Homosexuality and the Israel defense forces: Did lifting the gay ban undermine military performance?

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 27, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 541-565

  Belkin, Aaron ^a   Levitt, Melissa ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035594749     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327X0102700403     Document Type: Article

References (109)

1. The longest case study on the impact of the lifting of a gay ban is Rosemary E. Park, "Opening the Canadian Forces to Gays and Lesbians: An Inevitable But Improbable Reconfiguration," in Gays and Lesbians in the Military: Issues, Concerns, and Contrasts, eds. Wilbur J. Scott and Sandra C, Stanley (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994), 165-181. Also see the brief case studies in Gregory Herek, Jared Jobe, and Ralph Carney, eds., Out in Force: Sexual Orientation and the Military (Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 1996); National Defense Research Institute, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Policy: Options and Assessment (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1993); General Accounting Office, Homosexuals in the Military: Policies and Practices of Foreign Countries (Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office, 1993); and Frank Pond, "A Comparative Survey and Analysis of Military Policies with Regard to Service by Gay Persons," in Policy Concerning Homosexuality in the Armed Forces. Hearing held by Senate Armed Services Committee. 103rd Congress, 2nd Session (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993). For theoretical analysis see W. Darryl Henderson, Cohesion, the Human Element in Combat (Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 1985); Ronald D. Ray, "Military Necessity & Homosexuality," in Gays: In or Out? The U.S. Military & Homosexuals-A Sourcebook (New York: Brassey's, 1993); Charles C. Moskos, "From Citizens' Army to Social Laboratory," Wilson Quarterly 17 (Winter 1993), 83-94; Elizabeth Kier, "Homosexuals in the U.S. Military: Open Integration and Combat Effectiveness," International Security 23 (1998): 5-39; Robert J. MacCoun, "Sexual Orientation and Military Cohesion: A Critical Review of the Evidence," in Out in Force, 157-176.
2. The longest case study on the impact of the lifting of a gay ban is Rosemary E. Park, "Opening the Canadian Forces to Gays and Lesbians: An Inevitable But Improbable Reconfiguration," in Gays and Lesbians in the Military: Issues, Concerns, and Contrasts, eds. Wilbur J. Scott and Sandra C, Stanley (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994), 165-181. Also see the brief case studies in Gregory Herek, Jared Jobe, and Ralph Carney, eds., Out in Force: Sexual Orientation and the Military (Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 1996); National Defense Research Institute, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Policy: Options and Assessment (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1993); General Accounting Office, Homosexuals in the Military: Policies and Practices of Foreign Countries (Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office, 1993); and Frank Pond, "A Comparative Survey and Analysis of Military Policies with Regard to Service by Gay Persons," in Policy Concerning Homosexuality in the Armed Forces. Hearing held by Senate Armed Services Committee. 103rd Congress, 2nd Session (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993). For theoretical analysis see W. Darryl Henderson, Cohesion, the Human Element in Combat (Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 1985); Ronald D. Ray, "Military Necessity & Homosexuality," in Gays: In or Out? The U.S. Military & Homosexuals-A Sourcebook (New York: Brassey's, 1993); Charles C. Moskos, "From Citizens' Army to Social Laboratory," Wilson Quarterly 17 (Winter 1993), 83-94; Elizabeth Kier, "Homosexuals in the U.S. Military: Open Integration and Combat Effectiveness," International Security 23 (1998): 5-39; Robert J. MacCoun, "Sexual Orientation and Military Cohesion: A Critical Review of the Evidence," in Out in Force, 157-176.
3. The longest case study on the impact of the lifting of a gay ban is Rosemary E. Park, "Opening the Canadian Forces to Gays and Lesbians: An Inevitable But Improbable Reconfiguration," in Gays and Lesbians in the Military: Issues, Concerns, and Contrasts, eds. Wilbur J. Scott and Sandra C, Stanley (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994), 165-181. Also see the brief case studies in Gregory Herek, Jared Jobe, and Ralph Carney, eds., Out in Force: Sexual Orientation and the Military (Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 1996); National Defense Research Institute, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Policy: Options and Assessment (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1993); General Accounting Office, Homosexuals in the Military: Policies and Practices of Foreign Countries (Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office, 1993); and Frank Pond, "A Comparative Survey and Analysis of Military Policies with Regard to Service by Gay Persons," in Policy Concerning Homosexuality in the Armed Forces. Hearing held by Senate Armed Services Committee. 103rd Congress, 2nd Session (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993). For theoretical analysis see W. Darryl Henderson, Cohesion, the Human Element in Combat (Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 1985); Ronald D. Ray, "Military Necessity & Homosexuality," in Gays: In or Out? The U.S. Military & Homosexuals-A Sourcebook (New York: Brassey's, 1993); Charles C. Moskos, "From Citizens' Army to Social Laboratory," Wilson Quarterly 17 (Winter 1993), 83-94; Elizabeth Kier, "Homosexuals in the U.S. Military: Open Integration and Combat Effectiveness," International Security 23 (1998): 5-39; Robert J. MacCoun, "Sexual Orientation and Military Cohesion: A Critical Review of the Evidence," in Out in Force, 157-176.
4. The longest case study on the impact of the lifting of a gay ban is Rosemary E. Park, "Opening the Canadian Forces to Gays and Lesbians: An Inevitable But Improbable Reconfiguration," in Gays and Lesbians in the Military: Issues, Concerns, and Contrasts, eds. Wilbur J. Scott and Sandra C, Stanley (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994), 165-181. Also see the brief case studies in Gregory Herek, Jared Jobe, and Ralph Carney, eds., Out in Force: Sexual Orientation and the Military (Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 1996); National Defense Research Institute, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Policy: Options and Assessment (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1993); General Accounting Office, Homosexuals in the Military: Policies and Practices of Foreign Countries (Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office, 1993); and Frank Pond, "A Comparative Survey and Analysis of Military Policies with Regard to Service by Gay Persons," in Policy Concerning Homosexuality in the Armed Forces. Hearing held by Senate Armed Services Committee. 103rd Congress, 2nd Session (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993). For theoretical analysis see W. Darryl Henderson, Cohesion, the Human Element in Combat (Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 1985); Ronald D. Ray, "Military Necessity & Homosexuality," in Gays: In or Out? The U.S. Military & Homosexuals-A Sourcebook (New York: Brassey's, 1993); Charles C. Moskos, "From Citizens' Army to Social Laboratory," Wilson Quarterly 17 (Winter 1993), 83-94; Elizabeth Kier, "Homosexuals in the U.S. Military: Open Integration and Combat Effectiveness," International Security 23 (1998): 5-39; Robert J. MacCoun, "Sexual Orientation and Military Cohesion: A Critical Review of the Evidence," in Out in Force, 157-176.
5. The longest case study on the impact of the lifting of a gay ban is Rosemary E. Park, "Opening the Canadian Forces to Gays and Lesbians: An Inevitable But Improbable Reconfiguration," in Gays and Lesbians in the Military: Issues, Concerns, and Contrasts, eds. Wilbur J. Scott and Sandra C, Stanley (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994), 165-181. Also see the brief case studies in Gregory Herek, Jared Jobe, and Ralph Carney, eds., Out in Force: Sexual Orientation and the Military (Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 1996); National Defense Research Institute, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Policy: Options and Assessment (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1993); General Accounting Office, Homosexuals in the Military: Policies and Practices of Foreign Countries (Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office, 1993); and Frank Pond, "A Comparative Survey and Analysis of Military Policies with Regard to Service by Gay Persons," in Policy Concerning Homosexuality in the Armed Forces. Hearing held by Senate Armed Services Committee. 103rd Congress, 2nd Session (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993). For theoretical analysis see W. Darryl Henderson, Cohesion, the Human Element in Combat (Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 1985); Ronald D. Ray, "Military Necessity & Homosexuality," in Gays: In or Out? The U.S. Military & Homosexuals-A Sourcebook (New York: Brassey's, 1993); Charles C. Moskos, "From Citizens' Army to Social Laboratory," Wilson Quarterly 17 (Winter 1993), 83-94; Elizabeth Kier, "Homosexuals in the U.S. Military: Open Integration and Combat Effectiveness," International Security 23 (1998): 5-39; Robert J. MacCoun, "Sexual Orientation and Military Cohesion: A Critical Review of the Evidence," in Out in Force, 157-176.
6. The longest case study on the impact of the lifting of a gay ban is Rosemary E. Park, "Opening the Canadian Forces to Gays and Lesbians: An Inevitable But Improbable Reconfiguration," in Gays and Lesbians in the Military: Issues, Concerns, and Contrasts, eds. Wilbur J. Scott and Sandra C, Stanley (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994), 165-181. Also see the brief case studies in Gregory Herek, Jared Jobe, and Ralph Carney, eds., Out in Force: Sexual Orientation and the Military (Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 1996); National Defense Research Institute, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Policy: Options and Assessment (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1993); General Accounting Office, Homosexuals in the Military: Policies and Practices of Foreign Countries (Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office, 1993); and Frank Pond, "A Comparative Survey and Analysis of Military Policies with Regard to Service by Gay Persons," in Policy Concerning Homosexuality in the Armed Forces. Hearing held by Senate Armed Services Committee. 103rd Congress, 2nd Session (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993). For theoretical analysis see W. Darryl Henderson, Cohesion, the Human Element in Combat (Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 1985); Ronald D. Ray, "Military Necessity & Homosexuality," in Gays: In or Out? The U.S. Military & Homosexuals-A Sourcebook (New York: Brassey's, 1993); Charles C. Moskos, "From Citizens' Army to Social Laboratory," Wilson Quarterly 17 (Winter 1993), 83-94; Elizabeth Kier, "Homosexuals in the U.S. Military: Open Integration and Combat Effectiveness," International Security 23 (1998): 5-39; Robert J. MacCoun, "Sexual Orientation and Military Cohesion: A Critical Review of the Evidence," in Out in Force, 157-176.
7. The longest case study on the impact of the lifting of a gay ban is Rosemary E. Park, "Opening the Canadian Forces to Gays and Lesbians: An Inevitable But Improbable Reconfiguration," in Gays and Lesbians in the Military: Issues, Concerns, and Contrasts, eds. Wilbur J. Scott and Sandra C, Stanley (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994), 165-181. Also see the brief case studies in Gregory Herek, Jared Jobe, and Ralph Carney, eds., Out in Force: Sexual Orientation and the Military (Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 1996); National Defense Research Institute, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Policy: Options and Assessment (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1993); General Accounting Office, Homosexuals in the Military: Policies and Practices of Foreign Countries (Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office, 1993); and Frank Pond, "A Comparative Survey and Analysis of Military Policies with Regard to Service by Gay Persons," in Policy Concerning Homosexuality in the Armed Forces. Hearing held by Senate Armed Services Committee. 103rd Congress, 2nd Session (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993). For theoretical analysis see W. Darryl Henderson, Cohesion, the Human Element in Combat (Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 1985); Ronald D. Ray, "Military Necessity & Homosexuality," in Gays: In or Out? The U.S. Military & Homosexuals-A Sourcebook (New York: Brassey's, 1993); Charles C. Moskos, "From Citizens' Army to Social Laboratory," Wilson Quarterly 17 (Winter 1993), 83-94; Elizabeth Kier, "Homosexuals in the U.S. Military: Open Integration and Combat Effectiveness," International Security 23 (1998): 5-39; Robert J. MacCoun, "Sexual Orientation and Military Cohesion: A Critical Review of the Evidence," in Out in Force, 157-176.
8. The longest case study on the impact of the lifting of a gay ban is Rosemary E. Park, "Opening the Canadian Forces to Gays and Lesbians: An Inevitable But Improbable Reconfiguration," in Gays and Lesbians in the Military: Issues, Concerns, and Contrasts, eds. Wilbur J. Scott and Sandra C, Stanley (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994), 165-181. Also see the brief case studies in Gregory Herek, Jared Jobe, and Ralph Carney, eds., Out in Force: Sexual Orientation and the Military (Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 1996); National Defense Research Institute, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Policy: Options and Assessment (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1993); General Accounting Office, Homosexuals in the Military: Policies and Practices of Foreign Countries (Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office, 1993); and Frank Pond, "A Comparative Survey and Analysis of Military Policies with Regard to Service by Gay Persons," in Policy Concerning Homosexuality in the Armed Forces. Hearing held by Senate Armed Services Committee. 103rd Congress, 2nd Session (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993). For theoretical analysis see W. Darryl Henderson, Cohesion, the Human Element in Combat (Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 1985); Ronald D. Ray, "Military Necessity & Homosexuality," in Gays: In or Out? The U.S. Military & Homosexuals-A Sourcebook (New York: Brassey's, 1993); Charles C. Moskos, "From Citizens' Army to Social Laboratory," Wilson Quarterly 17 (Winter 1993), 83-94; Elizabeth Kier, "Homosexuals in the U.S. Military: Open Integration and Combat Effectiveness," International Security 23 (1998): 5-39; Robert J. MacCoun, "Sexual Orientation and Military Cohesion: A Critical Review of the Evidence," in Out in Force, 157-176.
9. The longest case study on the impact of the lifting of a gay ban is Rosemary E. Park, "Opening the Canadian Forces to Gays and Lesbians: An Inevitable But Improbable Reconfiguration," in Gays and Lesbians in the Military: Issues, Concerns, and Contrasts, eds. Wilbur J. Scott and Sandra C, Stanley (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994), 165-181. Also see the brief case studies in Gregory Herek, Jared Jobe, and Ralph Carney, eds., Out in Force: Sexual Orientation and the Military (Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 1996); National Defense Research Institute, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Policy: Options and Assessment (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1993); General Accounting Office, Homosexuals in the Military: Policies and Practices of Foreign Countries (Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office, 1993); and Frank Pond, "A Comparative Survey and Analysis of Military Policies with Regard to Service by Gay Persons," in Policy Concerning Homosexuality in the Armed Forces. Hearing held by Senate Armed Services Committee. 103rd Congress, 2nd Session (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993). For theoretical analysis see W. Darryl Henderson, Cohesion, the Human Element in Combat (Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 1985); Ronald D. Ray, "Military Necessity & Homosexuality," in Gays: In or Out? The U.S. Military & Homosexuals-A Sourcebook (New York: Brassey's, 1993); Charles C. Moskos, "From Citizens' Army to Social Laboratory," Wilson Quarterly 17 (Winter 1993), 83-94; Elizabeth Kier, "Homosexuals in the U.S. Military: Open Integration and Combat Effectiveness," International Security 23 (1998): 5-39; Robert J. MacCoun, "Sexual Orientation and Military Cohesion: A Critical Review of the Evidence," in Out in Force, 157-176.
10. The longest case study on the impact of the lifting of a gay ban is Rosemary E. Park, "Opening the Canadian Forces to Gays and Lesbians: An Inevitable But Improbable Reconfiguration," in Gays and Lesbians in the Military: Issues, Concerns, and Contrasts, eds. Wilbur J. Scott and Sandra C, Stanley (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994), 165-181. Also see the brief case studies in Gregory Herek, Jared Jobe, and Ralph Carney, eds., Out in Force: Sexual Orientation and the Military (Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 1996); National Defense Research Institute, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Policy: Options and Assessment (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1993); General Accounting Office, Homosexuals in the Military: Policies and Practices of Foreign Countries (Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office, 1993); and Frank Pond, "A Comparative Survey and Analysis of Military Policies with Regard to Service by Gay Persons," in Policy Concerning Homosexuality in the Armed Forces. Hearing held by Senate Armed Services Committee. 103rd Congress, 2nd Session (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993). For theoretical analysis see W. Darryl Henderson, Cohesion, the Human Element in Combat (Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 1985); Ronald D. Ray, "Military Necessity & Homosexuality," in Gays: In or Out? The U.S. Military & Homosexuals-A Sourcebook (New York: Brassey's, 1993); Charles C. Moskos, "From Citizens' Army to Social Laboratory," Wilson Quarterly 17 (Winter 1993), 83-94; Elizabeth Kier, "Homosexuals in the U.S. Military: Open Integration and Combat Effectiveness," International Security 23 (1998): 5-39; Robert J. MacCoun, "Sexual Orientation and Military Cohesion: A Critical Review of the Evidence," in Out in Force, 157-176.
11. Reuven Gal, "Gays in the Military: Policy and Practice in the Israeli Defense Forces," in Scott and Stanley, Gays and Lesbians in the Military, 181-189; National Defense Research Institute, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Policy, 85-90; General Accounting Office, Homosexuals in the Military, 38-43; Paul Gade, David Segal, and Edgar Johnson, "The Experience of Foreign Militaries," in Out in Force, 124-125.
12. Reuven Gal, "Gays in the Military: Policy and Practice in the Israeli Defense Forces," in Scott and Stanley, Gays and Lesbians in the Military, 181-189; National Defense Research Institute, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Policy, 85-90; General Accounting Office, Homosexuals in the Military, 38-43; Paul Gade, David Segal, and Edgar Johnson, "The Experience of Foreign Militaries," in Out in Force, 124-125.
13. Reuven Gal, "Gays in the Military: Policy and Practice in the Israeli Defense Forces," in Scott and Stanley, Gays and Lesbians in the Military, 181-189; National Defense Research Institute, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Policy, 85-90; General Accounting Office, Homosexuals in the Military, 38-43; Paul Gade, David Segal, and Edgar Johnson, "The Experience of Foreign Militaries," in Out in Force, 124-125.
14. Reuven Gal, "Gays in the Military: Policy and Practice in the Israeli Defense Forces," in Scott and Stanley, Gays and Lesbians in the Military, 181-189; National Defense Research Institute, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Policy, 85-90; General Accounting Office, Homosexuals in the Military, 38-43; Paul Gade, David Segal, and Edgar Johnson, "The Experience of Foreign Militaries," in Out in Force, 124-125.
15. Israel's ground, air, and land forces include approximately 173,500 troops on active duty and 425,000 on reserve. Anthony H. Cordesman, Middle East Military Balance 2000 (Washington, DC: Center for Security and International Studies, 2000).
16. Baruch Kimmerling, The Interrupted System (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1985); Reuven Gal and Stuart Cohen, "Israel: Still Waiting in the Wings," in The Postmodern Military: Armed Forces after the Cold War, ed. Charles C. Moskos, John Allen Williams, and David Segal (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 224. For recent changes in the IDF's role in Israeli society, see Stuart Cohen, "Military Service in Israel: From Nation-Binder to Nation-Divider?" Paper prepared for BESA Conference on "Armed Forces in Israel and Other Western Democratic Societies, Bar-Ilan University, 8-10 June 1998.
17. Baruch Kimmerling, The Interrupted System (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1985); Reuven Gal and Stuart Cohen, "Israel: Still Waiting in the Wings," in The Postmodern Military: Armed Forces after the Cold War, ed. Charles C. Moskos, John Allen Williams, and David Segal (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 224. For recent changes in the IDF's role in Israeli society, see Stuart Cohen, "Military Service in Israel: From Nation-Binder to Nation-Divider?" Paper prepared for BESA Conference on "Armed Forces in Israel and Other Western Democratic Societies, Bar-Ilan University, 8-10 June 1998.
18. Baruch Kimmerling, The Interrupted System (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1985); Reuven Gal and Stuart Cohen, "Israel: Still Waiting in the Wings," in The Postmodern Military: Armed Forces after the Cold War, ed. Charles C. Moskos, John Allen Williams, and David Segal (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 224. For recent changes in the IDF's role in Israeli society, see Stuart Cohen, "Military Service in Israel: From Nation-Binder to Nation-Divider?" Paper prepared for BESA Conference on "Armed Forces in Israel and Other Western Democratic Societies, Bar-Ilan University, 8-10 June 1998.
19. Israel does not conscript Arabs. Pregnant and married women, those with severe handicaps, and ultra-orthodox Jews also are exempted from service. See Yagil Levy, "The Right to Fight: Recruitment of Homosexuals in the U.S. and Israel," Unpublished manuscript, 2000; Amia Lieblich, Transition to Adulthood During Military Service: The Israeli Case (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1989).
20. Israel does not conscript Arabs. Pregnant and married women, those with severe handicaps, and ultra-orthodox Jews also are exempted from service. See Yagil Levy, "The Right to Fight: Recruitment of Homosexuals in the U.S. and Israel," Unpublished manuscript, 2000; Amia Lieblich, Transition to Adulthood During Military Service: The Israeli Case (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1989).
21. Clyde Haberman, "Homosexuals in Israeli Army: No Official Discrimination, But Keep It Secret," New York Times, 21 February 1993, 14.
22. Knesset Daily Hearings, Discrimination and Hindrances of the Acceptance of Sexual Minorities in the IDF, 13th Knesset, 2nd Session, 10 February 1993, 3202-3208.
23. Lee Walzer, Between Sodom and Eden: A Gay Journey Through Today's Changing Israel (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), 117-118; Robert Block, "Gay King David Theory Starts Goliath of a Row," The Independent, 11 February 1993, 11; The Associated Press, "Defense Official Says He Was Fired after Coming Out as Homosexual, 2 February 1993.
24. Lee Walzer, Between Sodom and Eden: A Gay Journey Through Today's Changing Israel (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), 117-118; Robert Block, "Gay King David Theory Starts Goliath of a Row," The Independent, 11 February 1993, 11; The Associated Press, "Defense Official Says He Was Fired after Coming Out as Homosexual, 2 February 1993.
25. Lee Walzer, Between Sodom and Eden: A Gay Journey Through Today's Changing Israel (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), 117-118; Robert Block, "Gay King David Theory Starts Goliath of a Row," The Independent, 11 February 1993, 11; The Associated Press, "Defense Official Says He Was Fired after Coming Out as Homosexual, 2 February 1993.
26. Amir Sumakai Fink and Jacob Press, Independence Park: The Lives of Gay Men in Israel (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999), 11.
27. Amendments to K-31-11-01 Service of Homosexuals in the IDF, Manpower Division Standing Orders (Israel Defense Forces, 1993). For the English translation, see Walzer, Between Sodom and Eden, 118-119. Professor Aeyal Gross of Tel Aviv University reports in a forthcoming article that the 1993 revisions were canceled quietly in 1998.
28. Amendments to K-31-11-01 Service of Homosexuals in the IDF, Manpower Division Standing Orders (Israel Defense Forces, 1993). For the English translation, see Walzer, Between Sodom and Eden, 118-119. Professor Aeyal Gross of Tel Aviv University reports in a forthcoming article that the 1993 revisions were canceled quietly in 1998.
29. Stuart Cohen, Personal communication, 10 April 2000.
30. Charles Gibson, anchor, "U.S. Struggling with Issue of Gays in the Military," ABC News, 9 March 2000.
31. Anonymous, Personal communication, 18 March 2000.
32. Amir Fink, Personal communication, 11 April 2000.
33. The following section is based on Ma'ayan Zigdon, "Coming out of the Kitbag," Ba'machne, 22 October 1999, 21-25.
34. In one case, for example, two (heterosexual) soldiers made a bet to see who would perform oral sex on whom. Gay soldiers present at the time were appalled by the incident. See Walzer, Between Sodom and Eden. Approximately three-quarters of our interview subjects mentioned that vicious harassment is rare, although approximately two-thirds had heard negative comments about gay and lesbian people during their military service.
35. Walzer, Between Sodom and Eden.
36. Anonymous, Personal communication, 27 March 2000.
37. This paragraph is based on Walzer, Between Sodom and Eden, 134 and Walzer, Personal communication, 14 April 2000.
38. This paragraph is based on Walzer, Between Sodom and Eden, 134 and Walzer, Personal communication, 14 April 2000.
39. For recent problems concerning the sexual harassment of female soldiers in the military, see Stacy Feldman, "The Gender Battlefield," The Jerusalem Report, 10 April 2000, 11; Gayil Hareven, "Of Vice and Men," The Jerusalem Report, 10 April 2000.
40. For recent problems concerning the sexual harassment of female soldiers in the military, see Stacy Feldman, "The Gender Battlefield," The Jerusalem Report, 10 April 2000, 11; Gayil Hareven, "Of Vice and Men," The Jerusalem Report, 10 April 2000.
41. Raanan Gabbay, Personal communication, 9 April 2000; Oren Slozberg, Personal communication, 9 April 2000:
42. Raanan Gabbay, Personal communication, 9 April 2000; Oren Slozberg, Personal communication, 9 April 2000:
43. Dan Yakir, Personal communication; 25 March 2000. All three are affiliated with gay rights groups in Israel.
44. National Defense Research Institute, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Policy, 85-90; General Accounting Office, Homosexuals in the Military, 38-43.
45. National Defense Research Institute, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Policy, 85-90; General Accounting Office, Homosexuals in the Military, 38-43.
46. General Accounting Office, Homosexuals in the Military, 43.
47. Gal, "Gays in the Military," in Gays and Lesbians in the Military, 188.
48. Gabbay, Personal communication, 9 April 2000.
49. Janet Halley, Don't: A Reader's Guide to the Military's Anti-Gay Policy (Durham, NC; Duke University Press, 1999); Urvashi Vaid, Virtual Equality: The Mainstreaming of Gay & Lesbian Liberation (New York: Anchor Books, 1995).
50. Janet Halley, Don't: A Reader's Guide to the Military's Anti-Gay Policy (Durham, NC; Duke University Press, 1999); Urvashi Vaid, Virtual Equality: The Mainstreaming of Gay & Lesbian Liberation (New York: Anchor Books, 1995).
51. Policy Concerning Homosexuality in the Armed Forces; "The Connection," National Public Radio 20 December 1999; Charles C. Moskos and Stacey L. Sobel, "Should Gays Serve," Salon 13 June 2000, available at http://www.salon.com/news/feature/ 2000/06/13/fight_club/indexl.html
52. Policy Concerning Homosexuality in the Armed Forces; "The Connection," National Public Radio 20 December 1999; Charles C. Moskos and Stacey L. Sobel, "Should Gays Serve," Salon 13 June 2000, available at http://www.salon.com/news/feature/ 2000/06/13/fight_club/indexl.html
53. Policy Concerning Homosexuality in the Armed Forces, 350.
54. Charles C. Moskos, "From Citizens' Army to Social Laboratory," in Gays and Lesbians in the Military, 64.
55. "World Affairs Council Weekly Broadcast," National Public Radio 1 May 2000; "The Connection," National Public Radio 20 December 1999.
56. "World Affairs Council Weekly Broadcast," National Public Radio 1 May 2000; "The Connection," National Public Radio 20 December 1999.
57. National Defense Research Institute, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Policy, 85-90; General Accounting Office, Homosexuals in the Military, 38-43.
58. National Defense Research Institute, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Policy, 85-90; General Accounting Office, Homosexuals in the Military, 38-43.
59. Haberman, "Homosexuals in Israeli Army," 14.
60. Pond, "A Comparative Survey," in Policy Concerning Homosexuality.
61. Gal, "Gays in the Military," in Gays and Lesbians in the Military, 186.
62. Approximately two-thirds of our interview subiects spoke about the openness or growing openness of the IDF, although not everyone framed the issue this way. For example, one respondent said that she had seen no change over time but that she had always found the IDF to be accepting of gays and lesbians. There was a general consensus among interviewees that negative attitudes about homosexuals persist but that the military, like the rest of Israeli society, is becoming more accepting.
63. Cited in Walzer, Between Sodom and Eden, 133.
64. Aeyal M. Gross, "Between the Homosocial and the Homoerotic: Gays/Military in Comparative and International Law - A Summary," Unpublished manuscript, 2000.
65. Cited in Walzer, Between Sodom and Eden, 114.
66. Anonymous, Personal communication, 30 March 2000.
67. Zigdon, "Coming out of the Kitbag," 25; 22.
68. Danny Kaplan and Eyal Ben-Ari, "Brothers and Others in Arms: Managing Gay Identity in Combat Units of the Israeli Army," Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 29, 4 (forthcoming);
69. Danny Kaplan, Personal communication, 18 July 2000. Interviewees reflected a broad range of social backgrounds and served in elite infantry brigades, the armored corps, artillery units, combat engineering units, navy attack ships, and submarines and pilots' school. Interviewees served 3 to 4 years from 1980 to 1996. While most were sergeants, two were officers
70. The two percent figure is conservative. Canadian experts, for example, estimate that 3.5 percent of the Canadian armed forces consists of gay and lesbian soldiers. Surveys have found that 7.3 percent of American veterans have had gay sex. See Aaron Belkin and Jason McNichol, Effects of the 1992 Lifting of Restrictions on Gay and Lesbian Service in the Canadian Armed Forces: Appraising the Evidence (Santa Barbara, CA: Center for the Study of Sexual Minorities in the Military, 2000), available at www.gaymilitary.ucsb.edu; Lois Shawer, And the Flag Was Still There: Straight People, Gay People and Sexuality in the U.S. Military (Binghamton, NY: Harrington Park Press, 1995), 198.
71. The two percent figure is conservative. Canadian experts, for example, estimate that 3.5 percent of the Canadian armed forces consists of gay and lesbian soldiers. Surveys have found that 7.3 percent of American veterans have had gay sex. See Aaron Belkin and Jason McNichol, Effects of the 1992 Lifting of Restrictions on Gay and Lesbian Service in the Canadian Armed Forces: Appraising the Evidence (Santa Barbara, CA: Center for the Study of Sexual Minorities in the Military, 2000), available at www.gaymilitary.ucsb.edu; Lois Shawer, And the Flag Was Still There: Straight People, Gay People and Sexuality in the U.S. Military (Binghamton, NY: Harrington Park Press, 1995), 198.
72. Fink, Personal communication, 11 April 2000.
73. Paul Koegel, "Lessons Learned from the Experiences of Domestic Police and Fire Departments," in Out in Force, 137.
74. Koegel, "Lessons Learned," in Out in Force, 138.
75. John W. Bicknell, Jr., Study of Naval Officers' Attitudes Toward Homosexuals in the Military (Monterey, CA: Naval Postgraduate School). Master's thesis, 2000, 176.
76. Bicknell, Study of Naval Officers' Attitudes.
77. Theodore R. Sarbin and Kenneth E. Karols, "Nonconforming Sexual Orientations and Military Suitability," in Gays in Uniform; The Pentagon's Secret Reports, ed. Kate Dyer (Boston, MA: Alyson Publications, Inc., 1990), 34-35. This is also known as the PERSEREC report.
78. Moskos, "From Citizens' Army to Social Laboratory," in Gays and Lesbians in the Military, 64.
79. Gal, "Gays in the Military," in Gays and Lesbians in the Military, 187.
80. "Israeli Army Denies Discriminating Against Homosexual Soldiers," The Associated Press, 7 February 1993.
81. Eric Silver, "Easier to Be Gay," Jerusalem Post, 25 February 1993.
82. Haberman, "Homosexuals in Israeli Army."
83. Silver, "Easier to Be Gay"; Sasha Sadan and Asher Wallfish, "IDF Policy on Drafting Gays Won't Change," Jerusalem Post. 8 February 1993.
84. Silver, "Easier to Be Gay"; Sasha Sadan and Asher Wallfish, "IDF Policy on Drafting Gays Won't Change," Jerusalem Post. 8 February 1993.
85. Zigdon, "Coming out of the Kitbag," 24.
86. Gabbay, Personal communication, 29 March 2000.
87. Zigdon, "Coming out of the Kitbag," 21-25.
88. Kaplan and Ben-Ari, "Brothers and Others in Arms."
89. Approximately three-quarters of our interview subjects said that some discrimination exists but that in general, sexual orientation is not a major issue with regard to promotions or equal treatment.
90. Walzer, Personal communication, 14 April 2000.
91. Walzer, Between Sodom and Eden, 16.
92. Danny Kaplan, "The Military as a Second Bar Mitzvah: Combat Service as an Initiation Rite to Zionist Masculinity," in Imagined Masculinities: Male Identity and Culture in the Modem Middle East, ed. Emma Sinclair-Webb and Mai Ghoussoub (London: Al-Saqi Books, forthcoming).
93. Walzer, Between Sodom and Eden, 19. General Accounting Office, Homosexuals in the Military.
94. Walzer, Between Sodom and Eden, 19. General Accounting Office, Homosexuals in the Military.
95. A list of nations that allow gays and lesbians to serve in the armed forces is available on the web site of the International Gay Lesbian Association at http://www.ilga.org/ Information/legal_survey/Summary%20information/armed_forces.htm
96. Gade et al., "The Experience of Foreign Militaries," in Out in Force.
97. Gal, "Gays in the Military," in Gays and Lesbians in the Military.
98. Kaplan, "The Military as a Second Bar Mitzvah," in Imagined Masculinities; Kaplan and Ben-Ari, "Brothers and Others in Arms"; Michael Levertov, "Male Preserve," Ha'aretz Magazine, 4 June 1999; C. W. Anderson and H. R. Smith, "Stigma and Honor: Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual People in the U.S Military," in Homosexual Issues in the Workplace, ed. L. Diamant (Washington, DC: Taylor and Francis, 1993), 65-89.
99. Kaplan, "The Military as a Second Bar Mitzvah," in Imagined Masculinities; Kaplan and Ben-Ari, "Brothers and Others in Arms"; Michael Levertov, "Male Preserve," Ha'aretz Magazine, 4 June 1999; C. W. Anderson and H. R. Smith, "Stigma and Honor: Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual People in the U.S Military," in Homosexual Issues in the Workplace, ed. L. Diamant (Washington, DC: Taylor and Francis, 1993), 65-89.
100. Kaplan, "The Military as a Second Bar Mitzvah," in Imagined Masculinities; Kaplan and Ben-Ari, "Brothers and Others in Arms"; Michael Levertov, "Male Preserve," Ha'aretz Magazine, 4 June 1999; C. W. Anderson and H. R. Smith, "Stigma and Honor: Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual People in the U.S Military," in Homosexual Issues in the Workplace, ed. L. Diamant (Washington, DC: Taylor and Francis, 1993), 65-89.
101. Kaplan, "The Military as a Second Bar Mitzvah," in Imagined Masculinities; Kaplan and Ben-Ari, "Brothers and Others in Arms"; Michael Levertov, "Male Preserve," Ha'aretz Magazine, 4 June 1999; C. W. Anderson and H. R. Smith, "Stigma and Honor: Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual People in the U.S Military," in Homosexual Issues in the Workplace, ed. L. Diamant (Washington, DC: Taylor and Francis, 1993), 65-89.
102. L. Sion and Eyal Ben-Ari, "Hungry, Weary, and Horny: Humor and Laughter in Israel's Military Reserves." Unpublished manuscript.
103. Danny Kaplan, Brother and Others in Arms: The Making of Love and War in Israeli Combat Units (Binghamton, NY, forthcoming).
104. Gallup Polls 2000. Available at http://www.gallup.com/poll/Indicators/ indhomosexual.asp; "The Harris Poll Election 2000," (PRNewswire, 15 February 2000).
105. Gallup Polls 2000. Available at http://www.gallup.com/poll/Indicators/ indhomosexual.asp; "The Harris Poll Election 2000," (PRNewswire, 15 February 2000).
106. Barry Adam, Jan Willem Duyvendak, and André Krouwel, eds., The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics; National Imprints of a Worldwide Movement (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1999).
107. Elizabeth Kier, "Rights and Fights: Sexual Orientation and Military Effectiveness," International Security 24, 1 (Summer 1999): 196.
108. Gade et al., "The Experience of Foreign Militaries," in Out in Force, 127.
109. Laura Miller, "Are Open Gays a Threat to Cohesion," Lecture presented to the Center for the Study of Sexual Minorities in the Military, University of California, Santa Barbara, 21 April 2000, available at http://www.gaymilitary.ucsb.edu/ programs.htm#six