The Use of Assassination as a Tool of State Policy: South Africa's Counter-Revolutionary Strategy 1979-92 (Part II)

Terrorism and Political Violence

Volumn 13, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 107-142

  O'Brien, Kevin A ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0035598150     PISSN: 09546553     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09546550109609683     Document Type: Article

References (114)

1. This study draws, in part, upon numerous interviews of former and serving South African security force personnel undertaken between 1994 and 2000, most of whom cannot be named. The author, however, would like to extend his sincerest thanks to Omar, WM, Malcolm, Tony and a number of other individuals who cannot be named for their assistance in researching this article. As this study results largely from the research undertaken towards my PhD at the University of Hull, I must thank Professor Colin S. Gray for his guidance, comments, critiques and support throughout the process.
2. Kevin A. O'Brien,'The Use Of Assassination as a Tool Of State Policy: South Africa's Counter-Revolutionary Strategy 1979-92 (Part I)', Terrorism and Political Violence 10/2 (Summer 1998), p.98.
3. Murray Clark Havens, Carl Leiden and Karl M Schmitt, The Politics of Assassination (Englewood-Cliffs: Prentice Hall Inc 1970), p.10.
4. Much of the assumptions inherent in this discussion of South African counter-revolutionary warfare derives from a forthcoming study by the author regarding South African counter-revolutionary strategy and the application of counter-revolutionary warfare theory by the South African securocrats to the South African situation, in reaction to the ANC/SACP's use of revolutionary war doctrine. Thus, while the reader should be familiar with the counter-revolutionary warfare tenets of theorists such as David Galula, André Beaufre, John J McCuen, Robert Thompson, Samuel Huntington, Julian Paget and others to fully understand the place of assassination - or 'elimination of the insurgent politico-administrative structures' - in counter-revolutionary warfare, this will be clarified much further in the forthcoming study. While this study is not the place to engage in a discussion of counter-revolutionary warfare theory, an understanding of the principles is very useful, especially as these were the theorists consulted by the South African securocrats: see Sir Robert Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency: Experiences from Malaya and Vietnam (London: Chatto and Windus 1967), particularly ch.4, 'Basics of Counter-Insurgency'; John J. McCuen, The Art of Counter-Revolutionary War (Harrisburg: Stackpole Books 1966); André Beaufre, Introduction to Strategy (London: Faber and Faber 1965); John S. Pustay, Counterinsurgency Warfare (New York: The Free Press 1965); Peter Paret, French Revolutionary Warfare From Indochina to Algeria: The Analysis of a Political and Military Doctrine (London: Pall Mall Press 1964); David Galula, Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice (New York: Frederick A Praeger 1965); Frank Kitson, Low Intensity Operations: Subversion, Insurgency and Peace-keeping (London: Faber and Faber 1971); and Julian Paget, Counter-Insurgency Campaigning (London: Faber and Faber Ltd 1967). For two very readable histories of insurgency, guerrilla warfare, revolutionary war, counter-insurgency and counter-revolutionary warfare which provide rather exhaustive accounts of both the events and theories surrounding each, in some cases, since human history began, see Robert B. Asprey, War In The Shadows: The Classic History of Guerrilla Warfare from Ancient Persia to the Present (London: Little, Brown Book 1994); and Walter Laqueur, Guerrilla Warfare: A Historical and Critical Study (London: Transaction Publishers 1998). See also Franklin Mark Osanka (ed.), Modern Guerrilla Warfare: Fighting Communist Guerrilla Movements, 1941-61 (New York: Free Press of Glencoe 1962).
5. Much of the assumptions inherent in this discussion of South African counter-revolutionary warfare derives from a forthcoming study by the author regarding South African counter-revolutionary strategy and the application of counter-revolutionary warfare theory by the South African securocrats to the South African situation, in reaction to the ANC/SACP's use of revolutionary war doctrine. Thus, while the reader should be familiar with the counter-revolutionary warfare tenets of theorists such as David Galula, André Beaufre, John J McCuen, Robert Thompson, Samuel Huntington, Julian Paget and others to fully understand the place of assassination - or 'elimination of the insurgent politico-administrative structures' - in counter-revolutionary warfare, this will be clarified much further in the forthcoming study. While this study is not the place to engage in a discussion of counter-revolutionary warfare theory, an understanding of the principles is very useful, especially as these were the theorists consulted by the South African securocrats: see Sir Robert Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency: Experiences from Malaya and Vietnam (London: Chatto and Windus 1967), particularly ch.4, 'Basics of Counter-Insurgency'; John J. McCuen, The Art of Counter-Revolutionary War (Harrisburg: Stackpole Books 1966); André Beaufre, Introduction to Strategy (London: Faber and Faber 1965); John S. Pustay, Counterinsurgency Warfare (New York: The Free Press 1965); Peter Paret, French Revolutionary Warfare From Indochina to Algeria: The Analysis of a Political and Military Doctrine (London: Pall Mall Press 1964); David Galula, Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice (New York: Frederick A Praeger 1965); Frank Kitson, Low Intensity Operations: Subversion, Insurgency and Peace-keeping (London: Faber and Faber 1971); and Julian Paget, Counter-Insurgency Campaigning (London: Faber and Faber Ltd 1967). For two very readable histories of insurgency, guerrilla warfare, revolutionary war, counter-insurgency and counter-revolutionary warfare which provide rather exhaustive accounts of both the events and theories surrounding each, in some cases, since human history began, see Robert B. Asprey, War In The Shadows: The Classic History of Guerrilla Warfare from Ancient Persia to the Present (London: Little, Brown Book 1994); and Walter Laqueur, Guerrilla Warfare: A Historical and Critical Study (London: Transaction Publishers 1998). See also Franklin Mark Osanka (ed.), Modern Guerrilla Warfare: Fighting Communist Guerrilla Movements, 1941-61 (New York: Free Press of Glencoe 1962).
6. Much of the assumptions inherent in this discussion of South African counter-revolutionary warfare derives from a forthcoming study by the author regarding South African counter-revolutionary strategy and the application of counter-revolutionary warfare theory by the South African securocrats to the South African situation, in reaction to the ANC/SACP's use of revolutionary war doctrine. Thus, while the reader should be familiar with the counter-revolutionary warfare tenets of theorists such as David Galula, André Beaufre, John J McCuen, Robert Thompson, Samuel Huntington, Julian Paget and others to fully understand the place of assassination - or 'elimination of the insurgent politico-administrative structures' - in counter-revolutionary warfare, this will be clarified much further in the forthcoming study. While this study is not the place to engage in a discussion of counter-revolutionary warfare theory, an understanding of the principles is very useful, especially as these were the theorists consulted by the South African securocrats: see Sir Robert Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency: Experiences from Malaya and Vietnam (London: Chatto and Windus 1967), particularly ch.4, 'Basics of Counter-Insurgency'; John J. McCuen, The Art of Counter-Revolutionary War (Harrisburg: Stackpole Books 1966); André Beaufre, Introduction to Strategy (London: Faber and Faber 1965); John S. Pustay, Counterinsurgency Warfare (New York: The Free Press 1965); Peter Paret, French Revolutionary Warfare From Indochina to Algeria: The Analysis of a Political and Military Doctrine (London: Pall Mall Press 1964); David Galula, Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice (New York: Frederick A Praeger 1965); Frank Kitson, Low Intensity Operations: Subversion, Insurgency and Peace-keeping (London: Faber and Faber 1971); and Julian Paget, Counter-Insurgency Campaigning (London: Faber and Faber Ltd 1967). For two very readable histories of insurgency, guerrilla warfare, revolutionary war, counter-insurgency and counter-revolutionary warfare which provide rather exhaustive accounts of both the events and theories surrounding each, in some cases, since human history began, see Robert B. Asprey, War In The Shadows: The Classic History of Guerrilla Warfare from Ancient Persia to the Present (London: Little, Brown Book 1994); and Walter Laqueur, Guerrilla Warfare: A Historical and Critical Study (London: Transaction Publishers 1998). See also Franklin Mark Osanka (ed.), Modern Guerrilla Warfare: Fighting Communist Guerrilla Movements, 1941-61 (New York: Free Press of Glencoe 1962).
7. Much of the assumptions inherent in this discussion of South African counter-revolutionary warfare derives from a forthcoming study by the author regarding South African counter-revolutionary strategy and the application of counter-revolutionary warfare theory by the South African securocrats to the South African situation, in reaction to the ANC/SACP's use of revolutionary war doctrine. Thus, while the reader should be familiar with the counter-revolutionary warfare tenets of theorists such as David Galula, André Beaufre, John J McCuen, Robert Thompson, Samuel Huntington, Julian Paget and others to fully understand the place of assassination - or 'elimination of the insurgent politico-administrative structures' - in counter-revolutionary warfare, this will be clarified much further in the forthcoming study. While this study is not the place to engage in a discussion of counter-revolutionary warfare theory, an understanding of the principles is very useful, especially as these were the theorists consulted by the South African securocrats: see Sir Robert Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency: Experiences from Malaya and Vietnam (London: Chatto and Windus 1967), particularly ch.4, 'Basics of Counter-Insurgency'; John J. McCuen, The Art of Counter-Revolutionary War (Harrisburg: Stackpole Books 1966); André Beaufre, Introduction to Strategy (London: Faber and Faber 1965); John S. Pustay, Counterinsurgency Warfare (New York: The Free Press 1965); Peter Paret, French Revolutionary Warfare From Indochina to Algeria: The Analysis of a Political and Military Doctrine (London: Pall Mall Press 1964); David Galula, Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice (New York: Frederick A Praeger 1965); Frank Kitson, Low Intensity Operations: Subversion, Insurgency and Peace-keeping (London: Faber and Faber 1971); and Julian Paget, Counter-Insurgency Campaigning (London: Faber and Faber Ltd 1967). For two very readable histories of insurgency, guerrilla warfare, revolutionary war, counter-insurgency and counter-revolutionary warfare which provide rather exhaustive accounts of both the events and theories surrounding each, in some cases, since human history began, see Robert B. Asprey, War In The Shadows: The Classic History of Guerrilla Warfare from Ancient Persia to the Present (London: Little, Brown Book 1994); and Walter Laqueur, Guerrilla Warfare: A Historical and Critical Study (London: Transaction Publishers 1998). See also Franklin Mark Osanka (ed.), Modern Guerrilla Warfare: Fighting Communist Guerrilla Movements, 1941-61 (New York: Free Press of Glencoe 1962).
8. Much of the assumptions inherent in this discussion of South African counter-revolutionary warfare derives from a forthcoming study by the author regarding South African counter-revolutionary strategy and the application of counter-revolutionary warfare theory by the South African securocrats to the South African situation, in reaction to the ANC/SACP's use of revolutionary war doctrine. Thus, while the reader should be familiar with the counter-revolutionary warfare tenets of theorists such as David Galula, André Beaufre, John J McCuen, Robert Thompson, Samuel Huntington, Julian Paget and others to fully understand the place of assassination - or 'elimination of the insurgent politico-administrative structures' - in counter-revolutionary warfare, this will be clarified much further in the forthcoming study. While this study is not the place to engage in a discussion of counter-revolutionary warfare theory, an understanding of the principles is very useful, especially as these were the theorists consulted by the South African securocrats: see Sir Robert Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency: Experiences from Malaya and Vietnam (London: Chatto and Windus 1967), particularly ch.4, 'Basics of Counter-Insurgency'; John J. McCuen, The Art of Counter-Revolutionary War (Harrisburg: Stackpole Books 1966); André Beaufre, Introduction to Strategy (London: Faber and Faber 1965); John S. Pustay, Counterinsurgency Warfare (New York: The Free Press 1965); Peter Paret, French Revolutionary Warfare From Indochina to Algeria: The Analysis of a Political and Military Doctrine (London: Pall Mall Press 1964); David Galula, Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice (New York: Frederick A Praeger 1965); Frank Kitson, Low Intensity Operations: Subversion, Insurgency and Peace-keeping (London: Faber and Faber 1971); and Julian Paget, Counter-Insurgency Campaigning (London: Faber and Faber Ltd 1967). For two very readable histories of insurgency, guerrilla warfare, revolutionary war, counter-insurgency and counter-revolutionary warfare which provide rather exhaustive accounts of both the events and theories surrounding each, in some cases, since human history began, see Robert B. Asprey, War In The Shadows: The Classic History of Guerrilla Warfare from Ancient Persia to the Present (London: Little, Brown Book 1994); and Walter Laqueur, Guerrilla Warfare: A Historical and Critical Study (London: Transaction Publishers 1998). See also Franklin Mark Osanka (ed.), Modern Guerrilla Warfare: Fighting Communist Guerrilla Movements, 1941-61 (New York: Free Press of Glencoe 1962).
9. Much of the assumptions inherent in this discussion of South African counter-revolutionary warfare derives from a forthcoming study by the author regarding South African counter-revolutionary strategy and the application of counter-revolutionary warfare theory by the South African securocrats to the South African situation, in reaction to the ANC/SACP's use of revolutionary war doctrine. Thus, while the reader should be familiar with the counter-revolutionary warfare tenets of theorists such as David Galula, André Beaufre, John J McCuen, Robert Thompson, Samuel Huntington, Julian Paget and others to fully understand the place of assassination - or 'elimination of the insurgent politico-administrative structures' - in counter-revolutionary warfare, this will be clarified much further in the forthcoming study. While this study is not the place to engage in a discussion of counter-revolutionary warfare theory, an understanding of the principles is very useful, especially as these were the theorists consulted by the South African securocrats: see Sir Robert Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency: Experiences from Malaya and Vietnam (London: Chatto and Windus 1967), particularly ch.4, 'Basics of Counter-Insurgency'; John J. McCuen, The Art of Counter-Revolutionary War (Harrisburg: Stackpole Books 1966); André Beaufre, Introduction to Strategy (London: Faber and Faber 1965); John S. Pustay, Counterinsurgency Warfare (New York: The Free Press 1965); Peter Paret, French Revolutionary Warfare From Indochina to Algeria: The Analysis of a Political and Military Doctrine (London: Pall Mall Press 1964); David Galula, Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice (New York: Frederick A Praeger 1965); Frank Kitson, Low Intensity Operations: Subversion, Insurgency and Peace-keeping (London: Faber and Faber 1971); and Julian Paget, Counter-Insurgency Campaigning (London: Faber and Faber Ltd 1967). For two very readable histories of insurgency, guerrilla warfare, revolutionary war, counter-insurgency and counter-revolutionary warfare which provide rather exhaustive accounts of both the events and theories surrounding each, in some cases, since human history began, see Robert B. Asprey, War In The Shadows: The Classic History of Guerrilla Warfare from Ancient Persia to the Present (London: Little, Brown Book 1994); and Walter Laqueur, Guerrilla Warfare: A Historical and Critical Study (London: Transaction Publishers 1998). See also Franklin Mark Osanka (ed.), Modern Guerrilla Warfare: Fighting Communist Guerrilla Movements, 1941-61 (New York: Free Press of Glencoe 1962).
10. Much of the assumptions inherent in this discussion of South African counter-revolutionary warfare derives from a forthcoming study by the author regarding South African counter-revolutionary strategy and the application of counter-revolutionary warfare theory by the South African securocrats to the South African situation, in reaction to the ANC/SACP's use of revolutionary war doctrine. Thus, while the reader should be familiar with the counter-revolutionary warfare tenets of theorists such as David Galula, André Beaufre, John J McCuen, Robert Thompson, Samuel Huntington, Julian Paget and others to fully understand the place of assassination - or 'elimination of the insurgent politico-administrative structures' - in counter-revolutionary warfare, this will be clarified much further in the forthcoming study. While this study is not the place to engage in a discussion of counter-revolutionary warfare theory, an understanding of the principles is very useful, especially as these were the theorists consulted by the South African securocrats: see Sir Robert Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency: Experiences from Malaya and Vietnam (London: Chatto and Windus 1967), particularly ch.4, 'Basics of Counter-Insurgency'; John J. McCuen, The Art of Counter-Revolutionary War (Harrisburg: Stackpole Books 1966); André Beaufre, Introduction to Strategy (London: Faber and Faber 1965); John S. Pustay, Counterinsurgency Warfare (New York: The Free Press 1965); Peter Paret, French Revolutionary Warfare From Indochina to Algeria: The Analysis of a Political and Military Doctrine (London: Pall Mall Press 1964); David Galula, Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice (New York: Frederick A Praeger 1965); Frank Kitson, Low Intensity Operations: Subversion, Insurgency and Peace-keeping (London: Faber and Faber 1971); and Julian Paget, Counter-Insurgency Campaigning (London: Faber and Faber Ltd 1967). For two very readable histories of insurgency, guerrilla warfare, revolutionary war, counter-insurgency and counter-revolutionary warfare which provide rather exhaustive accounts of both the events and theories surrounding each, in some cases, since human history began, see Robert B. Asprey, War In The Shadows: The Classic History of Guerrilla Warfare from Ancient Persia to the Present (London: Little, Brown Book 1994); and Walter Laqueur, Guerrilla Warfare: A Historical and Critical Study (London: Transaction Publishers 1998). See also Franklin Mark Osanka (ed.), Modern Guerrilla Warfare: Fighting Communist Guerrilla Movements, 1941-61 (New York: Free Press of Glencoe 1962).
11. Much of the assumptions inherent in this discussion of South African counter-revolutionary warfare derives from a forthcoming study by the author regarding South African counter-revolutionary strategy and the application of counter-revolutionary warfare theory by the South African securocrats to the South African situation, in reaction to the ANC/SACP's use of revolutionary war doctrine. Thus, while the reader should be familiar with the counter-revolutionary warfare tenets of theorists such as David Galula, André Beaufre, John J McCuen, Robert Thompson, Samuel Huntington, Julian Paget and others to fully understand the place of assassination - or 'elimination of the insurgent politico-administrative structures' - in counter-revolutionary warfare, this will be clarified much further in the forthcoming study. While this study is not the place to engage in a discussion of counter-revolutionary warfare theory, an understanding of the principles is very useful, especially as these were the theorists consulted by the South African securocrats: see Sir Robert Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency: Experiences from Malaya and Vietnam (London: Chatto and Windus 1967), particularly ch.4, 'Basics of Counter-Insurgency'; John J. McCuen, The Art of Counter-Revolutionary War (Harrisburg: Stackpole Books 1966); André Beaufre, Introduction to Strategy (London: Faber and Faber 1965); John S. Pustay, Counterinsurgency Warfare (New York: The Free Press 1965); Peter Paret, French Revolutionary Warfare From Indochina to Algeria: The Analysis of a Political and Military Doctrine (London: Pall Mall Press 1964); David Galula, Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice (New York: Frederick A Praeger 1965); Frank Kitson, Low Intensity Operations: Subversion, Insurgency and Peace-keeping (London: Faber and Faber 1971); and Julian Paget, Counter-Insurgency Campaigning (London: Faber and Faber Ltd 1967). For two very readable histories of insurgency, guerrilla warfare, revolutionary war, counter-insurgency and counter-revolutionary warfare which provide rather exhaustive accounts of both the events and theories surrounding each, in some cases, since human history began, see Robert B. Asprey, War In The Shadows: The Classic History of Guerrilla Warfare from Ancient Persia to the Present (London: Little, Brown Book 1994); and Walter Laqueur, Guerrilla Warfare: A Historical and Critical Study (London: Transaction Publishers 1998). See also Franklin Mark Osanka (ed.), Modern Guerrilla Warfare: Fighting Communist Guerrilla Movements, 1941-61 (New York: Free Press of Glencoe 1962).
12. Much of the assumptions inherent in this discussion of South African counter-revolutionary warfare derives from a forthcoming study by the author regarding South African counter-revolutionary strategy and the application of counter-revolutionary warfare theory by the South African securocrats to the South African situation, in reaction to the ANC/SACP's use of revolutionary war doctrine. Thus, while the reader should be familiar with the counter-revolutionary warfare tenets of theorists such as David Galula, André Beaufre, John J McCuen, Robert Thompson, Samuel Huntington, Julian Paget and others to fully understand the place of assassination - or 'elimination of the insurgent politico-administrative structures' - in counter-revolutionary warfare, this will be clarified much further in the forthcoming study. While this study is not the place to engage in a discussion of counter-revolutionary warfare theory, an understanding of the principles is very useful, especially as these were the theorists consulted by the South African securocrats: see Sir Robert Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency: Experiences from Malaya and Vietnam (London: Chatto and Windus 1967), particularly ch.4, 'Basics of Counter-Insurgency'; John J. McCuen, The Art of Counter-Revolutionary War (Harrisburg: Stackpole Books 1966); André Beaufre, Introduction to Strategy (London: Faber and Faber 1965); John S. Pustay, Counterinsurgency Warfare (New York: The Free Press 1965); Peter Paret, French Revolutionary Warfare From Indochina to Algeria: The Analysis of a Political and Military Doctrine (London: Pall Mall Press 1964); David Galula, Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice (New York: Frederick A Praeger 1965); Frank Kitson, Low Intensity Operations: Subversion, Insurgency and Peace-keeping (London: Faber and Faber 1971); and Julian Paget, Counter-Insurgency Campaigning (London: Faber and Faber Ltd 1967). For two very readable histories of insurgency, guerrilla warfare, revolutionary war, counter-insurgency and counter-revolutionary warfare which provide rather exhaustive accounts of both the events and theories surrounding each, in some cases, since human history began, see Robert B. Asprey, War In The Shadows: The Classic History of Guerrilla Warfare from Ancient Persia to the Present (London: Little, Brown Book 1994); and Walter Laqueur, Guerrilla Warfare: A Historical and Critical Study (London: Transaction Publishers 1998). See also Franklin Mark Osanka (ed.), Modern Guerrilla Warfare: Fighting Communist Guerrilla Movements, 1941-61 (New York: Free Press of Glencoe 1962).
13. Much of the assumptions inherent in this discussion of South African counter-revolutionary warfare derives from a forthcoming study by the author regarding South African counter-revolutionary strategy and the application of counter-revolutionary warfare theory by the South African securocrats to the South African situation, in reaction to the ANC/SACP's use of revolutionary war doctrine. Thus, while the reader should be familiar with the counter-revolutionary warfare tenets of theorists such as David Galula, André Beaufre, John J McCuen, Robert Thompson, Samuel Huntington, Julian Paget and others to fully understand the place of assassination - or 'elimination of the insurgent politico-administrative structures' - in counter-revolutionary warfare, this will be clarified much further in the forthcoming study. While this study is not the place to engage in a discussion of counter-revolutionary warfare theory, an understanding of the principles is very useful, especially as these were the theorists consulted by the South African securocrats: see Sir Robert Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency: Experiences from Malaya and Vietnam (London: Chatto and Windus 1967), particularly ch.4, 'Basics of Counter-Insurgency'; John J. McCuen, The Art of Counter-Revolutionary War (Harrisburg: Stackpole Books 1966); André Beaufre, Introduction to Strategy (London: Faber and Faber 1965); John S. Pustay, Counterinsurgency Warfare (New York: The Free Press 1965); Peter Paret, French Revolutionary Warfare From Indochina to Algeria: The Analysis of a Political and Military Doctrine (London: Pall Mall Press 1964); David Galula, Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice (New York: Frederick A Praeger 1965); Frank Kitson, Low Intensity Operations: Subversion, Insurgency and Peace-keeping (London: Faber and Faber 1971); and Julian Paget, Counter-Insurgency Campaigning (London: Faber and Faber Ltd 1967). For two very readable histories of insurgency, guerrilla warfare, revolutionary war, counter-insurgency and counter-revolutionary warfare which provide rather exhaustive accounts of both the events and theories surrounding each, in some cases, since human history began, see Robert B. Asprey, War In The Shadows: The Classic History of Guerrilla Warfare from Ancient Persia to the Present (London: Little, Brown Book 1994); and Walter Laqueur, Guerrilla Warfare: A Historical and Critical Study (London: Transaction Publishers 1998). See also Franklin Mark Osanka (ed.), Modern Guerrilla Warfare: Fighting Communist Guerrilla Movements, 1941-61 (New York: Free Press of Glencoe 1962).
14. Much of the assumptions inherent in this discussion of South African counter-revolutionary warfare derives from a forthcoming study by the author regarding South African counter-revolutionary strategy and the application of counter-revolutionary warfare theory by the South African securocrats to the South African situation, in reaction to the ANC/SACP's use of revolutionary war doctrine. Thus, while the reader should be familiar with the counter-revolutionary warfare tenets of theorists such as David Galula, André Beaufre, John J McCuen, Robert Thompson, Samuel Huntington, Julian Paget and others to fully understand the place of assassination - or 'elimination of the insurgent politico-administrative structures' - in counter-revolutionary warfare, this will be clarified much further in the forthcoming study. While this study is not the place to engage in a discussion of counter-revolutionary warfare theory, an understanding of the principles is very useful, especially as these were the theorists consulted by the South African securocrats: see Sir Robert Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency: Experiences from Malaya and Vietnam (London: Chatto and Windus 1967), particularly ch.4, 'Basics of Counter-Insurgency'; John J. McCuen, The Art of Counter-Revolutionary War (Harrisburg: Stackpole Books 1966); André Beaufre, Introduction to Strategy (London: Faber and Faber 1965); John S. Pustay, Counterinsurgency Warfare (New York: The Free Press 1965); Peter Paret, French Revolutionary Warfare From Indochina to Algeria: The Analysis of a Political and Military Doctrine (London: Pall Mall Press 1964); David Galula, Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice (New York: Frederick A Praeger 1965); Frank Kitson, Low Intensity Operations: Subversion, Insurgency and Peace-keeping (London: Faber and Faber 1971); and Julian Paget, Counter-Insurgency Campaigning (London: Faber and Faber Ltd 1967). For two very readable histories of insurgency, guerrilla warfare, revolutionary war, counter-insurgency and counter-revolutionary warfare which provide rather exhaustive accounts of both the events and theories surrounding each, in some cases, since human history began, see Robert B. Asprey, War In The Shadows: The Classic History of Guerrilla Warfare from Ancient Persia to the Present (London: Little, Brown Book 1994); and Walter Laqueur, Guerrilla Warfare: A Historical and Critical Study (London: Transaction Publishers 1998). See also Franklin Mark Osanka (ed.), Modern Guerrilla Warfare: Fighting Communist Guerrilla Movements, 1941-61 (New York: Free Press of Glencoe 1962).
15. Republic of South Africa, Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, 2:2, 'The State Outside South Africa Between 1960 and 1990', s.211.
16. Patrick Laurence, Death Squads - Apartheid's Secret Weapon (London: Penguin 1990) p.2.
17. Jacques Pauw as quoted in David Welsh, 'Right-Wing Terrorism in South Africa', Terror From the Extreme Right (Special Issue of Terrorism and Political Violence), p.247.
18. The SSC was composed of the Prime Minister (later State President); the Ministers of Defence, Law and Order and Justice; the heads of BOSS (later NIS), the SAP Security Branch, and the SADF Department of Military Intelligence; and other Cabinet Ministers on an ad hoc basis.
19. Annette Seegers, The Military in the Making of Modern South Africa (London: Tauris Academic Books 1996), pp. 126-32.
20. RSA, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Matters Relating to the Security of the State (Abridged) (Pretoria 1971), pp.33-34.
21. Seegers (note 9), pp. 162-69.
22. For a discussion of the roles of the intelligence and security forces in the negotiations towards full democracy, as well as the continuing destabilization of the country before and after the April 1994 all-party elections, see Robert d'A. Henderson, 'South African Intelligence Under de Klerk', International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence 8/1 (Spring 1995); and Kevin A. O'Brien, 'South Africa's Evolving Intelligence and Security Structures', International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence 9/2 (Summer 1996), pp. 187-232.
23. For a discussion of the roles of the intelligence and security forces in the negotiations towards full democracy, as well as the continuing destabilization of the country before and after the April 1994 all-party elections, see Robert d'A. Henderson, 'South African Intelligence Under de Klerk', International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence 8/1 (Spring 1995); and Kevin A. O'Brien, 'South Africa's Evolving Intelligence and Security Structures', International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence 9/2 (Summer 1996), pp. 187-232.
24. Patrick Laurence, 'SA's Third Force soon in the dock', Star International Weekly (Johannesburg), 30 December 1994, p.15. See also: John Battersby, 'A Secret Network to Preserve White Power', Christian Science Monitor 24 August 1992, pp.6-7; Paul Taylor, 'S. Africa's Past Horrors Pose Questions About Future Justice', Washington Post, 4 March 1995, A1, A22; and Allister Sparks, 'Answers are needed about NP's secret operations', Star International Weekly (Johannesburg) 29 June-5 July 1995, p.11.
25. Patrick Laurence, 'SA's Third Force soon in the dock', Star International Weekly (Johannesburg), 30 December 1994, p.15. See also: John Battersby, 'A Secret Network to Preserve White Power', Christian Science Monitor 24 August 1992, pp.6-7; Paul Taylor, 'S. Africa's Past Horrors Pose Questions About Future Justice', Washington Post, 4 March 1995, A1, A22; and Allister Sparks, 'Answers are needed about NP's secret operations', Star International Weekly (Johannesburg) 29 June-5 July 1995, p.11.
26. Patrick Laurence, 'SA's Third Force soon in the dock', Star International Weekly (Johannesburg), 30 December 1994, p.15. See also: John Battersby, 'A Secret Network to Preserve White Power', Christian Science Monitor 24 August 1992, pp.6-7; Paul Taylor, 'S. Africa's Past Horrors Pose Questions About Future Justice', Washington Post, 4 March 1995, A1, A22; and Allister Sparks, 'Answers are needed about NP's secret operations', Star International Weekly (Johannesburg) 29 June-5 July 1995, p.11.
27. Patrick Laurence, 'SA's Third Force soon in the dock', Star International Weekly (Johannesburg), 30 December 1994, p.15. See also: John Battersby, 'A Secret Network to Preserve White Power', Christian Science Monitor 24 August 1992, pp.6-7; Paul Taylor, 'S. Africa's Past Horrors Pose Questions About Future Justice', Washington Post, 4 March 1995, A1, A22; and Allister Sparks, 'Answers are needed about NP's secret operations', Star International Weekly (Johannesburg) 29 June-5 July 1995, p.11.
28. Battersby (note 13), pp.6-7.
29. Major General Abraham Joubert, as quoted in Republic of South Africa, Truth and Reconciliation Armed Forces Hearings - SADF. www.truth.org.za/HRVtrans/forces/ sadf.htm (no download date), p.43 [hereafter Armed Forces Hearings].
30. In a 1982 opinion poll, more than 80 per cent of the white South African population approved of cross-border raids to deal with 'ANC sanctuaries', Robert S. Jaster, South Africa and its Neighbours: the Dynamics of Regional Conflict, Adelphi Papers 209 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies 1986), p.14.
31. Republic of South Africa, 'The State inside South Africa Between 1960 and 1990', Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission 2:3, www.polity.org.za/govdocs/commissions/ 1998/trc/2chap3.htm (downloaded 7 November 1998) [hereafter TRC 2:3], pp.451-52.
32. Stephen Ellis, 'The Historical Significance of South Africa's Third Force', Journal of Southern African Studies 24/2 (June 1998), p.271; Jacques Pauw, In the Heart of the Whore: The Story of Apartheid's Death Squads (Halfway House: Southern Book Publishers 1991), pp. 122-23.
33. Stephen Ellis, 'The Historical Significance of South Africa's Third Force', Journal of Southern African Studies 24/2 (June 1998), p.271; Jacques Pauw, In the Heart of the Whore: The Story of Apartheid's Death Squads (Halfway House: Southern Book Publishers 1991), pp. 122-23.
34. Vrye Weekblad, 9 March 1990, as quoted in Rocklyn Williams, Back To The Barracks: The Changing Parameters of Civil-Military Relations under the Botha and De Klerk Administrations (Colchester: University of Essex 1992), p.225.
35. Armed Forces Hearings (note 15), pp.43-44.
36. Armed Forces Hearings (note 15), p.44.
37. TRC2:3 (note 17), Appendix 5; African National Congress, ANC Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, www.anc.organisation.za/ancdocs/misc/trcall.html (downloaded 12 October 1996), 4.9.1; Jacques Pauw, Into the Heart of Darkness: Confessions of Apartheid's Assassins (Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball Publishers 1997), p. 195; confidential interview, London, 26 October 1998.
38. TRC2:3 (note 17), Appendix 5; African National Congress, ANC Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, www.anc.organisation.za/ancdocs/misc/trcall.html (downloaded 12 October 1996), 4.9.1; Jacques Pauw, Into the Heart of Darkness: Confessions of Apartheid's Assassins (Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball Publishers 1997), p. 195; confidential interview, London, 26 October 1998.
39. Republic of South Africa, State Security Council Hearing - Submission of Dr Neil Barnard, www.truth.org.za/ns/security/ssbarn.htm (downloaded 24 April 2000) [hereafter Barnard Submission].
40. TRC2:3 (note 17), Appendix 7-9.
41. Ellis, 'Third Force' (note 18), p.274.
42. Ellis, 'Third Force' (note 18), p.274; Barnard Submission (note 23).
43. Ellis, 'Third Force' (note 18), p.274; Barnard Submission (note 23).
44. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission, formed on 19 July 1995 under the rubric of section 2(1) of the Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act (PNUR Act) (Act 34 of 1995), was mandated to examine 'gross human-rights violations' in South Africa's past, that is 'the killing, abduction, torture or severe ill-treatment of any person by someone acting with a political objective; it includes, among others, the planning of such acts and attempts to commit them'. Other sources of such information have included the trials of such individuals as Colonel Eugene de Kock, Brigadier Jac Cronjé and Major General Nick van Rensburg, as well as that of former Defence Minister Magnus Malan.
45. Williams (note 19), p.156.
46. Herbert M Howe, 'The South African Defence Force and Political Reform', Journal of Modern African Studies 32/1 (1994), pp.33-38.
47. David Beresford, 'The President, the Generals and the Murdered Teacher', The Guardian, 20 March 1993, p.14; confidential interview, former SADF special forces NCO, August 1998.
48. Human Rights Watch (Africa), 14 March 1995, p.3.
49. Ibid., p.7.
50. Ibid., p.7.
51. Ibid., pp.8, 9.
52. Ibid., p. 10.
53. For a discussion of 'Hammer', see Sam Sole, 'The Hammer unit and the Goniwe murders', Charles Shutte, Ian Liebenberg and Anthony Minnaar (eds.), The Hidden Hand: Covert Operations in South Africa (revised edition) (Pretoria: HSRC Publishers 1998).
54. Chris McGreal, 'Can We Remove These Men?', The Guardian, 28 May 1999.
55. Beresford (note 30).
56. Ellis (note 18), p.273.
57. Williams (note 19), p.153.
58. Beresford (note 30).
59. Seegers, 'Current Trends in South Africa's National Security Management System', Journal of Modern African Studies (April 1992), p.268.
60. Denis Herbstein, 'Old Spies Don't Die...', Africa Report 39/2 (March/April 1994), p.45.
61. Seegers (note 42), p.269.
62. Seegers (note 9), pp.135-43.
63. 'Intelligence Officer Says He Knew About Stratcom', Weekly Mail and Guardian, 21 July 1995; 'The Secrets of Stratcom' , Weekly Mail and Guardian, June 23 1995.
64. 'Intelligence Officer Says He Knew About Stratcom', Weekly Mail and Guardian, 21 July 1995; 'The Secrets of Stratcom' , Weekly Mail and Guardian, June 23 1995.
65. Seegers (note 9), p.225.
66. Coetzee was later discharged from the SAP and, fearing prosecution for numerous murders when one of his former askaris began to reveal all, in 1989 fled to London where he 'defected' to the ANC. His revelations to journalist Jacques Pauw form the basis of Pauw's book, In the Heart of the Whore (note 18), and led President de Klerk to appoint the Harms Commission of Inquiry Into Certain Murders in 1990.
67. Ellis (note 18), p.269.
68. New York Times, 19 February 1995.
69. De Kock himself admitted to this figure: Welsh (note 7), p.243; Laurence (note 6), p.61.
70. Christophe Deroubaix, 'Dulcie September: huit ans après, retour à la piste sud-africaine'. Le Monde, 2 October 1996.
71. At this time, the death of Palme, a fervent anti-apartheid activist, has never been attributed to any individual.
72. Howe (note 29), pp.33-38.
73. Seegers (note 9), p.185.
74. A similar operation was attempted against Joshua Nkoma, the leader of the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU) in December 1978. Both operations were suspected of involving directly Anthony White, a former Selous Scout. See Harry McCallion, Killing Zone: A Life in the Paras, Recces, SAS and RUC (London: Bloomsbury 1995).
75. Vrye Weekblad, 9 March 1990, as quoted in Williams (note 19), p.225.
76. Jacques Pauw, Into the Heart of Darkness (note 22), p.224; Patrick Laurence, Death Squads (note 7), p.30.
77. Jacques Pauw, Into the Heart of Darkness (note 22), p.224; Patrick Laurence, Death Squads (note 7), p.30.
78. Williams (note 19), p.225.
79. Ibid., pp.225-26.
80. Pauw, Into the Heart of Darkness (note 22), p.224; Williams (note 19), p.226.
81. Williams (note 19), p.226.
82. Ibid., p.227.
83. Ibid., p.227.
84. Ibid., p.227.
85. For what is probably the best discussion of not only the CCB but South African 'death-squads' in full, see Jacques Pauw, In the Heart of the Whore (note 18); see also Pauw's subsequent book Into the Heart of Darkness (note 22), in particular pp.224-34. Finally, see also Patrick Laurence, Death Squads (note 7).
86. For what is probably the best discussion of not only the CCB but South African 'death-squads' in full, see Jacques Pauw, In the Heart of the Whore (note 18); see also Pauw's subsequent book Into the Heart of Darkness (note 22), in particular pp.224-34. Finally, see also Patrick Laurence, Death Squads (note 7).
87. Laurence, Death Squads (note 7), p.30. During testimony to the Harms Commission (the Commission of Inquiry into Certain Murders of 1990), General Joubert, by then Deputy Chief of Staff, Intelligence, stated that the undertaking of projects of an extreme political or military sensitivity all had to be approved by General Geldenhuys and Minister Malan; this statement was supported by Major-General Jan Klopper (the Chief of Air Staff Operations in 1990) and former SADF Chief General Constand Viljoen. See Williams (note 19), p.226.
88. Laurence, Death Squads (note 7), p.73; Williams (note 19), p.229.
89. Williams (note 19), p.229.
90. RSA, Commission of Inquiry into Certain Alleged Murders (Pretoria 1990), p.35.
91. Williams (note 19), pp.228-29.
92. Ibid., p.228.
93. Ibid., p.228.
94. New York Times, 6 March 1990, A3; Laurence, Death Squads (note 7), pp.24-25.
95. New York Times, 6 March 1990, A3; Laurence, Death Squads (note 7), pp.24-25.
96. Pauw, In the Mean of the Whore (note 18), pp.151-52; Williams (note 19), p.229.
97. Pauw, Into the Heart of Darkness (note 22), p.226; Williams (note 19), p.229.
98. Williams (note 19), pp.229-30.
99. Pauw, Into the Heart of Darkness (note 22), p.228; Williams (note 19), p.226.
100. Williams (note 19), p.226.
101. Ibid., p.232, n.39.
102. See Greg Nott, 'The David Webster Inquest and the CCB', Schutte et al (note 36).
103. Pauw, In the Heart of the Whore (note 18), pp.130-34.
104. 'Prisoner seeks amnesty for Webster killing'. Cape Argus Times, 7 August 1997.
105. Williams (note 19), p.229.
106. New York Times, 27 February 1990, A10.
107. Laurence, Death Squads (note 7), p.62.
108. Chris McGreal, 'Papers May Link De Klerk to Killings', Guardian, 28 May 1999.
109. Goniwe's killing was discussed, for example, in an article in the Toronto Globe and Mail on 8 May 1992, drawing in part on evidence from the Harms Commission of Inquiry and from a DMI 'defector'.
110. The Times, 23 October 1996.
111. Ibid.
112. In his sentencing on 26 August 1996, de Kock received 212 years plus two life sentences for six murders and 83 other offences; he is currently receiving amnesty, however, for many of these offences.
113. These phrases and testimony are to be found in - particularly - the TRC State Security Hearings (from 14 October 1997 on); the testimony of Magnus Malan et al during the 1995-96 trial into their involvement in Operation MARION; the TRC 'Caprivi' Hearings (from 4 August 1997 on); the Submissions (I & II) to the TRC by the National Party (F. W. de Klerk); and many other aspects of testimony during the TRC process.
114. Ellis (note 18), p.276.