Homosexuals in the U.S. military: Open integration and combat effectiveness

International Security

Volumn 23, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 5-39

  Kier, Elizabeth ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0032339464     PISSN: 01622889     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1162/isec.23.2.5     Document Type: Review

References (161)

1. The Crittenden report, officially entitled Report of the Board Appointed to Prepare and Submit Recommendations to the Secretary of the Navy for the Revision of Policies, Procedures, and Directives Dealing with Homosexuals, is discussed in General Accounting Office (GAO), DOD's Policy on Homosexuality: Report to Congressional Requester on Defense Force Management (Washington, D.C.: GAO, B-247235, June 1992), p. 30.
2. The Crittenden report, officially entitled Report of the Board Appointed to Prepare and Submit Recommendations to the Secretary of the Navy for the Revision of Policies, Procedures, and Directives Dealing with Homosexuals, is discussed in General Accounting Office (GAO), DOD's Policy on Homosexuality: Report to Congressional Requester on Defense Force Management (Washington, D.C.: GAO, B-247235, June 1992), p. 30.
3. Theodore R. Sarbin and Kenneth E. Karols, Nonconforming Sexual Orientation in the Military and Society (Washington, D.C.: Defense Personnel Security Research and Education Center, PERS-TR-89-002, December 1988), p. 29 (known as the "PERSEREC report").
4. U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Armed Services, Assessment of the Plan to Lift the Ban on Homosexuals in the Military, July 21, 1993 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1994), p. 31; and Charles C. Moskos, Jr., "From Citizens' Army to Social Laboratory," Wilson Quarterly, Vol. 17, No. 1 (Winter 1993), p. 93.
5. U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Armed Services, Assessment of the Plan to Lift the Ban on Homosexuals in the Military, July 21, 1993 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1994), p. 31; and Charles C. Moskos, Jr., "From Citizens' Army to Social Laboratory," Wilson Quarterly, Vol. 17, No. 1 (Winter 1993), p. 93.
6. U.S. District Judge Thomas Zilly, "Margarethe Cammermeyer, Plaintiff, v. Les Aspin, Secretary of Defense, et al., Defendants," 850 Federal Supplement (Washington, D.C., June 1, 1994), pp. 912-913, 922; Randy Shilts, Conduct Unbecoming: Gays and Lesbians in the U.S. Military (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993), pp. 218-219, 242, 309, 397; and the section "Examples of Expulsions for Which Performance Was Not an Issue," in GAO, DOD's Policy on Homosexuality, pp. 46-53.
7. U.S. District Judge Thomas Zilly, "Margarethe Cammermeyer, Plaintiff, v. Les Aspin, Secretary of Defense, et al., Defendants," 850 Federal Supplement (Washington, D.C., June 1, 1994), pp. 912-913, 922; Randy Shilts, Conduct Unbecoming: Gays and Lesbians in the U.S. Military (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993), pp. 218-219, 242, 309, 397; and the section "Examples of Expulsions for Which Performance Was Not an Issue," in GAO, DOD's Policy on Homosexuality, pp. 46-53.
8. U.S. District Judge Thomas Zilly, "Margarethe Cammermeyer, Plaintiff, v. Les Aspin, Secretary of Defense, et al., Defendants," 850 Federal Supplement (Washington, D.C., June 1, 1994), pp. 912-913, 922; Randy Shilts, Conduct Unbecoming: Gays and Lesbians in the U.S. Military (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993), pp. 218-219, 242, 309, 397; and the section "Examples of Expulsions for Which Performance Was Not an Issue," in GAO, DOD's Policy on Homosexuality, pp. 46-53.
9. A "primary group" is a small group characterized by intimate face-to-face relations. Charles H. Cooley first used the term in 1909 in Social Organization: A Study of the Larger Mind (New York: C. Scribner's, 1909). In 1950 Leon Festinger and his colleagues at the Research Center for Group Dynamics at the University of Michigan developed the most widely used definition of cohesion: "The resultant of all the forces acting on all the members to remain in the group." Laurel W. Oliver, Cohesion Research: Conceptual and Methodological Issues, Research Note 90-133 (Alexandria, Va.: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences [ARI], September 1990), p. 2. Although "primary group cohesion" and "esprit de corps" are both group concepts, "primary group cohesion" refers to the cohesion within a small group, whereas "esprit de corps" is a sense of group identity or pride in a larger collectivity such as a regiment. In contrast, "morale" is an individual-level phenomenon and refers to an individual's well-being or self-satisfaction. Larry H. Ingraham and Frederick J. Manning, "Cohesion - Who Needs It, What Is It, and How Do We Get It to Them?" Military Review, Vol. 61, No. 6 (1981), pp. 6-7.
10. A "primary group" is a small group characterized by intimate face-to-face relations. Charles H. Cooley first used the term in 1909 in Social Organization: A Study of the Larger Mind (New York: C. Scribner's, 1909). In 1950 Leon Festinger and his colleagues at the Research Center for Group Dynamics at the University of Michigan developed the most widely used definition of cohesion: "The resultant of all the forces acting on all the members to remain in the group." Laurel W. Oliver, Cohesion Research: Conceptual and Methodological Issues, Research Note 90-133 (Alexandria, Va.: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences [ARI], September 1990), p. 2. Although "primary group cohesion" and "esprit de corps" are both group concepts, "primary group cohesion" refers to the cohesion within a small group, whereas "esprit de corps" is a sense of group identity or pride in a larger collectivity such as a regiment. In contrast, "morale" is an individual-level phenomenon and refers to an individual's well-being or self-satisfaction. Larry H. Ingraham and Frederick J. Manning, "Cohesion - Who Needs It, What Is It, and How Do We Get It to Them?" Military Review, Vol. 61, No. 6 (1981), pp. 6-7.
11. A "primary group" is a small group characterized by intimate face-to-face relations. Charles H. Cooley first used the term in 1909 in Social Organization: A Study of the Larger Mind (New York: C. Scribner's, 1909). In 1950 Leon Festinger and his colleagues at the Research Center for Group Dynamics at the University of Michigan developed the most widely used definition of cohesion: "The resultant of all the forces acting on all the members to remain in the group." Laurel W. Oliver, Cohesion Research: Conceptual and Methodological Issues, Research Note 90-133 (Alexandria, Va.: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences [ARI], September 1990), p. 2. Although "primary group cohesion" and "esprit de corps" are both group concepts, "primary group cohesion" refers to the cohesion within a small group, whereas "esprit de corps" is a sense of group identity or pride in a larger collectivity such as a regiment. In contrast, "morale" is an individual-level phenomenon and refers to an individual's well-being or self-satisfaction. Larry H. Ingraham and Frederick J. Manning, "Cohesion - Who Needs It, What Is It, and How Do We Get It to Them?" Military Review, Vol. 61, No. 6 (1981), pp. 6-7.
12. U.S. Senate, Committee on Armed Services, Policy Concerning Homosexuality in the Armed Forces, July 20, 1993 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1995), p. 710.
13. Ibid., p. 762.
14. Ibid., p. 761.
15. Ibid., p. 708.
16. Ibid., p. 762.
17. U.S. Senate, Policy Concerning Homosexuality, March 29, 1993, p. 3.
18. Samuel A. Stouffer, Arthur A. Lumsdaine, Marion Harper Lumsdaine, Robin M. Williams, Jr., Brewster Smith, Irving L. Janis, Shirley A. Star, and Leonard S. Cottrell, Jr., The American Soldier, Vol. 2, Combat and Its Aftermath (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1949), pp. 118-127, esp. p. 125; see also Edward A. Shils and Morris Janowitz, "Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht in World War II," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 12 (Summer 1948), p. 281.
19. Samuel A. Stouffer, Arthur A. Lumsdaine, Marion Harper Lumsdaine, Robin M. Williams, Jr., Brewster Smith, Irving L. Janis, Shirley A. Star, and Leonard S. Cottrell, Jr., The American Soldier, Vol. 2, Combat and Its Aftermath (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1949), pp. 118-127, esp. p. 125; see also Edward A. Shils and Morris Janowitz, "Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht in World War II," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 12 (Summer 1948), p. 281.
20. Robert B. Smith, "Why Soldiers Fight. Part 1. Leadership, Cohesion, and Fighter Spirit," Quality and Quantity, Vol. 18 (1983), pp. 16-22; and Paul L. Savage and Richard A. Gabriel, "Cohesion and Disintegration in the American Army," Armed Forces and Society, Vol. 2, No. 3 (May 1976), pp. 340-376.
21. Robert B. Smith, "Why Soldiers Fight. Part 1. Leadership, Cohesion, and Fighter Spirit," Quality and Quantity, Vol. 18 (1983), pp. 16-22; and Paul L. Savage and Richard A. Gabriel, "Cohesion and Disintegration in the American Army," Armed Forces and Society, Vol. 2, No. 3 (May 1976), pp. 340-376.
22. James M. McPherson, What They Fought For, 1861-1865 (New York: Anchor Books, 1994); and Charles C. Moskos, Jr., The American Enlisted Man (New York: Russell Sage, 1970), pp. 134-156. Shils and Janowitz had stressed the German soldier's devotion to Hitler ("Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht," p. 304); and John Dollard had looked at the role of ideology in the Lincoln Brigade in the Spanish Civil War in Fear in Battle (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1943).
23. James M. McPherson, What They Fought For, 1861-1865 (New York: Anchor Books, 1994); and Charles C. Moskos, Jr., The American Enlisted Man (New York: Russell Sage, 1970), pp. 134-156. Shils and Janowitz had stressed the German soldier's devotion to Hitler ("Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht," p. 304); and John Dollard had looked at the role of ideology in the Lincoln Brigade in the Spanish Civil War in Fear in Battle (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1943).
24. James M. McPherson, What They Fought For, 1861-1865 (New York: Anchor Books, 1994); and Charles C. Moskos, Jr., The American Enlisted Man (New York: Russell Sage, 1970), pp. 134-156. Shils and Janowitz had stressed the German soldier's devotion to Hitler ("Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht," p. 304); and John Dollard had looked at the role of ideology in the Lincoln Brigade in the Spanish Civil War in Fear in Battle (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1943).
25. James M. McPherson, What They Fought For, 1861-1865 (New York: Anchor Books, 1994); and Charles C. Moskos, Jr., The American Enlisted Man (New York: Russell Sage, 1970), pp. 134-156. Shils and Janowitz had stressed the German soldier's devotion to Hitler ("Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht," p. 304); and John Dollard had looked at the role of ideology in the Lincoln Brigade in the Spanish Civil War in Fear in Battle (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1943).
26. Samuel J. Watson, "Religion and Combat Motivation in the Confederate Armies," Journal of Military History, Vol. 58, No 1 (January 1994), pp. 29-55; and John A. Ballard and Aliecia J. McDowell, "Hate and Combat Behavior," Armed Forces and Society, Vol. 17, No. 2 (Winter 1991), pp. 229-241.
27. Samuel J. Watson, "Religion and Combat Motivation in the Confederate Armies," Journal of Military History, Vol. 58, No 1 (January 1994), pp. 29-55; and John A. Ballard and Aliecia J. McDowell, "Hate and Combat Behavior," Armed Forces and Society, Vol. 17, No. 2 (Winter 1991), pp. 229-241.
28. James Griffith, "The Army's New Unit Personnel Replacement and Its Relationship to Unit Cohesion and Social Support," Military Psychology, Vol. 1 (1989), pp. 17-19; and J.D. Buck Wray, Replacements Back on the Road at Last," Military Review, Vol. 67, No. 5 (May 1987), pp. 46-51.
29. James Griffith, "The Army's New Unit Personnel Replacement and Its Relationship to Unit Cohesion and Social Support," Military Psychology, Vol. 1 (1989), pp. 17-19; and J.D. Buck Wray, Replacements Back on the Road at Last," Military Review, Vol. 67, No. 5 (May 1987), pp. 46-51.
30. Samuel J. Newland, "Manning the Force German-Style," Military Review, Vol. 67, No. 5 (May 1987), p. 42.
31. Peter W. Kozumplik, "Comparative Wartime Replacement Systems," in David H. Marlowe, ed., Unit Manning System Field Evaluation: Technical Report No. 4 (Washington, D.C.: WRAIR, December 1986), p. 44. The U.S. Army also does little to develop an esprit de corps or identification with the regiment or larger unit.
32. Department of Military Psychiatry, Evaluation of the Unit Manning System: Lessons Learned to Date (Washington, D.C.: WRAIR, 1987), p. 1.
33. "Executive Summary," in Marlowe, Unit Manning System: Technical Report No. 4, p. 3.
34. Robert J. Schneider, Paul Bartone, Theodore Waz, Michael McGee, and David Hoppengardner, "Unit Reconstitution in a Wartime Scenario," in Marlow, Unit Manning System: Technical Report No. 4, p. 56.
35. Faris R. Kirkland and Linette R. Sparacino, eds., Unit Manning System Field Evaluation: Technical Report No. 5 (Washington, D.C.: WRAIR, 1987), p. 2.
36. Schneider et al., "Unit Reconstitution in a Wartime Scenario," p. 57.
37. Shils and Janowitz, "Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht," p. 284.
38. Stouffer et al., The American Soldier, Vol. 2, p. 136.
39. S.L.A. Marshall, Men against Fire (New York: William Morrow, 1947), p. 161; and Ardant du Picq, Battle Studies: Ancient and Modern (Harrisburg, Penn.: Military Service Publishing, 1958), p. 29.
40. S.L.A. Marshall, Men against Fire (New York: William Morrow, 1947), p. 161; and Ardant du Picq, Battle Studies: Ancient and Modern (Harrisburg, Penn.: Military Service Publishing, 1958), p. 29.
41. For a comprehensive analysis and literature review of the experimental and quantitative research on cohesion, see Robert J. MacCoun, "What Is Known about Unit Cohesion and Military Performance," in RAND, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Personnel Policy: Options and Assessment (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND/National Defense Research Institute, MR-323-OSD, 1993), pp. 283-331, 490-506; and Robert J. MacCoun, "Sexual Orientation and Military Cohesion: A Critical Review of the Evidence," in Gregory M. Herek, Jared B. Jobe, and Ralph M. Carney, eds., Out In Force: Sexual Orientation and the Military (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), pp. 157-176.
42. For a comprehensive analysis and literature review of the experimental and quantitative research on cohesion, see Robert J. MacCoun, "What Is Known about Unit Cohesion and Military Performance," in RAND, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Personnel Policy: Options and Assessment (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND/National Defense Research Institute, MR-323-OSD, 1993), pp. 283-331, 490-506; and Robert J. MacCoun, "Sexual Orientation and Military Cohesion: A Critical Review of the Evidence," in Gregory M. Herek, Jared B. Jobe, and Ralph M. Carney, eds., Out In Force: Sexual Orientation and the Military (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), pp. 157-176.
43. Ralph Stogdill, "Group Productivity, Drive, and Cohesiveness," Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, Vol. 8, No. 1 (August 1972), p. 26.
44. Richard A. Guzzo and Marcus W. Dickson, "Teams in Organizations: Recent Research on Performance and Effectiveness," Annual Review of Psychology Vol. 47 (1996), pp. 307-338, quotation on p. 310.
45. A meta-analysis is a statistical technique that integrates many different studies by converting research results from a set of studies into a common metric that can then be combined across studies to derive generalizations about the entire sample of studies. For discussion, see John E. Hunter, Frank L. Schmitt, and Gregg B. Jackson, Meta-analysis: Cumulating Research Findings across Studies (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1982). For a review of the recent meta-analyses of cohesion and performance, see Brian Mullen and Carolyn Copper, "The Relation between Group Cohesiveness and Performance: An Integration," Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 115, No. 2 (March 1994); see also 'Cohesion Research: Do Cohesive Groups Win, or Does Winning Produce Cohesion?" (Alexandria, Va.: U.S. ARI, 1998), http://98.97.199.12/cohesion.htm.
46. A meta-analysis is a statistical technique that integrates many different studies by converting research results from a set of studies into a common metric that can then be combined across studies to derive generalizations about the entire sample of studies. For discussion, see John E. Hunter, Frank L. Schmitt, and Gregg B. Jackson, Meta-analysis: Cumulating Research Findings across Studies (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1982). For a review of the recent meta-analyses of cohesion and performance, see Brian Mullen and Carolyn Copper, "The Relation between Group Cohesiveness and Performance: An Integration," Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 115, No. 2 (March 1994); see also 'Cohesion Research: Do Cohesive Groups Win, or Does Winning Produce Cohesion?" (Alexandria, Va.: U.S. ARI, 1998), http://98.97.199.12/cohesion.htm.
47. A meta-analysis is a statistical technique that integrates many different studies by converting research results from a set of studies into a common metric that can then be combined across studies to derive generalizations about the entire sample of studies. For discussion, see John E. Hunter, Frank L. Schmitt, and Gregg B. Jackson, Meta-analysis: Cumulating Research Findings across Studies (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1982). For a review of the recent meta-analyses of cohesion and performance, see Brian Mullen and Carolyn Copper, "The Relation between Group Cohesiveness and Performance: An Integration," Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 115, No. 2 (March 1994); see also 'Cohesion Research: Do Cohesive Groups Win, or Does Winning Produce Cohesion?" (Alexandria, Va.: U.S. ARI, 1998), http://98.97.199.12/cohesion.htm.
48. Mullen and Copper, "The Relation between Group Cohesiveness and Performance," p. 215.
49. Albert Myers, "Team Competition, Success, and the Adjustment of Group Members," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. 65, No. 5 (November 1962), p. 330.
50. W. Victor Madej, "Effectiveness and Cohesion of the German Ground Forces in World War II," Journal of Political and Military Sociology, Vol. 6, No. 2 (Fall 1978), pp. 233-248.
51. Moskos, The American Enlisted Man, p. 147; see also Stephen D. Wesbrook, "The Potential for Military Disintegration," in Sam C. Sarkesian, ed., Combat Effectiveness: Cohesion, Stress, and the Volunteer Military (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1980), pp. 244-278.
52. Moskos, The American Enlisted Man, p. 147; see also Stephen D. Wesbrook, "The Potential for Military Disintegration," in Sam C. Sarkesian, ed., Combat Effectiveness: Cohesion, Stress, and the Volunteer Military (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1980), pp. 244-278.
53. Charles W. Brown and Charles C. Moskos, Jr., "The American Volunteer Soldier: Will He "Fight?" Military Review, Vol. 56, No. 6 (June 1976), p. 16.
54. Omer Bartov, "Daily Life and Motivation in War: The Wehrmacht in the Soviet Union," Journal of Strategic Studies, Vol. 12, No. 2 (June 1989), pp. 201-202; for a similar conclusion, see Stephen G. Fritz, "We Are Trying . . . to Change the Face of the World -Ideology and Motivation in the Wehrmacht on the Eastern Front: The View from Below," Journal of Military History, Vol. 60, No. 4 (October 1996), p. 690.
55. Omer Bartov, "Daily Life and Motivation in War: The Wehrmacht in the Soviet Union," Journal of Strategic Studies, Vol. 12, No. 2 (June 1989), pp. 201-202; for a similar conclusion, see Stephen G. Fritz, "We Are Trying . . . to Change the Face of the World - Ideology and Motivation in the Wehrmacht on the Eastern Front: The View from Below," Journal of Military History, Vol. 60, No. 4 (October 1996), p. 690.
56. Watson, "Religion and Combat Motivation," p. 31.
57. Robin M. Williams, Jr., "The American Soldier: An Assessment, Several Wars Later," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 53, No. 2 (Summer 1989), p. 165.
58. Stouffer et al., The American Soldier, Vol. 2, pp. 100-102, 106, 108.
59. Similarly, Marshall's data showed that primary group relations were important to soldiers in combat - not that soldiers to whom it was important fought better. Marshall's data were not as systematically collected as he implied. See Roger J. Spiller, "S.L.A. Marshall and the Ratio of Fire," Royal United Services Institute Journal, Vol. 133, No. 4 (Winter 1988), pp. 63-71.
60. Nora Kinzer Stewart, Mates and Muchachos: Unit Cohesion in the Falklands/Malvinas War (Washington, D.C.: Brassey's, 1991), p. 18.
61. Thomas Bond, "The Why of Fragging," American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 133, No. 11 (November 1976), p. 1330. See also ibid., pp. 1328-1329; and Robert B. Smith, "Why Soldiers Fight. Part 2. Alternative Theories," Quality and Quantity, Vol. 18 (1983), pp. 33-58.
62. Thomas Bond, "The Why of Fragging," American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 133, No. 11 (November 1976), p. 1330. See also ibid., pp. 1328-1329; and Robert B. Smith, "Why Soldiers Fight. Part 2. Alternative Theories," Quality and Quantity, Vol. 18 (1983), pp. 33-58.
63. Thomas Bond, "The Why of Fragging," American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 133, No. 11 (November 1976), p. 1330. See also ibid., pp. 1328-1329; and Robert B. Smith, "Why Soldiers Fight. Part 2. Alternative Theories," Quality and Quantity, Vol. 18 (1983), pp. 33-58.
64. Charles C. Moskos, Jr., "Surviving the War in Vietnam," in Charles R. Filey and Seymour Leventman, eds., Strangers at Home: Vietnam Veterans since the War (New York: Praeger, 1980), p. 80.
65. John H. Faris, "An Alternative Perspective to Savage and Gabriel," Armed Forces and Society, Vol. 3, No. 3 (May 1977), p. 461 (emphasis added).
66. Shils and Janowitz, "Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht," pp. 286-287.
67. Peter S. Bearman, "Desertion as Localism: Army Unit Solidarity and Group Norms in the U.S. Civil War," Social Forces, Vol. 70, No. 2 (December 1991), pp. 321-342.
68. Wesbrook, "The Potential for Military Disintegration," p. 258; see also Moskos, "Surviving the War in Vietnam," p. 82; and Faris, "An Alternative Perspective," pp. 457-461.
69. Wesbrook, "The Potential for Military Disintegration," p. 258; see also Moskos, "Surviving the War in Vietnam," p. 82; and Faris, "An Alternative Perspective," pp. 457-461.
70. Wesbrook, "The Potential for Military Disintegration," p. 258; see also Moskos, "Surviving the War in Vietnam," p. 82; and Faris, "An Alternative Perspective," pp. 457-461.
71. MacCoun, "What Is Known about Unit Cohesion," p. 291.
72. For an extensive review of the research on social and task cohesion, see ibid., pp. 290-293.
73. Joseph Psotka, "Cohesion Research: Do Cohesive Groups Win, or Does Winning Produce Cohesion?" Newsletter: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (Winter 1995), http://198.97.199.12/cohesion.htm.
74. Kirkland and Sparacino, Unit Manning System: Technical Report No. 5, pp. 14-15.
75. Aharon Tziner, "Differential Effects of Group Cohesiveness Types: A Clarifying Overview," Social Behavior and Personality, Vol. 10, No. 2 (1982), pp. 231-232; and Kurt W. Back, "Influence through Communication," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. 46 (1951), pp. 9-23.
76. Aharon Tziner, "Differential Effects of Group Cohesiveness Types: A Clarifying Overview," Social Behavior and Personality, Vol. 10, No. 2 (1982), pp. 231-232; and Kurt W. Back, "Influence through Communication," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. 46 (1951), pp. 9-23.
77. James P. Kahan, Noreen Webb, Richard J. Shavelson, and Ross M. Stolzenberg, Individual Characteristics and Unit Performance: A Review of Research and Methods (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, R-3194-MIL, 1985), p. 81.
78. D.K. Leedom and R. Simon, "Improving Team Coordination: A Case for Behavior-Based Training," Military Psychology, Vol. 7, No. 2 (1995), pp. 109-122.
79. Paul R. Bernthal and Chester A. Insko, "Cohesiveness without Groupthink: The Interactive Effects of Social and Task Cohesion," Group and Organization Management, Vol. 18, No. 1 (March 1993), pp. 66-87; and Brian Mullen, Tara Anthony, Eduardo Salas, and James E. Driskell, "Group Cohesiveness and the Quality of Decision-Making: An Integration of Tests of the Groupthink Hypothesis," Small Group Research, Vol. 25, No. 2 (May 1994), pp. 189-204.
80. Paul R. Bernthal and Chester A. Insko, "Cohesiveness without Groupthink: The Interactive Effects of Social and Task Cohesion," Group and Organization Management, Vol. 18, No. 1 (March 1993), pp. 66-87; and Brian Mullen, Tara Anthony, Eduardo Salas, and James E. Driskell, "Group Cohesiveness and the Quality of Decision-Making: An Integration of Tests of the Groupthink Hypothesis," Small Group Research, Vol. 25, No. 2 (May 1994), pp. 189-204.
81. Alexander L. George, "Primary Groups, Organization, and Military Performance," in Roger W. Little, ed., Handbook of Military Institutions (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1971), pp. 303-305; Ingraham and Manning, "Cohesion - Who Needs It?" pp. 8-10; John M. Levine and Richard L. Moreland, "Progress in Small Group Research," Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 41 (1990), pp. 585-634; and MacCoun, "What Is Known about Unit Cohesion," pp. 299-307.
82. Alexander L. George, "Primary Groups, Organization, and Military Performance," in Roger W. Little, ed., Handbook of Military Institutions (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1971), pp. 303-305; Ingraham and Manning, "Cohesion - Who Needs It?" pp. 8-10; John M. Levine and Richard L. Moreland, "Progress in Small Group Research," Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 41 (1990), pp. 585-634; and MacCoun, "What Is Known about Unit Cohesion," pp. 299-307.
83. Alexander L. George, "Primary Groups, Organization, and Military Performance," in Roger W. Little, ed., Handbook of Military Institutions (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1971), pp. 303-305; Ingraham and Manning, "Cohesion - Who Needs It?" pp. 8-10; John M. Levine and Richard L. Moreland, "Progress in Small Group Research," Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 41 (1990), pp. 585-634; and MacCoun, "What Is Known about Unit Cohesion," pp. 299-307.
84. Alexander L. George, "Primary Groups, Organization, and Military Performance," in Roger W. Little, ed., Handbook of Military Institutions (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1971), pp. 303-305; Ingraham and Manning, "Cohesion - Who Needs It?" pp. 8-10; John M. Levine and Richard L. Moreland, "Progress in Small Group Research," Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 41 (1990), pp. 585-634; and MacCoun, "What Is Known about Unit Cohesion," pp. 299-307.
85. Quoted in Thomas E. Ricks, "Separation Anxiety: 'New' Marines Illustrate Growing Gap between Military and Society," Wall Street Journal, July 27, 1995, p. 1.
86. Jacob M. Rabbie and Karel K. Huygen, "Internal Disagreements and Their Effects on Attitudes towards In- and Out-groups," International Journal of Group Tensions, Vol. 4, No. 2 (June 1974), pp. 242-243.
87. John C. Turner, "Social Categorization and Group Behavior," in Edward J. Laurer, ed., Advances in Group Processes, Vol. 2 (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1985), p. 84; and Henri Tajfel, Claude Flament, Michael Billig, and R.P. Bundy, "Social Categorization and Intergroup Behavior," European Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 1, No. 2 (March 1971), pp. 149-175. For an application to international relations, see Jonathan Mercer, "Anarchy and Identity," International Organization, Vol. 49, No. 2 (Spring 1995), pp. 229-252.
88. John C. Turner, "Social Categorization and Group Behavior," in Edward J. Laurer, ed., Advances in Group Processes, Vol. 2 (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1985), p. 84; and Henri Tajfel, Claude Flament, Michael Billig, and R.P. Bundy, "Social Categorization and Intergroup Behavior," European Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 1, No. 2 (March 1971), pp. 149-175. For an application to international relations, see Jonathan Mercer, "Anarchy and Identity," International Organization, Vol. 49, No. 2 (Spring 1995), pp. 229-252.
89. John C. Turner, "Social Categorization and Group Behavior," in Edward J. Laurer, ed., Advances in Group Processes, Vol. 2 (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1985), p. 84; and Henri Tajfel, Claude Flament, Michael Billig, and R.P. Bundy, "Social Categorization and Intergroup Behavior," European Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 1, No. 2 (March 1971), pp. 149-175. For an application to international relations, see Jonathan Mercer, "Anarchy and Identity," International Organization, Vol. 49, No. 2 (Spring 1995), pp. 229-252.
90. Edward Gross, "Symbiosis and Consensus as Integrative Factors in Small Groups," American Sociological Review, Vol. 21, No. 2 (April 1956), pp. 174-179; and Frederick J. Manning and Terrence D. Fullerton, "Health and Well-Being in Highly Cohesive Units of the U.S. Army," Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Vol. 18, No. 6 (May 1988), pp. 516-517.
91. Edward Gross, "Symbiosis and Consensus as Integrative Factors in Small Groups," American Sociological Review, Vol. 21, No. 2 (April 1956), pp. 174-179; and Frederick J. Manning and Terrence D. Fullerton, "Health and Well-Being in Highly Cohesive Units of the U.S. Army," Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Vol. 18, No. 6 (May 1988), pp. 516-517.
92. Shils and Janowitz, "Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht," pp. 281, 286-289, 315; and Moskos, "Surviving the War in Vietnam," p. 73.
93. Shils and Janowitz, "Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht," pp. 281, 286-289, 315; and Moskos, "Surviving the War in Vietnam," p. 73.
94. Mark A. Vaitkus, Unit Manning System: Human Dimensions Field Evaluation of the COHORT Company Replacement Model (Frederick, Md.: U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, 1994).
95. Stouffer et al., The American Soldier, Vol. 1, Adjustment during Army Life, p. 592.
96. Roy R. Grinker and John P. Spiegel, Men under Stress (Philadelphia: Blackiston, 1945), pp. 21-24.
97. For discussions of the analogy between African Americans, women, and homosexuals, see David Ari Bianco, "Echoes of Prejudice: The Debates over Race and Sexuality in the Armed Forces," in Craig A. Rimmerman, ed., Gay Rights, Military Wrongs: Political Perspectives on Lesbians and Gays in the Military (New York: Garland, 1996), pp. 47-70; Michael R. Kauth and Dan Landis, "Applying Lessons Learned from Minority Integration in the Military," in Herek et al., Out In Force, pp. 86-105, esp. pp. 92-98; and RAND, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Personnel Policy, pp. 158-160.
98. For discussions of the analogy between African Americans, women, and homosexuals, see David Ari Bianco, "Echoes of Prejudice: The Debates over Race and Sexuality in the Armed Forces," in Craig A. Rimmerman, ed., Gay Rights, Military Wrongs: Political Perspectives on Lesbians and Gays in the Military (New York: Garland, 1996), pp. 47-70; Michael R. Kauth and Dan Landis, "Applying Lessons Learned from Minority Integration in the Military," in Herek et al., Out In Force, pp. 86-105, esp. pp. 92-98; and RAND, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Personnel Policy, pp. 158-160.
99. For discussions of the analogy between African Americans, women, and homosexuals, see David Ari Bianco, "Echoes of Prejudice: The Debates over Race and Sexuality in the Armed Forces," in Craig A. Rimmerman, ed., Gay Rights, Military Wrongs: Political Perspectives on Lesbians and Gays in the Military (New York: Garland, 1996), pp. 47-70; Michael R. Kauth and Dan Landis, "Applying Lessons Learned from Minority Integration in the Military," in Herek et al., Out In Force, pp. 86-105, esp. pp. 92-98; and RAND, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Personnel Policy, pp. 158-160.
100. Reproduced in Morris J. MacGregor and Bernard C. Nalty, eds., Blacks in the United States Armed Services: Basic Documents, Vol. 6, Blacks in the World War II Naval Establishment (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1977), p. 61.
101. See for example, the statements by Kenneth C. Royal, the secretary of the army, and General Omar N. Bradley, Department of the Army, reproduced in MacGregor and Nalty, Blacks in the United States Armed Services, Vol. 9, The Fahy Committee, pp. 505-506, 633.
102. In a letter to Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr., September 27, 1940, reproduced in MacGregor and Nalty, Blacks in the United States Armed Services, Vol. 5, Black Soldiers in World War II, p. 28.
103. Morris J. MacGregor, Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940-1965 (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1981), pp. 46-51.
104. Ulysses Lee, The Employment of Negro Troops (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1996), pp. 688-695.
105. Quoted in Stouffer et al., The American Soldier, Vol. 1, p. 592.
106. Quoted in Lee, The Employment of Negro Troops, pp. 696-697.
107. Stouffer et al., The American Soldier, Vol. 1, pp. 588-589.
108. Reproduced in MacGregor and Nalty, Blacks in the United States Armed Services, Vol. 5, p. 503.
109. Leo Bogart, ed., Social Research and the Desegregation of the U.S. Army (Chicago: Markha, 1968), p. 182.
110. Quoted in ibid., p. 64.
111. Cited in Martin Binkin, Who Will Fight the Next War? The Changing Face of the American Military (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1993), p. 40.
112. Quoted in Jeff M. Tuten, "The Argument against Female Combatants," in Nancy Loring Goldman, ed., Female Soldiers - Combatants or Non-Combatants? (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982), p. 251.
113. Jerry C. Scarpate and Mary Anne O'Neill, Evaluation of Gender Integration at Recruit Training Command, Orlando Naval Training Center, Orlando, Florida (Patrick Air Force Base, Fla.: Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute, Division of Policy Planning Research, 1992), p. 2.
114. Quoted in ibid., p. 4.
115. Three battalions were gender integrated: one to the squad level; the other two to the platoon level. Jacqueline A. Mottern David A. Foster, Elizabeth J. Brady, and Joanne Marshall-Mies, 1995 Gender Integration of Basic Combat Training Study, ARI Study Report 97-01 (Alexandria, Va.: U.S. ARI, 1997), p. 4.
116. Ibid., pp. v, viii, ix, 27, 30.
117. Quoted in Larry Lane, "Basic Training - Together," Soldiers, Vol. 50, No. 3 (March 1995), http://www.dtic.mil/soldiers/march95/p13.html.
118. Quoted in M.C. Devilbiss, "Gender Integration and Unit Deployment: A Study of GI Jo," Armed Forces and Society, Vol. 11, No. 4 (Summer 1985), pp. 538, 540; see also Charles C. Moskos, Jr., Female GIs in the Field," Society, Vol. 22, No. 6 (September/October 1985), pp. 28-33.
119. Quoted in M.C. Devilbiss, "Gender Integration and Unit Deployment: A Study of GI Jo," Armed Forces and Society, Vol. 11, No. 4 (Summer 1985), pp. 538, 540; see also Charles C. Moskos, Jr., Female GIs in the Field," Society, Vol. 22, No. 6 (September/October 1985), pp. 28-33.
120. David K. Segal, Recruiting for Uncle Sam: Citizenship and Military Manpower Policy (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1989), p. 123.
121. Margaret C. Harrell and Laura L. Miller, New Opportunities for Military Women: Effects upon Readiness, Cohesion, and Morale (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 1997), pp. xvii, 53-67.
122. GAO, Basic Training: Services Are Using a Variety of Approaches to Gender Integration (Washington, D.C.: GAO, 1996), p. 2.
123. Mottern et al., Gender Integration, p. 52; and Leon N. Rosen, Doris B. Durand, Paul D. Bliese, Ronald R. Halverson, Joseph M. Rothbert, and Nancy L. Harrison, "Cohesion and Readiness in Gender-Integrated Combat Service Support Units," Armed Forces and Society, Vol. 22, No. 4 (Summer 1996), p. 538.
124. Mottern et al., Gender Integration, p. 52; and Leon N. Rosen, Doris B. Durand, Paul D. Bliese, Ronald R. Halverson, Joseph M. Rothbert, and Nancy L. Harrison, "Cohesion and Readiness in Gender-Integrated Combat Service Support Units," Armed Forces and Society, Vol. 22, No. 4 (Summer 1996), p. 538.
125. Segal, Recruiting for Uncle Sam, pp. 122-123.
126. Michael Thomas McIntyre, Homosexuality in the U.S. Military, master's thesis (Monterey, Calif.: Naval Postgraduate School, 1980), p. 96.
127. GAO, DOD's Policy on Homosexuality, pp. 6, 15, 41.
128. RAND, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Personnel Policy, pp. 106-157, esp. pp. 147-149; see also Stephen H. Leinen, Gay Cops (Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1993).
129. RAND, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Personnel Policy, pp. 106-157, esp. pp. 147-149; see also Stephen H. Leinen, Gay Cops (Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1993).
130. GAO, Homosexuals in the Military: Policies and Practices of Foreign Countries (Washington, D.C.: GAO, NSIAD-93-215, June 1993), p. 3.
131. Ibid., pp. 27-32; and Rosemary E. Park, "Opening the Canadian Forces to Gays and Lesbians," in Wilbur J. Scott and Sandra Carson Stanley, eds., Gays and Lesbians in the Military (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994), pp. 165-180. The discussion of foreign militaries also draws on RAND, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Personnel Policy, pp. 65-105; and Paul A. Gade, David R. Segal, and Edgar M. Johnson "The Experience of Foreign Militaries," in Herek et al., Out In Force, pp. 106-130.
132. Ibid., pp. 27-32; and Rosemary E. Park, "Opening the Canadian Forces to Gays and Lesbians," in Wilbur J. Scott and Sandra Carson Stanley, eds., Gays and Lesbians in the Military (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994), pp. 165-180. The discussion of foreign militaries also draws on RAND, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Personnel Policy, pp. 65-105; and Paul A. Gade, David R. Segal, and Edgar M. Johnson "The Experience of Foreign Militaries," in Herek et al., Out In Force, pp. 106-130.
133. Ibid., pp. 27-32; and Rosemary E. Park, "Opening the Canadian Forces to Gays and Lesbians," in Wilbur J. Scott and Sandra Carson Stanley, eds., Gays and Lesbians in the Military (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994), pp. 165-180. The discussion of foreign militaries also draws on RAND, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Personnel Policy, pp. 65-105; and Paul A. Gade, David R. Segal, and Edgar M. Johnson "The Experience of Foreign Militaries," in Herek et al., Out In Force, pp. 106-130.
134. Ibid., pp. 27-32; and Rosemary E. Park, "Opening the Canadian Forces to Gays and Lesbians," in Wilbur J. Scott and Sandra Carson Stanley, eds., Gays and Lesbians in the Military (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994), pp. 165-180. The discussion of foreign militaries also draws on RAND, Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Personnel Policy, pp. 65-105; and Paul A. Gade, David R. Segal, and Edgar M. Johnson "The Experience of Foreign Militaries," in Herek et al., Out In Force, pp. 106-130.
135. GAO, Homosexuals in the Military, pp. 38-43.
136. Reuven Gal, "Gays in the Military: Policy and Practice in the Israeli Defense Forces," in Scott and Stanley, Gays and Lesbians in the Military, pp. 186-188.
137. GAO, Homosexuals in the Military, pp. 7, 34-35.
138. Sarbin and Karols, Nonconforming Sexual Orientation, p. 33.
139. Shilts, Conduct Unbecoming, pp. 68-71, 295-296, 384, 387.
140. Quoted by Zilly in "Cammermeyer v. Aspin," p. 925.
141. Quoted in Shilts, Conduct Unbecoming, pp. 242, 310.
142. GAO, Homosexuals in the Military, p. 68.
143. Both cited in Zilly, "Cammermeyer v. Aspin," p. 924. Such confidence in the professional judgment of military officers despite the lack of evidence is not new. In 1942 a memo from the War Department explained that "the utilization of colored units is a problem that defies rigorous analysis because of the intangible nature of such factors as racial prejudice, social implications, combat efficiency, and international relations." Reproduced in MacCregor and Nalty, Blacks in the United States Armed Services, Vol. 5, p. 157.
144. Both cited in Zilly, "Cammermeyer v. Aspin," p. 924. Such confidence in the professional judgment of military officers despite the lack of evidence is not new. In 1942 a memo from the War Department explained that "the utilization of colored units is a problem that defies rigorous analysis because of the intangible nature of such factors as racial prejudice, social implications, combat efficiency, and international relations." Reproduced in MacCregor and Nalty, Blacks in the United States Armed Services, Vol. 5, p. 157.
145. Sarbin and Karols, Nonconforming Sexual Orientation, pp. 25, 33; and GAO, Homosexuals in the Military, p. 27.
146. Sarbin and Karols, Nonconforming Sexual Orientation, pp. 25, 33; and GAO, Homosexuals in the Military, p. 27.
147. GAO, Homosexuals in the Military, pp. 7, 34-35, 71.
148. U.S. Senate, Policy Concerning Homosexuality, July 21, 1993, p. 801.
149. Lawrence Korb, "Evolving Perspectives on the Military's Policy on Homosexuals: A Personal Note," in Scott and Stanley, Gays and Lesbians in the Military, p. 223.
150. U.S. Senate, Policy Concerning Homosexuality, July 20, 1993, p. 756.
151. Quoted in MacGregor, Integration of the Armed Forces, pp. 54-55.
152. MacGregor and Nalty, Blacks in the United States Armed Services, Vol. 9, pp. 637-638.
153. MacGregor, Integration of the Armed Forces, pp. 3-57.
154. GAO, Homosexuals in the Military, pp. 4, 25, 31-32.
155. C. Dixon Osburn, Michelle M. Benecke, and Kirk Childress, The Fourth Annual Report on "Don't Ask, Don't Tell, Don't Pursue" (Washington, D.C.: Servicemembers Legal Defense Network [SLDN], 1988), http://www.sldn.org/reports/fourth.htm.
156. Mady Wechsler Segal and Jesse J. Harris, What We Know about Army Families (Alexandria, Va.: U.S. ARI, 1993).
157. C. Dixon Osburn, Michelle M. Benecke, and Kirk Childress, Conduct Unbecoming: The Third Annual Report on "Don't Ask, Don't Tell, Don't Pursue" (Washington, D.C.: SLDN, 1997), pp. 17-21.
158. Sherie Mershon and Steven Schlossman, Foxholes and Color Lines: Desegregating the U.S. Armed Forces (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), pp. 187-217.
159. Ibid., pp. 219, 228-229, 261, 308, 312-315, 322-333.
160. Peter T. Kilborn, "Sex Abuse Cases Stun Pentagon, but the Problem Has Deep Roots," New York Times, February 10, 1997, p. A13.
161. MacGregor, Integration of the Armed Forces, p. 17.