The historical significance of South Africa's Third Force

Journal of Southern African Studies

Volumn 24, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 261-299

  Ellis, Stephen ^a  

^a Afrika Studiecentrum   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

MILITARY ACTIVITY; POLITICAL CHANGE; SECURITY FORCES; VIOLENCE;

SOUTH AFRICA;

EID: 0031686989     PISSN: 03057070     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03057079808708577     Document Type: Article

References (152)

1. John Kane-Berman, Political Violence in South Africa (Johannesburg, South African Institute of Race Relations, 1993), pp. 15-27.
2. Morris Szeftel, 'Manoeuvres of War in South Africa', Review of African Political Economy, 51 (1991), pp. 63-76; Martin Murray, The Revolution Deferred: the Painful Birth of Post-Apartheid South Africa (London, Verso, 1994), esp. pp. 73-116.
3. Morris Szeftel, 'Manoeuvres of War in South Africa', Review of African Political Economy, 51 (1991), pp. 63-76; Martin Murray, The Revolution Deferred: the Painful Birth of Post-Apartheid South Africa (London, Verso, 1994), esp. pp. 73-116.
4. Quoted in Rupert Taylor and Mark Shaw, 'The Dying Days of Apartheid', in Aletta Norval and David Howarth (eds), South Africa in Transition: New Theoretical Perspectives (London, Macmillan, forthcoming).
5. 'Interim Report on Criminal Political Violence by Elements within the South African Police, the KwaZulu Police and the Inkatha Freedom Party', by the Commission of Inquiry regarding the Prevention of Public Violence and Intimidation, 18 March 1994. Copy obtained from Human Rights Archive (HURISA), Sandton.
6. See, for example, Gavin Cawthra, Policing South Africa: the South African Police and the Transition from Apartheid (London, Zed Books, 1993); Herbert M. Howe, 'The South African Defence Force and Political Reform', Journal of Modern African Studies, 32, 1 (1994), pp. 29-51; Anthony Minnaar, Ian Liebenberg, Charl Schutte (eds), The Hidden Hand: Covert Operations in South Africa (Pretoria, Human Sciences Research Council, 1994); Annette Seegers, The Military in the Making of Modern South Africa (London, Tauris Academic Studies, 1996); Taylor and Shaw, 'The Dying Days of Apartheid'.
7. See, for example, Gavin Cawthra, Policing South Africa: the South African Police and the Transition from Apartheid (London, Zed Books, 1993); Herbert M. Howe, 'The South African Defence Force and Political Reform', Journal of Modern African Studies, 32, 1 (1994), pp. 29-51; Anthony Minnaar, Ian Liebenberg, Charl Schutte (eds), The Hidden Hand: Covert Operations in South Africa (Pretoria, Human Sciences Research Council, 1994); Annette Seegers, The Military in the Making of Modern South Africa (London, Tauris Academic Studies, 1996); Taylor and Shaw, 'The Dying Days of Apartheid'.
8. See, for example, Gavin Cawthra, Policing South Africa: the South African Police and the Transition from Apartheid (London, Zed Books, 1993); Herbert M. Howe, 'The South African Defence Force and Political Reform', Journal of Modern African Studies, 32, 1 (1994), pp. 29-51; Anthony Minnaar, Ian Liebenberg, Charl Schutte (eds), The Hidden Hand: Covert Operations in South Africa (Pretoria, Human Sciences Research Council, 1994); Annette Seegers, The Military in the Making of Modern South Africa (London, Tauris Academic Studies, 1996); Taylor and Shaw, 'The Dying Days of Apartheid'.
9. See, for example, Gavin Cawthra, Policing South Africa: the South African Police and the Transition from Apartheid (London, Zed Books, 1993); Herbert M. Howe, 'The South African Defence Force and Political Reform', Journal of Modern African Studies, 32, 1 (1994), pp. 29-51; Anthony Minnaar, Ian Liebenberg, Charl Schutte (eds), The Hidden Hand: Covert Operations in South Africa (Pretoria, Human Sciences Research Council, 1994); Annette Seegers, The Military in the Making of Modern South Africa (London, Tauris Academic Studies, 1996); Taylor and Shaw, 'The Dying Days of Apartheid'.
10. See, for example, Gavin Cawthra, Policing South Africa: the South African Police and the Transition from Apartheid (London, Zed Books, 1993); Herbert M. Howe, 'The South African Defence Force and Political Reform', Journal of Modern African Studies, 32, 1 (1994), pp. 29-51; Anthony Minnaar, Ian Liebenberg, Charl Schutte (eds), The Hidden Hand: Covert Operations in South Africa (Pretoria, Human Sciences Research Council, 1994); Annette Seegers, The Military in the Making of Modern South Africa (London, Tauris Academic Studies, 1996); Taylor and Shaw, 'The Dying Days of Apartheid'.
11. Allister Sparks, Tomorrow is Another Country: the Inside Story of South Africa's Negotiated Revolution (Struik Book Distributors, Sandton, 1994); Patti Waldmeir, Anatomy of a Miracle: the End of Apartheid and the Birth of the New South Africa (London, Viking, 1997).
12. Allister Sparks, Tomorrow is Another Country: the Inside Story of South Africa's Negotiated Revolution (Struik Book Distributors, Sandton, 1994); Patti Waldmeir, Anatomy of a Miracle: the End of Apartheid and the Birth of the New South Africa (London, Viking, 1997).
13. Nelson Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom (London, Abacus, 1995), pp. 703, 705, 730.
14. See, for example, Timothy Sisk, Democratization in South Africa: the Elusive Social Contract (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1995); Courtney Jung and Ian Shapiro, 'South Africa's Negotiated Transition: Democracy, Opposition and the New Constitutional Order', Politics and Society, 23, 3 (1995), pp. 269-308.
15. See, for example, Timothy Sisk, Democratization in South Africa: the Elusive Social Contract (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1995); Courtney Jung and Ian Shapiro, 'South Africa's Negotiated Transition: Democracy, Opposition and the New Constitutional Order', Politics and Society, 23, 3 (1995), pp. 269-308.
16. See, for example, Michael MacDonald, 'Power Politics in the New South Africa', Journal of Southern African Studies, 22, 2 (1996), pp. 221-233.
17. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Harmondsworth, Pelican, edited by C.B. Macpherson, 1968), pp. 185-186.
18. State Archives, Pretoria: 'Strategie vir die bekamping van die revolusionêre klimaat', appendix to minutes of State Security Council meeting 13/85 (SSC13/85): 26 August 1985.
19. Seegers, The Military in the Making of Modern South Africa, p. 185.
20. Brigadier C.A. Fraser, Lessons Learnt from Past Revolutionary Wars. This text received a restricted circulation in the SADF but was never published.
21. The ANC strategy, known as The Four Pillars of the Revolution, is perhaps most accessible in articles published in the ANC's official journal Sechaba. The best study is Howard Barrell, 'Conscripts to their Age: African National Congress Operational Strategy, 1976-1986' (University of Oxford, unpublished DPhil, 1991).
22. Quoted in Paratus, 25 September 1982. Article reprinted in Barry Streek, South African Pressclips Supplement. South Africa's Intelligence Services, Part I (Cape Town, mimeo, May 1991).
23. J.J. McCuen, The Art of Counter-Revolutionary War: the Strategy of Counter-Insurgency (London, Faber and Faber, 1966), p. 77.
24. Seegers, The Military in the Making of Modern South Africa, p. 125.
25. Joe Slovo, 'The Sabotage Campaign', Dawn, special anniversary issue [1986], p. 25.
26. Seegers, The Military in the Making of Modern South Africa, pp. 125-126.
27. Eschel Rhoodie, P.W. Botha: the Last Betrayal (Melville, SA Politics, 1989), is an essential, though partisan, source. For a more staid account, see Brian Pottinger, The Imperial Presidency: P.W. Botha, the First Ten Years (Johannesburg, Southern Book Publishers, 1988).
28. Eschel Rhoodie, P.W. Botha: the Last Betrayal (Melville, SA Politics, 1989), is an essential, though partisan, source. For a more staid account, see Brian Pottinger, The Imperial Presidency: P.W. Botha, the First Ten Years (Johannesburg, Southern Book Publishers, 1988).
29. The official history of the SAP is Marius de W. Dippenaar, The History of the South African Police, 1913-1988 (Silverton, Promedia, 1988). This may be read in conjunction with unofficial studies, such as Cawthra. Policing South Africa.
30. The official history of the SAP is Marius de W. Dippenaar, The History of the South African Police, 1913-1988 (Silverton, Promedia, 1988). This may be read in conjunction with unofficial studies, such as Cawthra. Policing South Africa.
31. Ron Reid Daly, as told to Peter Stiff, Selous Scouts: Top Secret War (Alberton. Galago paperback edition, 1983), esp. pp. 175-181.
32. Ibid., p. 15.
33. Ken Flower, Serving Secretly: Rhodesia into Zimbabwe, 1964-1981 (London, John Murray, 1987), p. 124.
34. Reid Daly, Selous Scouts, pp. 76, 478.
35. Colonel Eugene de Kock, interview with Phillip van Niekerk. Pretoria Central Prison, 3 March 1996. A brilliant film biography of De Kock is by Jacques Pauw. Entitled 'Prime Evil', it was first broadcast on South African Television on 21 October 1996.
36. Jim Hooper, Beneath the Visiting Moon: Images of Combat in Southern Africa (Lexington MA, Lexington Books, 1990), p. 110. A hostile view of Koevoet is Denis Herbstein and John Evenson, The Devils are Among Us: the War for Namibia (London, Zed Books, 1989), pp. 61-95.
37. Jim Hooper, Beneath the Visiting Moon: Images of Combat in Southern Africa (Lexington MA, Lexington Books, 1990), p. 110. A hostile view of Koevoet is Denis Herbstein and John Evenson, The Devils are Among Us: the War for Namibia (London, Zed Books, 1989), pp. 61-95.
38. Interview with Colonel Eugene de Kock by Phillip van Niekerk, Pretoria Central Prison, 3 March 1996. There is also abundant information in the records of De Kock's 1996 trial by the Pretoria Supreme Court.
39. Author's interviews with former members of C10 unit, Pretoria, May 1996. Also see Pauw, 'Prime Evil'. In 1996, the Pretoria Supreme Court convicted De Kock of 89 offences, including six murders.
40. Cawthra, Policing South Africa, p. 19.
41. Ibid., pp. 19, 27.
42. Patrick Laurence, Death Squads: Apartheid's Secret Weapon (London, Penguin Forum Series, 1990), pp. 63-69.
43. Works on the Broederbond include Ivor Wilkins and Hans Strydom, The Super-Afrikaners: Inside the Afrikaner Broederbond (Jonathan Ball, Johannesburg, 1978), and J.H.P. Serfontein, Brotherhood of Power: an Exposé of the Secret Afrikaner Broederbond (London, Rex Collings, 1979).
44. Works on the Broederbond include Ivor Wilkins and Hans Strydom, The Super-Afrikaners: Inside the Afrikaner Broederbond (Jonathan Ball, Johannesburg, 1978), and J.H.P. Serfontein, Brotherhood of Power: an Exposé of the Secret Afrikaner Broederbond (London, Rex Collings, 1979).
45. C.A. Fraser, 'Revolutionary Warfare: Basic Principles of Counter-Insurgency', no place or date. Extracts from this work were translated into Afrikaans with a foreword by P.W. Botha and circulated to senior officials in 1986. See note 57, below. Extracts from the work of J.J. McCuen were similarly circulated among senior officials in abridged form.
46. Joseph Hanlon, Beggar Your Neighbours: Apartheid Power in Southern Africa (London, CIIR and James Currey, 1986).
47. Seegers, The Military in the Making of Modern South Africa, pp. 161-165.
48. Johan C.K. van der Merwe, 'Die Staatsveiligheidsraad: die Ontwikkeling van 'n Stelsel vir Veiligheidsbestuur in die Republiek van Suid-Afrika, 1972-1989' (unpublished PhD thesis, University of South Africa, 1990).
49. Deneys Coombe, The Trust Feed Killings', in Minnaar et al. (eds), The Hidden Hand, pp. 191-211.
50. Howard Barrell, The Turn to the Masses: the African National Congress's Strategic Review of 1978-79', Journal of Southern African Studies, 18, 1 (1992), pp. 46-92.
51. Confidential interview, 11 June 1997.
52. Minutes of SSC 4/84: 5 March 1984.
53. 'SA Defence Force Involvement in the Internal Security Situation in the Republic of South Africa', p. 24, unpublished document by South African National Defence Force, 1997.
54. Minutes of SSC 2/83: 7 February 1983.
55. Minutes of SSC 1/85: 21 January 1985.
56. Minutes of State Security Council (hereafter SSC) 5/85: 18 March 1985.
57. Minutes of SSC 6/85: 15 April 1985.
58. Confidential source.
59. Minutes of Extraordinary meeting of SSC, 18 July 1985.
60. Ibid. 50 Minutes of SSC 13/85: 26 August 1985.
61. The first such article in the file is Charles Nelson (of Thames Valley Police), 'Third Force: an International Police Association Scholarship Report', Police Journal, 53 (April 1980), pp. 138-146. SSC File 22/1/1/3/3, vol. I.
62. File 22/1/1/3/3, vol. 1, especially the report on behalf of the SADF by Brigadier B.A. Ferreira, 28 February 1986.
63. Minutes of SSC 7/86: 12 May 1986.
64. Author's interview with Colonel Eugene de Kock, Pretoria Central Prison, 4 May 1996.
65. Amnesty application by Major-Gen A.J.M. Joubert, May 1997.
66. Nicholas Haysom, Mabangalala: the Rise of Right-wing Vigilantes in South Africa (Occasional Paper No. 10, Centre for Applied Legal Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 1986). A book-length official report on the organisation of vigilantes is Major-General F.M.A. Steenkamp, 'Alternatiewe Strukture as Faktor in die Rewolusionêre Aanslag teen die RSA' (Pretoria, unpublished, South African Police HQ, February 1987).
67. Nicholas Haysom, Mabangalala: the Rise of Right-wing Vigilantes in South Africa (Occasional Paper No. 10, Centre for Applied Legal Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 1986). A book-length official report on the organisation of vigilantes is Major-General F.M.A. Steenkamp, 'Alternatiewe Strukture as Faktor in die Rewolusionêre Aanslag teen die RSA' (Pretoria, unpublished, South African Police HQ, February 1987).
68. C.A. Fraser, Revolusionêre Oorlogvoering: Grondbeginsels van Teeninsurgensie (restricted circulation, 10 September 1986). This is an Afrikaans translation of extracts from Fraser's work referred to at note 34 above.
69. Fraser, Lessons Learnt From Past Revolutionary Wars, para. 33.
70. Sam Sole, 'The Hammer Unit and the Goniwe Murders', in Minnaar, Liebenberg and Schutte (eds), The Hidden Hand, pp. 277-286.
71. The documents in question were produced in evidence at the 1996 trial of Magnus Malan and others in Durban.
72. Confidential interview, 11 June 1997.
73. Seegers, The Military in the Making of Modern South Africa, p. 311.
74. Justice M.E. Kumleben, Commission of Inquiry into the Alleged Smuggling of and Illegal Trade in Ivory and Rhinoceros Horn in South Africa (Pretoria, State Printer, 1996).
75. Author's telephone interview with Major-Gen. A.J. van Deventer, Pretoria, 10 May 1996.
76. Adriaan Snyman, Stem van 'n Profeet (Mosselbaai, Hugenote Publikasies, 1993), p. 16.
77. Quoted in Waldmeir, Anatomy of a Miracle, p. 43.
78. For an acid portrait of Lieutenant-General Pieter van der Westhuizen, Chief of Staff (Intelligence) from 1978 to 1985, see Chester Crocker, High Noon in Southern Africa: Making Peace in a Rough Neighbourhood (Cape Town, Jonathan Ball, 1993), pp. 116-117.
79. Ina van der Linde, 'Die Manne Agter die Skerms Dink Na', Vrye Weekblad, 25 November 1993; author's interview with Major-General Chris Thirion, Pretoria, 7 May 1996.
80. Ros Reeve and Stephen Ellis, 'An Insider's Account of the South African Security Forces' Role in the Ivory Trade', Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 13, 2 (1995), p. 233.
81. Laurence, Death Squads, p. 68.
82. Quoted in Taylor and Shaw, 'The Dying Days of Apartheid'.
83. Mary Braid, 'Apartheid's Assassin Accuses P.W. Botha', The Independent, 18 September 1996.
84. This was part of the testimony of General Johan van der Merwe to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. See 'Can PW Be Forced to Speak, or Pay?', Weekly Mail and Guardian, 25-31 October 1996.
85. Evidence of the corruption of the Brixton Murder and Robbery Squad was produced in court at the Pretoria trial of Charles Landman, former head of the unit, in 1996. Stefaans Brümmer, 'Tale of Top Cop's "Dicey Dealings"', Weekly Mail anil Guardian, 6-12 December 1996.
86. De Wet Potgieter, 'Die Ferdi Barnard-Dossier', Rapport, 1 December 1996.
87. Mervyn Rees and Chris Day, Muldergate (Johannesburg, Macmillan South Africa, 1980).
88. Seegers, The Military in the Making of Modern South Africa, p. 286, note 16, remarks that the history of the Broederbond in the 1980s and 1990s is a subject in need of further study. See also -Big Broeder Speaks', NoseWeek, 14 (March 1996), pp. 3-6. A rare study of the financial aspects of the total strategy, although it gives no attention to the role of the Broederbond, is Clive Scholtz, 'Drive Now and Pay Forever - the Apartheid Way', in R. Hengeveld and J. Rodenburg (eds), Embargo: Apartheid's Oil Secrets Revealed (Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 1995), pp. 254-268.
89. Seegers, The Military in the Making of Modern South Africa, p. 286, note 16, remarks that the history of the Broederbond in the 1980s and 1990s is a subject in need of further study. See also -Big Broeder Speaks', NoseWeek, 14 (March 1996), pp. 3-6. A rare study of the financial aspects of the total strategy, although it gives no attention to the role of the Broederbond, is Clive Scholtz, 'Drive Now and Pay Forever - the Apartheid Way', in R. Hengeveld and J. Rodenburg (eds), Embargo: Apartheid's Oil Secrets Revealed (Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 1995), pp. 254-268.
90. Seegers, The Military in the Making of Modern South Africa, p. 286, note 16, remarks that the history of the Broederbond in the 1980s and 1990s is a subject in need of further study. See also -Big Broeder Speaks', NoseWeek, 14 (March 1996), pp. 3-6. A rare study of the financial aspects of the total strategy, although it gives no attention to the role of the Broederbond, is Clive Scholtz, 'Drive Now and Pay Forever - the Apartheid Way', in R. Hengeveld and J. Rodenburg (eds), Embargo: Apartheid's Oil Secrets Revealed (Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 1995), pp. 254-268.
91. Regter L.T.C. Harms, Kommissie van Ondersoek na Sekere Moontlike Onreëlmatighede. Hoofverslag (Pretoria, Staatsdrukker, 1989). Vermaas, originally a lawyer to Department of Information chief Dr Eschel Rhoodie, was convicted by the Pretoria Supreme Court on 111 charges in December 1996.
92. Stephen Ellis, 'Africa and International Corruption. The Strange Case of South Africa and Seychelles', African Affairs, 95. 379 (1996), pp. 165-196.
93. De Wet Potgieter, Contraband: South Africa and the International Trade in Ivory and Rhino Horn (Cape Town, Queillerie, 1995), pp. 33-36, 178-182.
94. Sparks, Tomorrow Is Another Country, pp. 72-86.
95. Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom, pp. 609-668.
96. Author's interviews with Colonel Eugene de Kock and other members of Vlakplaas unit, Pretoria, May 1996.
97. Crocker, High Noon in Southern Africa, passim.
98. Wimpie de Klerk, F.W. de Klerk, the Man in His Time (Johannesburg, Jonathan Ball, 1991).
99. Author's confidential interview, Pretoria, 6 May 1996.
100. Sparks, Tomorrow is Another Country, pp. 72-73.
101. Confidential source.
102. Resolution of State Security Council meeting no. 13 of 1989, quoted in Sparks, Tomorrow is Another Country, p. 111. The original would have been in Afrikaans.
103. Robert d'A. Henderson, 'South African Intelligence Under De Klerk', International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence, 8, 1 (1995), p. 60; author's interview with officer of SAPS, Johannesburg, 2 May 1996.
104. Sechaba, 24, 4 (1990), p. 18.
105. Anton du Plessis and Mike Hough (eds), Selected Official South African Strategic Perceptions, 1989-1992 (Institute for Strategic Studies, University of Pretoria, Ad hoc publication no. 29, 1992), pp. 1-10.
106. Sparks, Tomorrow is Another Country, pp. 154-155.
107. Interview in The Star, 17 March 1990. A Broederbond document setting out a similar line of thinking is 'Basic Political Values for the Survival of the Afrikaner' [English translation], copy in Box 11.2, Institute voor Zuidelijk Afrika, Amsterdam. This document was first circulated for internal discussion in the Broederbond in 1986.
108. Hermann Giliomee and Lawrence Schlemmer, From Apartheid to Nation-Building: Contemporary South African Debates (Cape Town, Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 200.
109. Author's interview with Major-Gen. Tienie Groenewald, Pretoria, 19 May 1996.
110. Interview with Colonel Eugene de Kock by Phillip van Niekerk, Pretoria Central Prison, 18 February 1996.
111. Author's interview with Colonel Eugene de Kock, Pretoria Central Prison, 4 May 1996.
112. Author's interview with Peter Casselton, Pretoria, 19 May 1996.
113. On 32 Battalion, see Peta Thornycroft and Eddie Koch, '32 Battalion to Come Clean on Train Violence', Weekly Mail and Guardian, 29 November-5 December 1996; on Five Recce, see the testimony of Felix Ndimene, 'Confessions of an SADF Killer', New Nation, 26 July-1 August 1991, pp. 6-7. A chronology of the train violence is Independent Board of Inquiry, 'Blood on the Tracks: a Special Report on Train Attacks by the Independent Board of Inquiry', (Johannesburg, mimeo, undated).
114. On 32 Battalion, see Peta Thornycroft and Eddie Koch, '32 Battalion to Come Clean on Train Violence', Weekly Mail and Guardian, 29 November-5 December 1996; on Five Recce, see the testimony of Felix Ndimene, 'Confessions of an SADF Killer', New Nation, 26 July-1 August 1991, pp. 6-7. A chronology of the train violence is Independent Board of Inquiry, 'Blood on the Tracks: a Special Report on Train Attacks by the Independent Board of Inquiry', (Johannesburg, mimeo, undated).
115. On 32 Battalion, see Peta Thornycroft and Eddie Koch, '32 Battalion to Come Clean on Train Violence', Weekly Mail and Guardian, 29 November-5 December 1996; on Five Recce, see the testimony of Felix Ndimene, 'Confessions of an SADF Killer', New Nation, 26 July-1 August 1991, pp. 6-7. A chronology of the train violence is Independent Board of Inquiry, 'Blood on the Tracks: a Special Report on Train Attacks by the Independent Board of Inquiry', (Johannesburg, mimeo, undated).
116. Pauw, 'Prime Evil'.
117. Author's interview with General Johan van der Merwe, Pretoria, 21 May 1996.
118. 'Interim Report on Criminal Political Violence by Elements within the South African Police, the Kwazulu Police and the Inkatha Freedom Party', by the Commission of Inquiry regarding the Prevention of Public Violence and Intimidation, 18 March 1994. Available at HURISA, Sandton.
119. Kane-Berman, Political Violence in South Africa, p. 25.
120. On Operation Vula see Connie Braam, Operatie Vula: Zuidafrikanen en Nederlanders in Je Strijd Tegen Apartheid (Amsterdam, Meulenhoff, 1992); also Robert d'A. Henderson, 'Operation Vula against Apartheid South Africa: a Case Study in Sub-State/Insurgent Intelligence Activities', awaiting publication.
121. On Operation Vula see Connie Braam, Operatie Vula: Zuidafrikanen en Nederlanders in Je Strijd Tegen Apartheid (Amsterdam, Meulenhoff, 1992); also Robert d'A. Henderson, 'Operation Vula against Apartheid South Africa: a Case Study in Sub-State/Insurgent Intelligence Activities', awaiting publication.
122. Mark Shaw, 'South Africa's Other War: Understanding and Resolving Political Violence in Kwazulu-Natal (1985-?) and the PWV (1990-?)' (unpublished PhD thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, 1997), pp. 210-230.
123. Chris Hani, 'Just How Possible Is Peace?', The African Communist, 130 (1992), p. 8.
124. Anonymous, quoted in Waldmeir, Anatomy of a Miracle, p. 186.
125. Ibid., p. 186.
126. Undated press clipping.
127. Author's interviews, Pretoria, May 1996.
128. Confidential source.
129. See articles by De Wet Potgieter in Rapport, 1 December 1996. Also see Pauw, 'Prime Evil'.
130. See articles by De Wet Potgieter in Rapport, 1 December 1996. Also see Pauw, 'Prime Evil'.
131. Sparks, Tomorrow Is Another Country, pp. 133-134.
132. Ronnie Kasrils, Armed and Dangerous: My Undercover Struggle Against Apartheid (Oxford, Heinemann, 1993), pp. 354-368.
133. Howe, 'The South African Defence Force and Political Reform', pp. 39-41.
134. Shaw, 'South Africa's Other War', pp. 210-230.
135. Jacques Pauw and Shaun Johnson, 'MI Chief's Secret Parley', The Star, 27 August 1992; Mark Shaw, 'Negotiating Defence for a New South Africa', in Jakkie Cilliers and Markus Reichardt (eds), About Turn: the Transformation of the South African Military and Intelligence (Halfway House, Institute for Defence Policy, n.d.), pp. 9-34.
136. Jacques Pauw and Shaun Johnson, 'MI Chief's Secret Parley', The Star, 27 August 1992; Mark Shaw, 'Negotiating Defence for a New South Africa', in Jakkie Cilliers and Markus Reichardt (eds), About Turn: the Transformation of the South African Military and Intelligence (Halfway House, Institute for Defence Policy, n.d.), pp. 9-34.
137. Author's interview with General Constand Viljoen, Cape Town, 27 May 1996.
138. Phillip van Niekerk, 'De Vraag is Hoe Lang De Kock Zal Vastzitten', De Volkskrant [Amsterdam], 1 November 1996.
139. Ellis, 'Africa and International Corruption', pp. 170-178.
140. United Nations, 'Third Report of the International Commission of Inquiry (Rwanda)', 28 October 1996. Unpublished document.
141. South African Police Service, Report on the Incidence of Serious Crime During 1995 (Pretoria, National Crime Information Management Centre, April 1996), p. 1.
142. Ineke van Kessel, '"Beyond Our Wildest Dreams": The United Democratic Front and the Transformation of South Africa' (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Leiden, 1995). This important work is to be published by the University of Virginia Press and the University of Natal Press.
143. André du Toit, Understanding South African Political Violence: a New Problematic? (Geneva, Discussion Paper no. 43, United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, 1993).
144. SAPS, Report on the Incidence of Serious Crime During 1995, pp. 31-32.
145. 'Ex-Policemen Crime Bosses, Says Mbeki', The Mercury [Durban], 15 July 1997.
146. Some interesting reflections on this are in Edward V. Badolato, 'International Crime Imperils South Africa's Security', Counterterrorism and Security, Fall/Winter 1995, pp. 25-30. The author is a former Deputy Assistant Secretary of the US Department of Energy.
147. Kumleben, Commission of Inquiry into the Alleged Smuggling of and Illegal Trade in Ivory and Rhinoceros Horn; Stephen Ellis, 'Of Elephants and Men: Politics and Nature Conservation in South Africa', Journal of Southern African Studies, 20, 1 (1994), pp. 53-70.
148. Kumleben, Commission of Inquiry into the Alleged Smuggling of and Illegal Trade in Ivory and Rhinoceros Horn; Stephen Ellis, 'Of Elephants and Men: Politics and Nature Conservation in South Africa', Journal of Southern African Studies, 20, 1 (1994), pp. 53-70.
149. 'Surge in Gold Smuggling Robs Mines and Economy', Business Day, 9 May 1996.
150. On 'shadow states', see William Reno, Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995). For a general view, Stephen Ellis, 'Africa After the Cold War: New Patterns of Government and Politics', Development and Change, 27, 1 (1996), pp. 1-28.
151. On 'shadow states', see William Reno, Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995). For a general view, Stephen Ellis, 'Africa After the Cold War: New Patterns of Government and Politics', Development and Change, 27, 1 (1996), pp. 1-28.
152. J. Michael Waller and Victor J. Yasmann, 'Russia's Great Criminal Revolution: the Role of the Security Services', Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 11, 4 (1995), pp. 277-297.