A Conceptual Discussion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Alan Cawson, Corporatism and Political Theory (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986); Philippe Schmitter, "Corporatism Is Dead! Long Live Corporatism!" Government and Opposition (winter 1989): 54-73; Andrew Shonfield, Modern Capitalism (London: Oxford University Press, 1965); Martin O. Heisler, ed., Politics in Europe: Structures and Processes in Some Postindustrial Democracies (New York: McKay, 1974); Howard J. Wiarda, Corporatism and Development: The Portuguese Experience (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977); Gerhard Lehmbruch and Phillipe C. Schmitter, eds., Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979); Howard Wiarda, Corporatism and National Development in Latin America (Boulder: Westview, 1981); H. L. Wilensky, The New Corporatism, Centralization and the Welfare State (London: Sage, 1989); and David Collier, "Trajectory of a Concept: 'Corporatism' in the Study of Latin American Politics," in Peter H. Smith, ed., Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Methods and Analysis (Boulder: Westview, 1995).
13. An overall view of corporatism and a bibliography are found in Philippe Schmitter's much-cited and reprinted "Still the Century of Corporatism?" Review of Politics (January 1974): 85-131; overviews are also found in Stein Rokkan, "Norway: Numerical Democracy and Corporate Pluralism," in Robert Dahl, ed., Political Oppositions in Western Democracies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965); Gabriel Almond, "Corporatism, Pluralism, and Professional Memory," World Politics (1983): 245-260; Peter J. Williamson, Varieties of Corporatism: A Conceptual Discussion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Alan Cawson, Corporatism and Political Theory (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986); Philippe Schmitter, "Corporatism Is Dead! Long Live Corporatism!" Government and Opposition (winter 1989): 54-73; Andrew Shonfield, Modern Capitalism (London: Oxford University Press, 1965); Martin O. Heisler, ed., Politics in Europe: Structures and Processes in Some Postindustrial Democracies (New York: McKay, 1974); Howard J. Wiarda, Corporatism and Development: The Portuguese Experience (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977); Gerhard Lehmbruch and Phillipe C. Schmitter, eds., Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979); Howard Wiarda, Corporatism and National Development in Latin America (Boulder: Westview, 1981); H. L. Wilensky, The New Corporatism, Centralization and the Welfare State (London: Sage, 1989); and David Collier, "Trajectory of a Concept: 'Corporatism' in the Study of Latin American Politics," in Peter H. Smith, ed., Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Methods and Analysis (Boulder: Westview, 1995).
14. An overall view of corporatism and a bibliography are found in Philippe Schmitter's much-cited and reprinted "Still the Century of Corporatism?" Review of Politics (January 1974): 85-131; overviews are also found in Stein Rokkan, "Norway: Numerical Democracy and Corporate Pluralism," in Robert Dahl, ed., Political Oppositions in Western Democracies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965); Gabriel Almond, "Corporatism, Pluralism, and Professional Memory," World Politics (1983): 245-260; Peter J. Williamson, Varieties of Corporatism: A Conceptual Discussion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Alan Cawson, Corporatism and Political Theory (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986); Philippe Schmitter, "Corporatism Is Dead! Long Live Corporatism!" Government and Opposition (winter 1989): 54-73; Andrew Shonfield, Modern Capitalism (London: Oxford University Press, 1965); Martin O. Heisler, ed., Politics in Europe: Structures and Processes in Some Postindustrial Democracies (New York: McKay, 1974); Howard J. Wiarda, Corporatism and Development: The Portuguese Experience (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977); Gerhard Lehmbruch and Phillipe C. Schmitter, eds., Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979); Howard Wiarda, Corporatism and National Development in Latin America (Boulder: Westview, 1981); H. L. Wilensky, The New Corporatism, Centralization and the Welfare State (London: Sage, 1989); and David Collier, "Trajectory of a Concept: 'Corporatism' in the Study of Latin American Politics," in Peter H. Smith, ed., Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Methods and Analysis (Boulder: Westview, 1995).
15. An overall view of corporatism and a bibliography are found in Philippe Schmitter's much-cited and reprinted "Still the Century of Corporatism?" Review of Politics (January 1974): 85-131; overviews are also found in Stein Rokkan, "Norway: Numerical Democracy and Corporate Pluralism," in Robert Dahl, ed., Political Oppositions in Western Democracies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965); Gabriel Almond, "Corporatism, Pluralism, and Professional Memory," World Politics (1983): 245-260; Peter J. Williamson, Varieties of Corporatism: A Conceptual Discussion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Alan Cawson, Corporatism and Political Theory (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986); Philippe Schmitter, "Corporatism Is Dead! Long Live Corporatism!" Government and Opposition (winter 1989): 54-73; Andrew Shonfield, Modern Capitalism (London: Oxford University Press, 1965); Martin O. Heisler, ed., Politics in Europe: Structures and Processes in Some Postindustrial Democracies (New York: McKay, 1974); Howard J. Wiarda, Corporatism and Development: The Portuguese Experience (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977); Gerhard Lehmbruch and Phillipe C. Schmitter, eds., Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979); Howard Wiarda, Corporatism and National Development in Latin America (Boulder: Westview, 1981); H. L. Wilensky, The New Corporatism, Centralization and the Welfare State (London: Sage, 1989); and David Collier, "Trajectory of a Concept: 'Corporatism' in the Study of Latin American Politics," in Peter H. Smith, ed., Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Methods and Analysis (Boulder: Westview, 1995).
16. An overall view of corporatism and a bibliography are found in Philippe Schmitter's much-cited and reprinted "Still the Century of Corporatism?" Review of Politics (January 1974): 85-131; overviews are also found in Stein Rokkan, "Norway: Numerical Democracy and Corporate Pluralism," in Robert Dahl, ed., Political Oppositions in Western Democracies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965); Gabriel Almond, "Corporatism, Pluralism, and Professional Memory," World Politics (1983): 245-260; Peter J. Williamson, Varieties of Corporatism: A Conceptual Discussion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Alan Cawson, Corporatism and Political Theory (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986); Philippe Schmitter, "Corporatism Is Dead! Long Live Corporatism!" Government and Opposition (winter 1989): 54-73; Andrew Shonfield, Modern Capitalism (London: Oxford University Press, 1965); Martin O. Heisler, ed., Politics in Europe: Structures and Processes in Some Postindustrial Democracies (New York: McKay, 1974); Howard J. Wiarda, Corporatism and Development: The Portuguese Experience (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977); Gerhard Lehmbruch and Phillipe C. Schmitter, eds., Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979); Howard Wiarda, Corporatism and National Development in Latin America (Boulder: Westview, 1981); H. L. Wilensky, The New Corporatism, Centralization and the Welfare State (London: Sage, 1989); and David Collier, "Trajectory of a Concept: 'Corporatism' in the Study of Latin American Politics," in Peter H. Smith, ed., Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Methods and Analysis (Boulder: Westview, 1995).
17. An overall view of corporatism and a bibliography are found in Philippe Schmitter's much-cited and reprinted "Still the Century of Corporatism?" Review of Politics (January 1974): 85-131; overviews are also found in Stein Rokkan, "Norway: Numerical Democracy and Corporate Pluralism," in Robert Dahl, ed., Political Oppositions in Western Democracies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965); Gabriel Almond, "Corporatism, Pluralism, and Professional Memory," World Politics (1983): 245-260; Peter J. Williamson, Varieties of Corporatism: A Conceptual Discussion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Alan Cawson, Corporatism and Political Theory (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986); Philippe Schmitter, "Corporatism Is Dead! Long Live Corporatism!" Government and Opposition (winter 1989): 54-73; Andrew Shonfield, Modern Capitalism (London: Oxford University Press, 1965); Martin O. Heisler, ed., Politics in Europe: Structures and Processes in Some Postindustrial Democracies (New York: McKay, 1974); Howard J. Wiarda, Corporatism and Development: The Portuguese Experience (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977); Gerhard Lehmbruch and Phillipe C. Schmitter, eds., Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979); Howard Wiarda, Corporatism and National Development in Latin America (Boulder: Westview, 1981); H. L. Wilensky, The New Corporatism, Centralization and the Welfare State (London: Sage, 1989); and David Collier, "Trajectory of a Concept: 'Corporatism' in the Study of Latin American Politics," in Peter H. Smith, ed., Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Methods and Analysis (Boulder: Westview, 1995).
18. An overall view of corporatism and a bibliography are found in Philippe Schmitter's much-cited and reprinted "Still the Century of Corporatism?" Review of Politics (January 1974): 85-131; overviews are also found in Stein Rokkan, "Norway: Numerical Democracy and Corporate Pluralism," in Robert Dahl, ed., Political Oppositions in Western Democracies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965); Gabriel Almond, "Corporatism, Pluralism, and Professional Memory," World Politics (1983): 245-260; Peter J. Williamson, Varieties of Corporatism: A Conceptual Discussion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Alan Cawson, Corporatism and Political Theory (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986); Philippe Schmitter, "Corporatism Is Dead! Long Live Corporatism!" Government and Opposition (winter 1989): 54-73; Andrew Shonfield, Modern Capitalism (London: Oxford University Press, 1965); Martin O. Heisler, ed., Politics in Europe: Structures and Processes in Some Postindustrial Democracies (New York: McKay, 1974); Howard J. Wiarda, Corporatism and Development: The Portuguese Experience (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977); Gerhard Lehmbruch and Phillipe C. Schmitter, eds., Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979); Howard Wiarda, Corporatism and National Development in Latin America (Boulder: Westview, 1981); H. L. Wilensky, The New Corporatism, Centralization and the Welfare State (London: Sage, 1989); and David Collier, "Trajectory of a Concept: 'Corporatism' in the Study of Latin American Politics," in Peter H. Smith, ed., Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Methods and Analysis (Boulder: Westview, 1995).
19. An overall view of corporatism and a bibliography are found in Philippe Schmitter's much-cited and reprinted "Still the Century of Corporatism?" Review of Politics (January 1974): 85-131; overviews are also found in Stein Rokkan, "Norway: Numerical Democracy and Corporate Pluralism," in Robert Dahl, ed., Political Oppositions in Western Democracies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965); Gabriel Almond, "Corporatism, Pluralism, and Professional Memory," World Politics (1983): 245-260; Peter J. Williamson, Varieties of Corporatism: A Conceptual Discussion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Alan Cawson, Corporatism and Political Theory (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986); Philippe Schmitter, "Corporatism Is Dead! Long Live Corporatism!" Government and Opposition (winter 1989): 54-73; Andrew Shonfield, Modern Capitalism (London: Oxford University Press, 1965); Martin O. Heisler, ed., Politics in Europe: Structures and Processes in Some Postindustrial Democracies (New York: McKay, 1974); Howard J. Wiarda, Corporatism and Development: The Portuguese Experience (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977); Gerhard Lehmbruch and Phillipe C. Schmitter, eds., Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979); Howard Wiarda, Corporatism and National Development in Latin America (Boulder: Westview, 1981); H. L. Wilensky, The New Corporatism, Centralization and the Welfare State (London: Sage, 1989); and David Collier, "Trajectory of a Concept: 'Corporatism' in the Study of Latin American Politics," in Peter H. Smith, ed., Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Methods and Analysis (Boulder: Westview, 1995).
20. An overall view of corporatism and a bibliography are found in Philippe Schmitter's much-cited and reprinted "Still the Century of Corporatism?" Review of Politics (January 1974): 85-131; overviews are also found in Stein Rokkan, "Norway: Numerical Democracy and Corporate Pluralism," in Robert Dahl, ed., Political Oppositions in Western Democracies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965); Gabriel Almond, "Corporatism, Pluralism, and Professional Memory," World Politics (1983): 245-260; Peter J. Williamson, Varieties of Corporatism: A Conceptual Discussion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Alan Cawson, Corporatism and Political Theory (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986); Philippe Schmitter, "Corporatism Is Dead! Long Live Corporatism!" Government and Opposition (winter 1989): 54-73; Andrew Shonfield, Modern Capitalism (London: Oxford University Press, 1965); Martin O. Heisler, ed., Politics in Europe: Structures and Processes in Some Postindustrial Democracies (New York: McKay, 1974); Howard J. Wiarda, Corporatism and Development: The Portuguese Experience (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977); Gerhard Lehmbruch and Phillipe C. Schmitter, eds., Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979); Howard Wiarda, Corporatism and National Development in Latin America (Boulder: Westview, 1981); H. L. Wilensky, The New Corporatism, Centralization and the Welfare State (London: Sage, 1989); and David Collier, "Trajectory of a Concept: 'Corporatism' in the Study of Latin American Politics," in Peter H. Smith, ed., Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Methods and Analysis (Boulder: Westview, 1995).
21. The concept of consociationalism, as well as the term, are associated most closely with the work of Arend Lijphart. See, for example, his Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977); Democracies: Patterns of Majoritarian and Consensus Government in Twenty-One Countries (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984); and Power-Sharing in South Africa (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1985). On the relation of corporatism and consociationalism, see Gerhard Lehmbruch, "Consociational Democracy, Class Conflict and the New Corporatism," in Schmitter and Lehmbruch, Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation, pp. 53-62.
22. The concept of consociationalism, as well as the term, are associated most closely with the work of Arend Lijphart. See, for example, his Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977); Democracies: Patterns of Majoritarian and Consensus Government in Twenty-One Countries (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984); and Power-Sharing in South Africa (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1985). On the relation of corporatism and consociationalism, see Gerhard Lehmbruch, "Consociational Democracy, Class Conflict and the New Corporatism," in Schmitter and Lehmbruch, Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation, pp. 53-62.
23. The concept of consociationalism, as well as the term, are associated most closely with the work of Arend Lijphart. See, for example, his Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977); Democracies: Patterns of Majoritarian and Consensus Government in Twenty-One Countries (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984); and Power-Sharing in South Africa (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1985). On the relation of corporatism and consociationalism, see Gerhard Lehmbruch, "Consociational Democracy, Class Conflict and the New Corporatism," in Schmitter and Lehmbruch, Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation, pp. 53-62.
24. The concept of consociationalism, as well as the term, are associated most closely with the work of Arend Lijphart. See, for example, his Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977); Democracies: Patterns of Majoritarian and Consensus Government in Twenty-One Countries (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984); and Power-Sharing in South Africa (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1985). On the relation of corporatism and consociationalism, see Gerhard Lehmbruch, "Consociational Democracy, Class Conflict and the New Corporatism," in Schmitter and Lehmbruch, Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation, pp. 53-62.
25. Wiarda provides an overview of the evolution of the organic concept of corporatism in Corporatism and National Development in Latin America, pp. 118-135; see also Mihaïl Manoïlesco, Le siècle du corporatisme (Paris: Félix Alcan, 1938).
26. Wiarda provides an overview of the evolution of the organic concept of corporatism in Corporatism and National Development in Latin America, pp. 118-135; see also Mihaïl Manoïlesco, Le siècle du corporatisme (Paris: Félix Alcan, 1938).
27. See, for example, Juan J. Linz, "Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes," in Fred I. Greenstein and Nelson W. Polsby, eds., The Handbook of Political Science, vol. 3: Macropolitical Theory (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1975), pp. 306-313.
28. See, for example, Samuel Beer, British Politics in the Collectivist Age (New York: Knopf, 1965); Leo Panitch, "The Development of Corporatism in Liberal Democracies," and Gerhard Lehmbruch, "Liberal Corporatism and Party Government," in Schmitter and Lehmbruch, Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation; Claus Offe, "The Attribution of Public Status to Interest Groups: Observations on the West German Case," in Suzanne Berger, ed., Organizing Interests in Western Europe: Pluralism, Corporatism, and the Transformation of Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Hanspeter Kriesi, "The Structure of the Swiss Political System" in Lehmbruch and Schmitter, eds., Patterns of Corporatist Policy-Making (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1982); Peter J. Katzenstein, Corporatism and Change: Austria, Switzerland, and the Politics of Industry (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984); Andrew Cox and Noel O'Sullivan, eds., The Corporate State: Corporatism and State Tradition in Western Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Sarah Vickerstaff and John Sheldrake, The Limits of Corporatism: The British Experience in the Twentieth Century (Brookfield, Vt.: Avebury, 1989); M. Donald Hancock, West Germany: The Politics of Democratic Corporatism (Chatham, N.J.: Chatham, 1989); Michele Micheletti, "Sweden: Interest Groups in Transition and Crisis," in Clive Thomas, ed., First World Interest Groups: A Comparative Perspective (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1993); Jelle Visser, A Dutch Miracle: Job Growth, Welfare Reform, and Corporatism in the Netherlands (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1997).
29. See, for example, Samuel Beer, British Politics in the Collectivist Age (New York: Knopf, 1965); Leo Panitch, "The Development of Corporatism in Liberal Democracies," and Gerhard Lehmbruch, "Liberal Corporatism and Party Government," in Schmitter and Lehmbruch, Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation; Claus Offe, "The Attribution of Public Status to Interest Groups: Observations on the West German Case," in Suzanne Berger, ed., Organizing Interests in Western Europe: Pluralism, Corporatism, and the Transformation of Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Hanspeter Kriesi, "The Structure of the Swiss Political System" in Lehmbruch and Schmitter, eds., Patterns of Corporatist Policy-Making (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1982); Peter J. Katzenstein, Corporatism and Change: Austria, Switzerland, and the Politics of Industry (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984); Andrew Cox and Noel O'Sullivan, eds., The Corporate State: Corporatism and State Tradition in Western Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Sarah Vickerstaff and John Sheldrake, The Limits of Corporatism: The British Experience in the Twentieth Century (Brookfield, Vt.: Avebury, 1989); M. Donald Hancock, West Germany: The Politics of Democratic Corporatism (Chatham, N.J.: Chatham, 1989); Michele Micheletti, "Sweden: Interest Groups in Transition and Crisis," in Clive Thomas, ed., First World Interest Groups: A Comparative Perspective (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1993); Jelle Visser, A Dutch Miracle: Job Growth, Welfare Reform, and Corporatism in the Netherlands (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1997).
30. See, for example, Samuel Beer, British Politics in the Collectivist Age (New York: Knopf, 1965); Leo Panitch, "The Development of Corporatism in Liberal Democracies," and Gerhard Lehmbruch, "Liberal Corporatism and Party Government," in Schmitter and Lehmbruch, Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation; Claus Offe, "The Attribution of Public Status to Interest Groups: Observations on the West German Case," in Suzanne Berger, ed., Organizing Interests in Western Europe: Pluralism, Corporatism, and the Transformation of Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Hanspeter Kriesi, "The Structure of the Swiss Political System" in Lehmbruch and Schmitter, eds., Patterns of Corporatist Policy-Making (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1982); Peter J. Katzenstein, Corporatism and Change: Austria, Switzerland, and the Politics of Industry (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984); Andrew Cox and Noel O'Sullivan, eds., The Corporate State: Corporatism and State Tradition in Western Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Sarah Vickerstaff and John Sheldrake, The Limits of Corporatism: The British Experience in the Twentieth Century (Brookfield, Vt.: Avebury, 1989); M. Donald Hancock, West Germany: The Politics of Democratic Corporatism (Chatham, N.J.: Chatham, 1989); Michele Micheletti, "Sweden: Interest Groups in Transition and Crisis," in Clive Thomas, ed., First World Interest Groups: A Comparative Perspective (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1993); Jelle Visser, A Dutch Miracle: Job Growth, Welfare Reform, and Corporatism in the Netherlands (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1997).
31. See, for example, Samuel Beer, British Politics in the Collectivist Age (New York: Knopf, 1965); Leo Panitch, "The Development of Corporatism in Liberal Democracies," and Gerhard Lehmbruch, "Liberal Corporatism and Party Government," in Schmitter and Lehmbruch, Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation; Claus Offe, "The Attribution of Public Status to Interest Groups: Observations on the West German Case," in Suzanne Berger, ed., Organizing Interests in Western Europe: Pluralism, Corporatism, and the Transformation of Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Hanspeter Kriesi, "The Structure of the Swiss Political System" in Lehmbruch and Schmitter, eds., Patterns of Corporatist Policy-Making (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1982); Peter J. Katzenstein, Corporatism and Change: Austria, Switzerland, and the Politics of Industry (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984); Andrew Cox and Noel O'Sullivan, eds., The Corporate State: Corporatism and State Tradition in Western Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Sarah Vickerstaff and John Sheldrake, The Limits of Corporatism: The British Experience in the Twentieth Century (Brookfield, Vt.: Avebury, 1989); M. Donald Hancock, West Germany: The Politics of Democratic Corporatism (Chatham, N.J.: Chatham, 1989); Michele Micheletti, "Sweden: Interest Groups in Transition and Crisis," in Clive Thomas, ed., First World Interest Groups: A Comparative Perspective (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1993); Jelle Visser, A Dutch Miracle: Job Growth, Welfare Reform, and Corporatism in the Netherlands (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1997).
32. See, for example, Samuel Beer, British Politics in the Collectivist Age (New York: Knopf, 1965); Leo Panitch, "The Development of Corporatism in Liberal Democracies," and Gerhard Lehmbruch, "Liberal Corporatism and Party Government," in Schmitter and Lehmbruch, Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation; Claus Offe, "The Attribution of Public Status to Interest Groups: Observations on the West German Case," in Suzanne Berger, ed., Organizing Interests in Western Europe: Pluralism, Corporatism, and the Transformation of Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Hanspeter Kriesi, "The Structure of the Swiss Political System" in Lehmbruch and Schmitter, eds., Patterns of Corporatist Policy-Making (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1982); Peter J. Katzenstein, Corporatism and Change: Austria, Switzerland, and the Politics of Industry (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984); Andrew Cox and Noel O'Sullivan, eds., The Corporate State: Corporatism and State Tradition in Western Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Sarah Vickerstaff and John Sheldrake, The Limits of Corporatism: The British Experience in the Twentieth Century (Brookfield, Vt.: Avebury, 1989); M. Donald Hancock, West Germany: The Politics of Democratic Corporatism (Chatham, N.J.: Chatham, 1989); Michele Micheletti, "Sweden: Interest Groups in Transition and Crisis," in Clive Thomas, ed., First World Interest Groups: A Comparative Perspective (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1993); Jelle Visser, A Dutch Miracle: Job Growth, Welfare Reform, and Corporatism in the Netherlands (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1997).
33. See, for example, Samuel Beer, British Politics in the Collectivist Age (New York: Knopf, 1965); Leo Panitch, "The Development of Corporatism in Liberal Democracies," and Gerhard Lehmbruch, "Liberal Corporatism and Party Government," in Schmitter and Lehmbruch, Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation; Claus Offe, "The Attribution of Public Status to Interest Groups: Observations on the West German Case," in Suzanne Berger, ed., Organizing Interests in Western Europe: Pluralism, Corporatism, and the Transformation of Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Hanspeter Kriesi, "The Structure of the Swiss Political System" in Lehmbruch and Schmitter, eds., Patterns of Corporatist Policy-Making (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1982); Peter J. Katzenstein, Corporatism and Change: Austria, Switzerland, and the Politics of Industry (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984); Andrew Cox and Noel O'Sullivan, eds., The Corporate State: Corporatism and State Tradition in Western Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Sarah Vickerstaff and John Sheldrake, The Limits of Corporatism: The British Experience in the Twentieth Century (Brookfield, Vt.: Avebury, 1989); M. Donald Hancock, West Germany: The Politics of Democratic Corporatism (Chatham, N.J.: Chatham, 1989); Michele Micheletti, "Sweden: Interest Groups in Transition and Crisis," in Clive Thomas, ed., First World Interest Groups: A Comparative Perspective (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1993); Jelle Visser, A Dutch Miracle: Job Growth, Welfare Reform, and Corporatism in the Netherlands (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1997).
34. See, for example, Samuel Beer, British Politics in the Collectivist Age (New York: Knopf, 1965); Leo Panitch, "The Development of Corporatism in Liberal Democracies," and Gerhard Lehmbruch, "Liberal Corporatism and Party Government," in Schmitter and Lehmbruch, Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation; Claus Offe, "The Attribution of Public Status to Interest Groups: Observations on the West German Case," in Suzanne Berger, ed., Organizing Interests in Western Europe: Pluralism, Corporatism, and the Transformation of Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Hanspeter Kriesi, "The Structure of the Swiss Political System" in Lehmbruch and Schmitter, eds., Patterns of Corporatist Policy-Making (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1982); Peter J. Katzenstein, Corporatism and Change: Austria, Switzerland, and the Politics of Industry (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984); Andrew Cox and Noel O'Sullivan, eds., The Corporate State: Corporatism and State Tradition in Western Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Sarah Vickerstaff and John Sheldrake, The Limits of Corporatism: The British Experience in the Twentieth Century (Brookfield, Vt.: Avebury, 1989); M. Donald Hancock, West Germany: The Politics of Democratic Corporatism (Chatham, N.J.: Chatham, 1989); Michele Micheletti, "Sweden: Interest Groups in Transition and Crisis," in Clive Thomas, ed., First World Interest Groups: A Comparative Perspective (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1993); Jelle Visser, A Dutch Miracle: Job Growth, Welfare Reform, and Corporatism in the Netherlands (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1997).
35. See, for example, Samuel Beer, British Politics in the Collectivist Age (New York: Knopf, 1965); Leo Panitch, "The Development of Corporatism in Liberal Democracies," and Gerhard Lehmbruch, "Liberal Corporatism and Party Government," in Schmitter and Lehmbruch, Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation; Claus Offe, "The Attribution of Public Status to Interest Groups: Observations on the West German Case," in Suzanne Berger, ed., Organizing Interests in Western Europe: Pluralism, Corporatism, and the Transformation of Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Hanspeter Kriesi, "The Structure of the Swiss Political System" in Lehmbruch and Schmitter, eds., Patterns of Corporatist Policy-Making (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1982); Peter J. Katzenstein, Corporatism and Change: Austria, Switzerland, and the Politics of Industry (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984); Andrew Cox and Noel O'Sullivan, eds., The Corporate State: Corporatism and State Tradition in Western Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Sarah Vickerstaff and John Sheldrake, The Limits of Corporatism: The British Experience in the Twentieth Century (Brookfield, Vt.: Avebury, 1989); M. Donald Hancock, West Germany: The Politics of Democratic Corporatism (Chatham, N.J.: Chatham, 1989); Michele Micheletti, "Sweden: Interest Groups in Transition and Crisis," in Clive Thomas, ed., First World Interest Groups: A Comparative Perspective (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1993); Jelle Visser, A Dutch Miracle: Job Growth, Welfare Reform, and Corporatism in the Netherlands (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1997).
36. See, for example, Samuel Beer, British Politics in the Collectivist Age (New York: Knopf, 1965); Leo Panitch, "The Development of Corporatism in Liberal Democracies," and Gerhard Lehmbruch, "Liberal Corporatism and Party Government," in Schmitter and Lehmbruch, Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation; Claus Offe, "The Attribution of Public Status to Interest Groups: Observations on the West German Case," in Suzanne Berger, ed., Organizing Interests in Western Europe: Pluralism, Corporatism, and the Transformation of Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Hanspeter Kriesi, "The Structure of the Swiss Political System" in Lehmbruch and Schmitter, eds., Patterns of Corporatist Policy-Making (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1982); Peter J. Katzenstein, Corporatism and Change: Austria, Switzerland, and the Politics of Industry (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984); Andrew Cox and Noel O'Sullivan, eds., The Corporate State: Corporatism and State Tradition in Western Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Sarah Vickerstaff and John Sheldrake, The Limits of Corporatism: The British Experience in the Twentieth Century (Brookfield, Vt.: Avebury, 1989); M. Donald Hancock, West Germany: The Politics of Democratic Corporatism (Chatham, N.J.: Chatham, 1989); Michele Micheletti, "Sweden: Interest Groups in Transition and Crisis," in Clive Thomas, ed., First World Interest Groups: A Comparative Perspective (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1993); Jelle Visser, A Dutch Miracle: Job Growth, Welfare Reform, and Corporatism in the Netherlands (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1997).
37. See, for example, Samuel Beer, British Politics in the Collectivist Age (New York: Knopf, 1965); Leo Panitch, "The Development of Corporatism in Liberal Democracies," and Gerhard Lehmbruch, "Liberal Corporatism and Party Government," in Schmitter and Lehmbruch, Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation; Claus Offe, "The Attribution of Public Status to Interest Groups: Observations on the West German Case," in Suzanne Berger, ed., Organizing Interests in Western Europe: Pluralism, Corporatism, and the Transformation of Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Hanspeter Kriesi, "The Structure of the Swiss Political System" in Lehmbruch and Schmitter, eds., Patterns of Corporatist Policy-Making (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1982); Peter J. Katzenstein, Corporatism and Change: Austria, Switzerland, and the Politics of Industry (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984); Andrew Cox and Noel O'Sullivan, eds., The Corporate State: Corporatism and State Tradition in Western Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Sarah Vickerstaff and John Sheldrake, The Limits of Corporatism: The British Experience in the Twentieth Century (Brookfield, Vt.: Avebury, 1989); M. Donald Hancock, West Germany: The Politics of Democratic Corporatism (Chatham, N.J.: Chatham, 1989); Michele Micheletti, "Sweden: Interest Groups in Transition and Crisis," in Clive Thomas, ed., First World Interest Groups: A Comparative Perspective (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1993); Jelle Visser, A Dutch Miracle: Job Growth, Welfare Reform, and Corporatism in the Netherlands (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1997).
38. See, for example, Samuel Beer, British Politics in the Collectivist Age (New York: Knopf, 1965); Leo Panitch, "The Development of Corporatism in Liberal Democracies," and Gerhard Lehmbruch, "Liberal Corporatism and Party Government," in Schmitter and Lehmbruch, Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation; Claus Offe, "The Attribution of Public Status to Interest Groups: Observations on the West German Case," in Suzanne Berger, ed., Organizing Interests in Western Europe: Pluralism, Corporatism, and the Transformation of Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Hanspeter Kriesi, "The Structure of the Swiss Political System" in Lehmbruch and Schmitter, eds., Patterns of Corporatist Policy-Making (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1982); Peter J. Katzenstein, Corporatism and Change: Austria, Switzerland, and the Politics of Industry (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984); Andrew Cox and Noel O'Sullivan, eds., The Corporate State: Corporatism and State Tradition in Western Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Sarah Vickerstaff and John Sheldrake, The Limits of Corporatism: The British Experience in the Twentieth Century (Brookfield, Vt.: Avebury, 1989); M. Donald Hancock, West Germany: The Politics of Democratic Corporatism (Chatham, N.J.: Chatham, 1989); Michele Micheletti, "Sweden: Interest Groups in Transition and Crisis," in Clive Thomas, ed., First World Interest Groups: A Comparative Perspective (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1993); Jelle Visser, A Dutch Miracle: Job Growth, Welfare Reform, and Corporatism in the Netherlands (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1997).
39. For example, Robert H. Salisbury, "Why No Corporatism in America?" in Schmitter and Lehmbruch, Trends Toward Corporate Intermediation, pp. 213-230. Salisbury attributes the lack of success and the short duration of corporatist experiments in the United States to the absence of such associations.
40. See Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1998); Ann Florini, ed., The Third Force: The Rise of Transnational Civil Society (Washington, D.C.: Japan Center for International Exchange and Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2000); P. J. Simmons, "Learning to Live with NGOs," Foreign Policy 112 (fall 1998): 82-96; Sinnar Shirin, "Mixed Blessing: The Growing Influence of NGOs," Harvard International Review 18, no. 1 (winter 1995/96): 54-57.
41. See Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1998); Ann Florini, ed., The Third Force: The Rise of Transnational Civil Society (Washington, D.C.: Japan Center for International Exchange and Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2000); P. J. Simmons, "Learning to Live with NGOs," Foreign Policy 112 (fall 1998): 82-96; Sinnar Shirin, "Mixed Blessing: The Growing Influence of NGOs," Harvard International Review 18, no. 1 (winter 1995/96): 54-57.
42. See Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1998); Ann Florini, ed., The Third Force: The Rise of Transnational Civil Society (Washington, D.C.: Japan Center for International Exchange and Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2000); P. J. Simmons, "Learning to Live with NGOs," Foreign Policy 112 (fall 1998): 82-96; Sinnar Shirin, "Mixed Blessing: The Growing Influence of NGOs," Harvard International Review 18, no. 1 (winter 1995/96): 54-57.
43. See Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1998); Ann Florini, ed., The Third Force: The Rise of Transnational Civil Society (Washington, D.C.: Japan Center for International Exchange and Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2000); P. J. Simmons, "Learning to Live with NGOs," Foreign Policy 112 (fall 1998): 82-96; Sinnar Shirin, "Mixed Blessing: The Growing Influence of NGOs," Harvard International Review 18, no. 1 (winter 1995/96): 54-57.
44. Between 1990 and 1996, the United Nations organized eight "world conferences": World Summit for Children (1990), UN Conference on Environment and Development (1992), World Conference on Human Rights (1993), International Conference on Population and Development (1994), World Summit for Social Development (1995), Fourth World Conference on Women (1995), Second United Nations Conference on Human Settlements - Habitat II (1996), and World Food Summit (1996). It also held four other major conferences that were not officially designated as world conferences. See "The World Conferences," online at www.un.org/geninfo/bp/worconf.html (May 2000).
45. By March 2000, the ICBL had managed to get 137 countries to sign and 94 of them to ratify the treaty. See "Ratification Update" online at www. icbl.org (May 2000).
46. Keck and Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders, p. 12 ff.
47. For a historical view of the role of NGOs in international affairs, see Steve Charnovitz, "Two Centuries of Participation: NGOs and International Governance," Michigan Journal of International Law 18, no. 2 (winter 1997): 183-286.
48. On the relation between Northern and Southern NGOs, see Julie Fisher, The Road from Rio: Sustainable Development and the Nongovernmental Movement in the Third World (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1993); David Korten, Getting to the 21st Century: Voluntary Action and the Global Agenda (West Hartford, Conn.: Kumarian Press, 1990); James A. Paul, "NGO Access at the UN," online at www.globalpolicy.org/ngos/analysis/jap-accs.htm (20 March 2000).
49. On the relation between Northern and Southern NGOs, see Julie Fisher, The Road from Rio: Sustainable Development and the Nongovernmental Movement in the Third World (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1993); David Korten, Getting to the 21st Century: Voluntary Action and the Global Agenda (West Hartford, Conn.: Kumarian Press, 1990); James A. Paul, "NGO Access at the UN," online at www.globalpolicy.org/ngos/analysis/jap-accs.htm (20 March 2000).
50. On the relation between Northern and Southern NGOs, see Julie Fisher, The Road from Rio: Sustainable Development and the Nongovernmental Movement in the Third World (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1993); David Korten, Getting to the 21st Century: Voluntary Action and the Global Agenda (West Hartford, Conn.: Kumarian Press, 1990); James A. Paul, "NGO Access at the UN," online at www.globalpolicy.org/ngos/analysis/jap-accs.htm (20 March 2000).
51. See "Lori's Way," interview with Lori Wallach in Foreign Policy (spring 2000): 28-55, for an example of radical NGOs' attitudes toward the WTO. See also "A Citizen's Guide to the World Trade Organizations," published by the working group on the WTO/MAI, July 1999; on the cover of this pamphlet, a dinosaur-like creature dripping with blood and labeled GATTZlLLA is shown trampling the U.S. Capitol.
52. See "Lori's Way," interview with Lori Wallach in Foreign Policy (spring 2000): 28-55, for an example of radical NGOs' attitudes toward the WTO. See also "A Citizen's Guide to the World Trade Organizations," published by the working group on the WTO/MAI, July 1999; on the cover of this pamphlet, a dinosaur-like creature dripping with blood and labeled GATTZlLLA is shown trampling the U.S. Capitol.
53. See, for example, Peter Ford, "Activists Converge on Seattle Summit," Christian Science Monitor, 26 November 1999; Mary McGrory, "Labor's Battle in Seattle," Washington Post, 2 December 1999; Steven Greenhouse, "After Seattle, Unions Point to Sustained Fight on Trade," New York Times, 6 December 1999; "The Non-governmental Order," The Economist, 11 December 1999; Richard Medley and Matthew Saal, "Trends," Mliken Institute Review (first quarter 2000): 4-9.
54. See, for example, Peter Ford, "Activists Converge on Seattle Summit," Christian Science Monitor, 26 November 1999; Mary McGrory, "Labor's Battle in Seattle," Washington Post, 2 December 1999; Steven Greenhouse, "After Seattle, Unions Point to Sustained Fight on Trade," New York Times, 6 December 1999; "The Non-governmental Order," The Economist, 11 December 1999; Richard Medley and Matthew Saal, "Trends," Mliken Institute Review (first quarter 2000): 4-9.
55. See, for example, Peter Ford, "Activists Converge on Seattle Summit," Christian Science Monitor, 26 November 1999; Mary McGrory, "Labor's Battle in Seattle," Washington Post, 2 December 1999; Steven Greenhouse, "After Seattle, Unions Point to Sustained Fight on Trade," New York Times, 6 December 1999; "The Non-governmental Order," The Economist, 11 December 1999; Richard Medley and Matthew Saal, "Trends," Mliken Institute Review (first quarter 2000): 4-9.
56. See, for example, Peter Ford, "Activists Converge on Seattle Summit," Christian Science Monitor, 26 November 1999; Mary McGrory, "Labor's Battle in Seattle," Washington Post, 2 December 1999; Steven Greenhouse, "After Seattle, Unions Point to Sustained Fight on Trade," New York Times, 6 December 1999; "The Non-governmental Order," The Economist, 11 December 1999; Richard Medley and Matthew Saal, "Trends," Mliken Institute Review (first quarter 2000): 4-9.
57. See, for example, Peter Ford, "Activists Converge on Seattle Summit," Christian Science Monitor, 26 November 1999; Mary McGrory, "Labor's Battle in Seattle," Washington Post, 2 December 1999; Steven Greenhouse, "After Seattle, Unions Point to Sustained Fight on Trade," New York Times, 6 December 1999; "The Non-governmental Order," The Economist, 11 December 1999; Richard Medley and Matthew Saal, "Trends," Mliken Institute Review (first quarter 2000): 4-9.
58. On the history of NGOs' representation at ECOSOC, see CONGO at Fifty: A Reaffirmation of Commitment (New York: Conference of Non-Governmental Organizations in Consultative Relationship with the United Nations, 1998); Paul, "NGO Access at the UN"; Peter Willetts, "From 'Consultative Arrangements' to 'Partnership': The Changing Status of NGOs in Diplomacy at the UN," Global Governance 6 (2000): 191-212; "NGOs and the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)," online at http://www.un.org/partners/civil_society/n-ecosoc.htm (May 2000).
59. On the history of NGOs' representation at ECOSOC, see CONGO at Fifty: A Reaffirmation of Commitment (New York: Conference of Non-Governmental Organizations in Consultative Relationship with the United Nations, 1998); Paul, "NGO Access at the UN"; Peter Willetts, "From 'Consultative Arrangements' to 'Partnership': The Changing Status of NGOs in Diplomacy at the UN," Global Governance 6 (2000): 191-212; "NGOs and the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)," online at http://www.un.org/partners/civil_society/n-ecosoc.htm (May 2000).
60. On the history of NGOs' representation at ECOSOC, see CONGO at Fifty: A Reaffirmation of Commitment (New York: Conference of Non-Governmental Organizations in Consultative Relationship with the United Nations, 1998); Paul, "NGO Access at the UN"; Peter Willetts, "From 'Consultative Arrangements' to 'Partnership': The Changing Status of NGOs in Diplomacy at the UN," Global Governance 6 (2000): 191-212; "NGOs and the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)," online at http://www.un.org/partners/civil_society/n-ecosoc.htm (May 2000).
61. On the history of NGOs' representation at ECOSOC, see CONGO at Fifty: A Reaffirmation of Commitment (New York: Conference of Non-Governmental Organizations in Consultative Relationship with the United Nations, 1998); Paul, "NGO Access at the UN"; Peter Willetts, "From 'Consultative Arrangements' to 'Partnership': The Changing Status of NGOs in Diplomacy at the UN," Global Governance 6 (2000): 191-212; "NGOs and the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)," online at http://www.un.org/partners/civil_society/n-ecosoc.htm (May 2000).
62. For discussions of the evolution of the term civil society, see Robert W. Cox, "Civil Society at the Turn of the Millennium: Prospects for an Alternative World Order," Review of International Studies 25 (1999): 3-28; see also Michael Foley and Bob Edwards, "Beyond Tocqueville: Civil Society and Social Capital in Comparative Perspective," and "Social Capital and Civil Society Beyond Putnam," American Behavioral Scientist 42, no. 1 (September 1998).
63. For discussions of the evolution of the term civil society, see Robert W. Cox, "Civil Society at the Turn of the Millennium: Prospects for an Alternative World Order," Review of International Studies 25 (1999): 3-28; see also Michael Foley and Bob Edwards, "Beyond Tocqueville: Civil Society and Social Capital in Comparative Perspective," and "Social Capital and Civil Society Beyond Putnam," American Behavioral Scientist 42, no. 1 (September 1998).
64. See "Objectives of the Millennium Forum" online at www. millenniumforum.org/html/Mfobject.html (May 2000).
65. See Paul, "NGO Access at the UN," and Willetts, 'From Consultative Arrangements' to 'Partnership.'" See also Stanley Foundation, "The United Nations and Civil Society: The Role of NGOs," report of the Thirtieth United Nations Issues Conference, 19-21 February 1998.
66. See Paul, "NGO Access at the UN," and Willetts, 'From Consultative Arrangements' to 'Partnership.'" See also Stanley Foundation, "The United Nations and Civil Society: The Role of NGOs," report of the Thirtieth United Nations Issues Conference, 19-21 February 1998.
67. See Paul, "NGO Access at the UN," and Willetts, 'From Consultative Arrangements' to 'Partnership.'" See also Stanley Foundation, "The United Nations and Civil Society: The Role of NGOs," report of the Thirtieth United Nations Issues Conference, 19-21 February 1998.
68. See CONGO at Fifty: A Reaffirmation of Commitment, especially Dennis W. Frado, "Review for Arrangements of NGOs with the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)," pp. 29-32.
69. Cited in Wolfgang H. Reinicke and Francis M. Deng et al., eds., Critical Choices: The United Nations, Networks, and the Future of Global Governance (Ottawa: IDRC, 2000), p. xiii (of online version).
70. For information on the UN Vision Project, see the project's website at http://www.globalpublicpolicy.net/UNVision.htm (May 2000).
71. It is extremely difficult to differentiate between meetings held specifically as part of the Millennium Forum and other international meetings that also contribute indirectly to the project. Such is the nature of networks. For example, the Forum website, www.millenniumforum.org, mentions a series of five regional hearings held by the UN regional commissions (for Africa, West Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, Europe, and Asia) during the summer of 1999; the Appeal for Peace in The Hague in May 1999; the Seoul International Conference on NGOs in October 1999; the World Civil Society Conference in Montreal in December 1999; and a meeting in Wellington, New Zealand in February 2000). All this activity culminated in the Millennium Forum held in New York in May 2000.
72. "We, the peoples" is the motto on all Millennium Forum documents, and the distinction between "We, the peoples" and "We, the states" is part of their standard rhetoric. Millennium documents, furthermore, refer to the participants in their meetings as representatives of global civil society, not of NGOs, in an attempt to put their legitimacy beyond doubt. It is easier to question the right of NGOs to participate in the functioning of international organizations. Much more difficult to question are the rights of "global civil society." Many examples of this language are found in the documents posted at www. millenniumforum.org.
73. "Proposal for the Establishment of a Millennium Forum," prepared by Techeste Anderom, convener of the Millennium Forum Interim Executive Committee in consultation with the representatives of CONGO, 4th ed., 1 January 1999, par. 2.2.3, online at www.millenniumforum.org/html/Object_ProposalforMF. htm. In the arcane UN classification of NGOs, DPI NGOs are those that do not have consultative status but are entitled to receive information.
74. Reinicke and Deng, Critical Choices, p. 22.
75. Ibid., p. viii.
76. Ibid., pp. xii, xiv.
77. See Sanjeev Khargam, "Towards Democratic Governance for Sustainable Development: Transnational Civil Society Organizing Around Big Dams," in Ann Florini, ed., The Third Force: The Rise of Transnational Civil Society, pp. 104-142. Also see the website of the World Commission on Dams, online at www.dams.org (May 2000).
78. Khargam, "Towards Democratic Governance," pp. 117-127. See also World Bank, Operations Evaluation Department, The World Bank's Experience with Large Dams - A Preliminary Review of Impacts (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1996).
79. Khargam, "Towards Democratic Governance," pp. 117-127. See also World Bank, Operations Evaluation Department, The World Bank's Experience with Large Dams - A Preliminary Review of Impacts (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1996).
80. Khargan, "Towards Democratic Governance," pp. 127-128. Also see Stephanie Flanders, "Truce Called in Battle of the Dams," Financial Times, 14 April 1997, p. 4; Layla Boulton, "Hitch for International Dams Commission," Financial Times, 24 November 1997, p. 5; Mark Arhurst, "World Bank Shares in Launch of Dam Standards Commission," Financial Times, 17 February 1998, p. 4.
81. Khargan, "Towards Democratic Governance," pp. 127-128. Also see Stephanie Flanders, "Truce Called in Battle of the Dams," Financial Times, 14 April 1997, p. 4; Layla Boulton, "Hitch for International Dams Commission," Financial Times, 24 November 1997, p. 5; Mark Arhurst, "World Bank Shares in Launch of Dam Standards Commission," Financial Times, 17 February 1998, p. 4.
82. Khargan, "Towards Democratic Governance," pp. 127-128. Also see Stephanie Flanders, "Truce Called in Battle of the Dams," Financial Times, 14 April 1997, p. 4; Layla Boulton, "Hitch for International Dams Commission," Financial Times, 24 November 1997, p. 5; Mark Arhurst, "World Bank Shares in Launch of Dam Standards Commission," Financial Times, 17 February 1998, p. 4.
83. Khargan, "Towards Democratic Governance," pp. 127-128. Also see Stephanie Flanders, "Truce Called in Battle of the Dams," Financial Times, 14 April 1997, p. 4; Layla Boulton, "Hitch for International Dams Commission," Financial Times, 24 November 1997, p. 5; Mark Arhurst, "World Bank Shares in Launch of Dam Standards Commission," Financial Times, 17 February 1998, p. 4.
84. See Willi Brandt, North-South: A Programme for Survival: Report of the Independent Commission on International Development Issues (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1980).
85. See Gro Harlem Brundtland, Our Common Future: World Commission on Environment and Development (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987).
86. Our Global Neighborhood and other documents of the Commission on Global Governance are posted online at www.cgg.ch (May 2000).
87. Note that another commission, the Independent Commission on Disarmament and Security Issues, known as the Palme Commission, was launched in 1980 and produced the report Common Security: A Blueprint for Survival (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982). This also had little impact.
88. Christopher Marquis, "$3.5 Billion Pipeline Expected to Pass," New York Times, 6 June 2000.