Patterns in liberal democratic civil-military relations

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 27, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 525-540

  Bland, Douglas L ^a  

^a QUEEN S UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0035594748     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327X0102700402     Document Type: Article

References (52)

1. See Jürgen Kuhlmann and Jean Callaghan, Military and Society in 21 st Century Europe, (NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2000).
2. Anthony Forster, Andrew Cottey, and Timothy Edmunds, "The Second Generation Problematic: Rethinking Control of Armed Forces In Central and Eastern Europe." Unpublished paper presented to the VII Biennial Conference, ERGOMAS, Prague, 2 December 2000.
3. Douglas Bland, "A Unified Theory of Civil-Military Relations," Armed Forces & Society 26, 1 (Fall, 1999): 10.
4. See Judith Goldstein and Robert Keohane, Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions, and Political Change, (Ithaca: Cornell University press, 1993), 12.
5. Bland, "A Unified Theory of Civil-Military Relations," 22.
6. Samuel Huntington, The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (New York: Vintage Books, 1957), vii.
7. For criticisms of American theory, see S. E. Finer, The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics (London: Pall Mall Press, 1962); Sam Sarkesian, "Military Professionalism and Civil-Military Relations in the West," International Political Science Review 2, 3 (1981): 283-97. New explanations include K. W. Kemp and Charles Hudlin, "Civil Supremacy over the Military: Its Nature and Limits," Armed Forces & Society 19, 1 (1992): 7-26; Rebecca Schiff, "Civil-Military Relations Reconsidered: A Theory of Concordance," Armed Forces & Society 22, 1 (1995); Don Snider and Miranda Carleton-Carew, U.S. Civil-Military Relations: In Crisis or Transition? (Washington, DC: CSIS, 1995); Peter Feaver, "The Civil-Military Problematique: Huntington, Janowitz, and the Question of Civilian Control" Armed Forces & Society 23, 2 (1996) 149-78; and Richard Kohn, "How Democracies Control The Military," Journal of Democracy 8, 4 (1997) 140-53,
8. For criticisms of American theory, see S. E. Finer, The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics (London: Pall Mall Press, 1962); Sam Sarkesian, "Military Professionalism and Civil-Military Relations in the West," International Political Science Review 2, 3 (1981): 283-97. New explanations include K. W. Kemp and Charles Hudlin, "Civil Supremacy over the Military: Its Nature and Limits," Armed Forces & Society 19, 1 (1992): 7-26; Rebecca Schiff, "Civil-Military Relations Reconsidered: A Theory of Concordance," Armed Forces & Society 22, 1 (1995); Don Snider and Miranda Carleton-Carew, U.S. Civil-Military Relations: In Crisis or Transition? (Washington, DC: CSIS, 1995); Peter Feaver, "The Civil-Military Problematique: Huntington, Janowitz, and the Question of Civilian Control" Armed Forces & Society 23, 2 (1996) 149-78; and Richard Kohn, "How Democracies Control The Military," Journal of Democracy 8, 4 (1997) 140-53,
9. For criticisms of American theory, see S. E. Finer, The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics (London: Pall Mall Press, 1962); Sam Sarkesian, "Military Professionalism and Civil-Military Relations in the West," International Political Science Review 2, 3 (1981): 283-97. New explanations include K. W. Kemp and Charles Hudlin, "Civil Supremacy over the Military: Its Nature and Limits," Armed Forces & Society 19, 1 (1992): 7-26; Rebecca Schiff, "Civil-Military Relations Reconsidered: A Theory of Concordance," Armed Forces & Society 22, 1 (1995); Don Snider and Miranda Carleton-Carew, U.S. Civil-Military Relations: In Crisis or Transition? (Washington, DC: CSIS, 1995); Peter Feaver, "The Civil-Military Problematique: Huntington, Janowitz, and the Question of Civilian Control" Armed Forces & Society 23, 2 (1996) 149-78; and Richard Kohn, "How Democracies Control The Military," Journal of Democracy 8, 4 (1997) 140-53,
10. For criticisms of American theory, see S. E. Finer, The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics (London: Pall Mall Press, 1962); Sam Sarkesian, "Military Professionalism and Civil-Military Relations in the West," International Political Science Review 2, 3 (1981): 283-97. New explanations include K. W. Kemp and Charles Hudlin, "Civil Supremacy over the Military: Its Nature and Limits," Armed Forces & Society 19, 1 (1992): 7-26; Rebecca Schiff, "Civil-Military Relations Reconsidered: A Theory of Concordance," Armed Forces & Society 22, 1 (1995); Don Snider and Miranda Carleton-Carew, U.S. Civil-Military Relations: In Crisis or Transition? (Washington, DC: CSIS, 1995); Peter Feaver, "The Civil-Military Problematique: Huntington, Janowitz, and the Question of Civilian Control" Armed Forces & Society 23, 2 (1996) 149-78; and Richard Kohn, "How Democracies Control The Military," Journal of Democracy 8, 4 (1997) 140-53,
11. For criticisms of American theory, see S. E. Finer, The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics (London: Pall Mall Press, 1962); Sam Sarkesian, "Military Professionalism and Civil-Military Relations in the West," International Political Science Review 2, 3 (1981): 283-97. New explanations include K. W. Kemp and Charles Hudlin, "Civil Supremacy over the Military: Its Nature and Limits," Armed Forces & Society 19, 1 (1992): 7-26; Rebecca Schiff, "Civil-Military Relations Reconsidered: A Theory of Concordance," Armed Forces & Society 22, 1 (1995); Don Snider and Miranda Carleton-Carew, U.S. Civil-Military Relations: In Crisis or Transition? (Washington, DC: CSIS, 1995); Peter Feaver, "The Civil-Military Problematique: Huntington, Janowitz, and the Question of Civilian Control" Armed Forces & Society 23, 2 (1996) 149-78; and Richard Kohn, "How Democracies Control The Military," Journal of Democracy 8, 4 (1997) 140-53,
12. For criticisms of American theory, see S. E. Finer, The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics (London: Pall Mall Press, 1962); Sam Sarkesian, "Military Professionalism and Civil-Military Relations in the West," International Political Science Review 2, 3 (1981): 283-97. New explanations include K. W. Kemp and Charles Hudlin, "Civil Supremacy over the Military: Its Nature and Limits," Armed Forces & Society 19, 1 (1992): 7-26; Rebecca Schiff, "Civil-Military Relations Reconsidered: A Theory of Concordance," Armed Forces & Society 22, 1 (1995); Don Snider and Miranda Carleton-Carew, U.S. Civil-Military Relations: In Crisis or Transition? (Washington, DC: CSIS, 1995); Peter Feaver, "The Civil-Military Problematique: Huntington, Janowitz, and the Question of Civilian Control" Armed Forces & Society 23, 2 (1996) 149-78; and Richard Kohn, "How Democracies Control The Military," Journal of Democracy 8, 4 (1997) 140-53,
13. For criticisms of American theory, see S. E. Finer, The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics (London: Pall Mall Press, 1962); Sam Sarkesian, "Military Professionalism and Civil-Military Relations in the West," International Political Science Review 2, 3 (1981): 283-97. New explanations include K. W. Kemp and Charles Hudlin, "Civil Supremacy over the Military: Its Nature and Limits," Armed Forces & Society 19, 1 (1992): 7-26; Rebecca Schiff, "Civil-Military Relations Reconsidered: A Theory of Concordance," Armed Forces & Society 22, 1 (1995); Don Snider and Miranda Carleton-Carew, U.S. Civil-Military Relations: In Crisis or Transition? (Washington, DC: CSIS, 1995); Peter Feaver, "The Civil-Military Problematique: Huntington, Janowitz, and the Question of Civilian Control" Armed Forces & Society 23, 2 (1996) 149-78; and Richard Kohn, "How Democracies Control The Military," Journal of Democracy 8, 4 (1997) 140-53,
14. Peter Feaver, Guarding the Guardians: Civilian Control of Nuclear Weapons in the United States (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992), 253.
15. Morris Janowitz, The Professional Soldier: A Social and Political Portrait (New York: The Free Press, 1960), 420.
16. Sir Michael Howard, Soldiers and Governments: Nine Studies in Civil-Military Relations (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1957), 22.
17. History is replete with examples of stress, strain, and occasional ruptures in civil-military relations in western democracies. Consider, for example, the "Curragh incident" in the United Kingdom in 1914; the army "rebellions" in France between 1958 and 1962; MacArthur's challenge to President Truman; the so-called "crisis in civil-military relations" in the United States at the beginning of the Clinton era when the president apparently acquiesced to some significant military policy preferences; and the misconduct in the Canadian Armed Forces during and after units deployed to Somalia in 1993. All these events, save perhaps the French rebellions, occurred without a direct assault on the concept of civil control of the military, but they were all resolved only after subtle applications of the idea by the players involved.
18. Marco Carnovle, "NATO Partners and Allies: Civil-Military Relations and Democratic Control of Armed Forces," NATO Review 2, 45 (1997): 32-35.
19. See, for example, Sir Michael Howard, Soldiers and Governments; Sir John Hackert, The Profession of Arms (London: The Times Publishing Company, 1962); John Terraine, The Western Front 1914-1918 (London: Hutchinson, 1964); Martin Edmonds, Armed Forces and Society, (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1988); Diddy Hitchins and William Jacobs, "United Kingdom," in The Political Role of the Military, ed. Constantine Danopoulos and Cynthia Watson (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1996): 404-19; and Christopher Dandeker, "National Security And Democracy: The United Kingdom Experience," Armed Forces & Society 20, 3 (1994): 353-374.
20. See, for example, Sir Michael Howard, Soldiers and Governments; Sir John Hackert, The Profession of Arms (London: The Times Publishing Company, 1962); John Terraine, The Western Front 1914-1918 (London: Hutchinson, 1964); Martin Edmonds, Armed Forces and Society, (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1988); Diddy Hitchins and William Jacobs, "United Kingdom," in The Political Role of the Military, ed. Constantine Danopoulos and Cynthia Watson (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1996): 404-19; and Christopher Dandeker, "National Security And Democracy: The United Kingdom Experience," Armed Forces & Society 20, 3 (1994): 353-374.
21. See, for example, Sir Michael Howard, Soldiers and Governments; Sir John Hackert, The Profession of Arms (London: The Times Publishing Company, 1962); John Terraine, The Western Front 1914-1918 (London: Hutchinson, 1964); Martin Edmonds, Armed Forces and Society, (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1988); Diddy Hitchins and William Jacobs, "United Kingdom," in The Political Role of the Military, ed. Constantine Danopoulos and Cynthia Watson (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1996): 404-19; and Christopher Dandeker, "National Security And Democracy: The United Kingdom Experience," Armed Forces & Society 20, 3 (1994): 353-374.
22. See, for example, Sir Michael Howard, Soldiers and Governments; Sir John Hackert, The Profession of Arms (London: The Times Publishing Company, 1962); John Terraine, The Western Front 1914-1918 (London: Hutchinson, 1964); Martin Edmonds, Armed Forces and Society, (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1988); Diddy Hitchins and William Jacobs, "United Kingdom," in The Political Role of the Military, ed. Constantine Danopoulos and Cynthia Watson (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1996): 404-19; and Christopher Dandeker, "National Security And Democracy: The United Kingdom Experience," Armed Forces & Society 20, 3 (1994): 353-374.
23. See, for example, Sir Michael Howard, Soldiers and Governments; Sir John Hackert, The Profession of Arms (London: The Times Publishing Company, 1962); John Terraine, The Western Front 1914-1918 (London: Hutchinson, 1964); Martin Edmonds, Armed Forces and Society, (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1988); Diddy Hitchins and William Jacobs, "United Kingdom," in The Political Role of the Military, ed. Constantine Danopoulos and Cynthia Watson (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1996): 404-19; and Christopher Dandeker, "National Security And Democracy: The United Kingdom Experience," Armed Forces & Society 20, 3 (1994): 353-374.
24. See, for example, Sir Michael Howard, Soldiers and Governments; Sir John Hackert, The Profession of Arms (London: The Times Publishing Company, 1962); John Terraine, The Western Front 1914-1918 (London: Hutchinson, 1964); Martin Edmonds, Armed Forces and Society, (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1988); Diddy Hitchins and William Jacobs, "United Kingdom," in The Political Role of the Military, ed. Constantine Danopoulos and Cynthia Watson (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1996): 404-19; and Christopher Dandeker, "National Security And Democracy: The United Kingdom Experience," Armed Forces & Society 20, 3 (1994): 353-374.
25. See for example, Samuel Huntington, The Soldier and the State; Janowitz, The Professional Soldier, Allan Millet, The American Political System and Civilian Control of the Military: An Historical Perspective, Mershon Center Position Papers in Policy Sciences, No. 4 (Columbus, OH: Ohio State University, 1979); Richard Kohn, ed., Revue International D'Histoire Militaire, No. 69-1990 (Washington: New York University, 1991); Danopoulos and Watson, eds., The Political Role of the Military, 420-39; and "The American Military and the Principle of Civil Control from McCellan to Powell," Journal of Military History 57 (October 1993): 27-59.
26. See for example, Samuel Huntington, The Soldier and the State; Janowitz, The Professional Soldier, Allan Millet, The American Political System and Civilian Control of the Military: An Historical Perspective, Mershon Center Position Papers in Policy Sciences, No. 4 (Columbus, OH: Ohio State University, 1979); Richard Kohn, ed., Revue International D'Histoire Militaire, No. 69-1990 (Washington: New York University, 1991); Danopoulos and Watson, eds., The Political Role of the Military, 420-39; and "The American Military and the Principle of Civil Control from McCellan to Powell," Journal of Military History 57 (October 1993): 27-59.
27. See for example, Samuel Huntington, The Soldier and the State; Janowitz, The Professional Soldier, Allan Millet, The American Political System and Civilian Control of the Military: An Historical Perspective, Mershon Center Position Papers in Policy Sciences, No. 4 (Columbus, OH: Ohio State University, 1979); Richard Kohn, ed., Revue International D'Histoire Militaire, No. 69-1990 (Washington: New York University, 1991); Danopoulos and Watson, eds., The Political Role of the Military, 420-39; and "The American Military and the Principle of Civil Control from McCellan to Powell," Journal of Military History 57 (October 1993): 27-59.
28. See for example, Samuel Huntington, The Soldier and the State; Janowitz, The Professional Soldier, Allan Millet, The American Political System and Civilian Control of the Military: An Historical Perspective, Mershon Center Position Papers in Policy Sciences, No. 4 (Columbus, OH: Ohio State University, 1979); Richard Kohn, ed., Revue International D'Histoire Militaire, No. 69-1990 (Washington: New York University, 1991); Danopoulos and Watson, eds., The Political Role of the Military, 420-39; and "The American Military and the Principle of Civil Control from McCellan to Powell," Journal of Military History 57 (October 1993): 27-59.
29. See for example, Samuel Huntington, The Soldier and the State; Janowitz, The Professional Soldier, Allan Millet, The American Political System and Civilian Control of the Military: An Historical Perspective, Mershon Center Position Papers in Policy Sciences, No. 4 (Columbus, OH: Ohio State University, 1979); Richard Kohn, ed., Revue International D'Histoire Militaire, No. 69-1990 (Washington: New York University, 1991); Danopoulos and Watson, eds., The Political Role of the Military, 420-39; and "The American Military and the Principle of Civil Control from McCellan to Powell," Journal of Military History 57 (October 1993): 27-59.
30. See for example, Samuel Huntington, The Soldier and the State; Janowitz, The Professional Soldier, Allan Millet, The American Political System and Civilian Control of the Military: An Historical Perspective, Mershon Center Position Papers in Policy Sciences, No. 4 (Columbus, OH: Ohio State University, 1979); Richard Kohn, ed., Revue International D'Histoire Militaire, No. 69-1990 (Washington: New York University, 1991); Danopoulos and Watson, eds., The Political Role of the Military, 420-39; and "The American Military and the Principle of Civil Control from McCellan to Powell," Journal of Military History 57 (October 1993): 27-59.
31. See Franklyn Johnson, Defence by Committee: The British Committee of Imperial Defence, (London: Oxford University Press, 1960); Franklyn Johnson, Defence by Ministry (New York: Homes and Meier Company, 1980); Henry Eccles, Military Concepts and Philosophy (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1965); Stephen Cimbala, "United States," in The Political Role of the Military, ed. Danopoulos and Watson, 420-39; Robert Art, Strategy and Management in the Post-Cold War World (Carlisle: Strategic Studies Institute, 1992); Robert Art et al., eds., Reorganizing America's Defenses: Leadership in War and Peace (New York: Pergamon Brassey's, 1985); Douglas Bland, Chiefs of Defence: Government and the Unified Command of the Canadian Armed Forces (Toronto: CISS, 1995). On NATO, see Robert Jordan, The NATO International Staff/Secretariate 1952-57 (London: Oxford University Press 1967); Robert Jordan, Generals in International Politics: NATO's Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR), (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1987); Douglas Bland, The Military Committee of the North Atlantic Alliance (New York: Praeger, 1991).
32. See Franklyn Johnson, Defence by Committee: The British Committee of Imperial Defence, (London: Oxford University Press, 1960); Franklyn Johnson, Defence by Ministry (New York: Homes and Meier Company, 1980); Henry Eccles, Military Concepts and Philosophy (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1965); Stephen Cimbala, "United States," in The Political Role of the Military, ed. Danopoulos and Watson, 420-39; Robert Art, Strategy and Management in the Post-Cold War World (Carlisle: Strategic Studies Institute, 1992); Robert Art et al., eds., Reorganizing America's Defenses: Leadership in War and Peace (New York: Pergamon Brassey's, 1985); Douglas Bland, Chiefs of Defence: Government and the Unified Command of the Canadian Armed Forces (Toronto: CISS, 1995). On NATO, see Robert Jordan, The NATO International Staff/Secretariate 1952-57 (London: Oxford University Press 1967); Robert Jordan, Generals in International Politics: NATO's Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR), (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1987); Douglas Bland, The Military Committee of the North Atlantic Alliance (New York: Praeger, 1991).
33. See Franklyn Johnson, Defence by Committee: The British Committee of Imperial Defence, (London: Oxford University Press, 1960); Franklyn Johnson, Defence by Ministry (New York: Homes and Meier Company, 1980); Henry Eccles, Military Concepts and Philosophy (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1965); Stephen Cimbala, "United States," in The Political Role of the Military, ed. Danopoulos and Watson, 420-39; Robert Art, Strategy and Management in the Post-Cold War World (Carlisle: Strategic Studies Institute, 1992); Robert Art et al., eds., Reorganizing America's Defenses: Leadership in War and Peace (New York: Pergamon Brassey's, 1985); Douglas Bland, Chiefs of Defence: Government and the Unified Command of the Canadian Armed Forces (Toronto: CISS, 1995). On NATO, see Robert Jordan, The NATO International Staff/Secretariate 1952-57 (London: Oxford University Press 1967); Robert Jordan, Generals in International Politics: NATO's Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR), (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1987); Douglas Bland, The Military Committee of the North Atlantic Alliance (New York: Praeger, 1991).
34. See Franklyn Johnson, Defence by Committee: The British Committee of Imperial Defence, (London: Oxford University Press, 1960); Franklyn Johnson, Defence by Ministry (New York: Homes and Meier Company, 1980); Henry Eccles, Military Concepts and Philosophy (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1965); Stephen Cimbala, "United States," in The Political Role of the Military, ed. Danopoulos and Watson, 420-39; Robert Art, Strategy and Management in the Post-Cold War World (Carlisle: Strategic Studies Institute, 1992); Robert Art et al., eds., Reorganizing America's Defenses: Leadership in War and Peace (New York: Pergamon Brassey's, 1985); Douglas Bland, Chiefs of Defence: Government and the Unified Command of the Canadian Armed Forces (Toronto: CISS, 1995). On NATO, see Robert Jordan, The NATO International Staff/Secretariate 1952-57 (London: Oxford University Press 1967); Robert Jordan, Generals in International Politics: NATO's Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR), (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1987); Douglas Bland, The Military Committee of the North Atlantic Alliance (New York: Praeger, 1991).
35. See Franklyn Johnson, Defence by Committee: The British Committee of Imperial Defence, (London: Oxford University Press, 1960); Franklyn Johnson, Defence by Ministry (New York: Homes and Meier Company, 1980); Henry Eccles, Military Concepts and Philosophy (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1965); Stephen Cimbala, "United States," in The Political Role of the Military, ed. Danopoulos and Watson, 420-39; Robert Art, Strategy and Management in the Post-Cold War World (Carlisle: Strategic Studies Institute, 1992); Robert Art et al., eds., Reorganizing America's Defenses: Leadership in War and Peace (New York: Pergamon Brassey's, 1985); Douglas Bland, Chiefs of Defence: Government and the Unified Command of the Canadian Armed Forces (Toronto: CISS, 1995). On NATO, see Robert Jordan, The NATO International Staff/Secretariate 1952-57 (London: Oxford University Press 1967); Robert Jordan, Generals in International Politics: NATO's Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR), (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1987); Douglas Bland, The Military Committee of the North Atlantic Alliance (New York: Praeger, 1991).
36. See Franklyn Johnson, Defence by Committee: The British Committee of Imperial Defence, (London: Oxford University Press, 1960); Franklyn Johnson, Defence by Ministry (New York: Homes and Meier Company, 1980); Henry Eccles, Military Concepts and Philosophy (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1965); Stephen Cimbala, "United States," in The Political Role of the Military, ed. Danopoulos and Watson, 420-39; Robert Art, Strategy and Management in the Post-Cold War World (Carlisle: Strategic Studies Institute, 1992); Robert Art et al., eds., Reorganizing America's Defenses: Leadership in War and Peace (New York: Pergamon Brassey's, 1985); Douglas Bland, Chiefs of Defence: Government and the Unified Command of the Canadian Armed Forces (Toronto: CISS, 1995). On NATO, see Robert Jordan, The NATO International Staff/Secretariate 1952-57 (London: Oxford University Press 1967); Robert Jordan, Generals in International Politics: NATO's Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR), (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1987); Douglas Bland, The Military Committee of the North Atlantic Alliance (New York: Praeger, 1991).
37. See Franklyn Johnson, Defence by Committee: The British Committee of Imperial Defence, (London: Oxford University Press, 1960); Franklyn Johnson, Defence by Ministry (New York: Homes and Meier Company, 1980); Henry Eccles, Military Concepts and Philosophy (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1965); Stephen Cimbala, "United States," in The Political Role of the Military, ed. Danopoulos and Watson, 420-39; Robert Art, Strategy and Management in the Post-Cold War World (Carlisle: Strategic Studies Institute, 1992); Robert Art et al., eds., Reorganizing America's Defenses: Leadership in War and Peace (New York: Pergamon Brassey's, 1985); Douglas Bland, Chiefs of Defence: Government and the Unified Command of the Canadian Armed Forces (Toronto: CISS, 1995). On NATO, see Robert Jordan, The NATO International Staff/Secretariate 1952-57 (London: Oxford University Press 1967); Robert Jordan, Generals in International Politics: NATO's Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR), (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1987); Douglas Bland, The Military Committee of the North Atlantic Alliance (New York: Praeger, 1991).
38. See Franklyn Johnson, Defence by Committee: The British Committee of Imperial Defence, (London: Oxford University Press, 1960); Franklyn Johnson, Defence by Ministry (New York: Homes and Meier Company, 1980); Henry Eccles, Military Concepts and Philosophy (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1965); Stephen Cimbala, "United States," in The Political Role of the Military, ed. Danopoulos and Watson, 420-39; Robert Art, Strategy and Management in the Post-Cold War World (Carlisle: Strategic Studies Institute, 1992); Robert Art et al., eds., Reorganizing America's Defenses: Leadership in War and Peace (New York: Pergamon Brassey's, 1985); Douglas Bland, Chiefs of Defence: Government and the Unified Command of the Canadian Armed Forces (Toronto: CISS, 1995). On NATO, see Robert Jordan, The NATO International Staff/Secretariate 1952-57 (London: Oxford University Press 1967); Robert Jordan, Generals in International Politics: NATO's Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR), (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1987); Douglas Bland, The Military Committee of the North Atlantic Alliance (New York: Praeger, 1991).
39. See Franklyn Johnson, Defence by Committee: The British Committee of Imperial Defence, (London: Oxford University Press, 1960); Franklyn Johnson, Defence by Ministry (New York: Homes and Meier Company, 1980); Henry Eccles, Military Concepts and Philosophy (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1965); Stephen Cimbala, "United States," in The Political Role of the Military, ed. Danopoulos and Watson, 420-39; Robert Art, Strategy and Management in the Post-Cold War World (Carlisle: Strategic Studies Institute, 1992); Robert Art et al., eds., Reorganizing America's Defenses: Leadership in War and Peace (New York: Pergamon Brassey's, 1985); Douglas Bland, Chiefs of Defence: Government and the Unified Command of the Canadian Armed Forces (Toronto: CISS, 1995). On NATO, see Robert Jordan, The NATO International Staff/Secretariate 1952-57 (London: Oxford University Press 1967); Robert Jordan, Generals in International Politics: NATO's Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR), (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1987); Douglas Bland, The Military Committee of the North Atlantic Alliance (New York: Praeger, 1991).
40. See Franklyn Johnson, Defence by Committee: The British Committee of Imperial Defence, (London: Oxford University Press, 1960); Franklyn Johnson, Defence by Ministry (New York: Homes and Meier Company, 1980); Henry Eccles, Military Concepts and Philosophy (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1965); Stephen Cimbala, "United States," in The Political Role of the Military, ed. Danopoulos and Watson, 420-39; Robert Art, Strategy and Management in the Post-Cold War World (Carlisle: Strategic Studies Institute, 1992); Robert Art et al., eds., Reorganizing America's Defenses: Leadership in War and Peace (New York: Pergamon Brassey's, 1985); Douglas Bland, Chiefs of Defence: Government and the Unified Command of the Canadian Armed Forces (Toronto: CISS, 1995). On NATO, see Robert Jordan, The NATO International Staff/Secretariate 1952-57 (London: Oxford University Press 1967); Robert Jordan, Generals in International Politics: NATO's Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR), (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1987); Douglas Bland, The Military Committee of the North Atlantic Alliance (New York: Praeger, 1991).
41. See Larry Diamond and Marc Plattner, "Introduction," and Section III, "The Postcommunist World" in Civil-Military Relations and Democracy, eds. Diamond and Platter, xxix; Jeffery Simon, NATO Enlargement and Central Europe: A Study in Civil-Military Relations (Washington, DC: NDU Press, 1996). Andrew Michta, East Central Europe after the Warsaw Pact, (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992); Jerzy Wiatr, "Poland' in, The Political Role of the Military, ed. Danopoulos and Watson, 361-73.
42. See Larry Diamond and Marc Plattner, "Introduction," and Section III, "The Postcommunist World" in Civil-Military Relations and Democracy, eds. Diamond and Platter, xxix; Jeffery Simon, NATO Enlargement and Central Europe: A Study in Civil-Military Relations (Washington, DC: NDU Press, 1996). Andrew Michta, East Central Europe after the Warsaw Pact, (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992); Jerzy Wiatr, "Poland' in, The Political Role of the Military, ed. Danopoulos and Watson, 361-73.
43. See Larry Diamond and Marc Plattner, "Introduction," and Section III, "The Postcommunist World" in Civil-Military Relations and Democracy, eds. Diamond and Platter, xxix; Jeffery Simon, NATO Enlargement and Central Europe: A Study in Civil-Military Relations (Washington, DC: NDU Press, 1996). Andrew Michta, East Central Europe after the Warsaw Pact, (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992); Jerzy Wiatr, "Poland' in, The Political Role of the Military, ed. Danopoulos and Watson, 361-73.
44. See Larry Diamond and Marc Plattner, "Introduction," and Section III, "The Postcommunist World" in Civil-Military Relations and Democracy, eds. Diamond and Platter, xxix; Jeffery Simon, NATO Enlargement and Central Europe: A Study in Civil-Military Relations (Washington, DC: NDU Press, 1996). Andrew Michta, East Central Europe after the Warsaw Pact, (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992); Jerzy Wiatr, "Poland' in, The Political Role of the Military, ed. Danopoulos and Watson, 361-73.
45. Stephen Krasner, "Structural Causes and Regime Consequences: Regimes As Intervening Variables" in International Regimes, ed. Stephen Krasner, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983), 2-4.
46. This definition fits most states in most cases and satisfies the needs of the "general model." However, in some states, as in the United States, the civil authority might include "appointed" individuals such as members of the American federal cabinet and other civil servants. But in these cases, too, the civil authority is accountable to the electorate even through Congress and the president. Thus, the definition stands as a generally accepted notion.
47. In nations where the "services" are legally independent, the civil authority alone would appoint service chiefs of staff who would "serve at pleasure."
48. Richard Betts, Soldiers, Statesmen, and Cold War Crises (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 5-12.
49. The implication of this concept is that it is an offence for anyone to obey "a manifestly unlawful" order and it therefore places individual responsibility above institutional order.
50. Canada, Dishonoured Legacy: The Lessons of the Somalia Affair, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Deployment of the Canadian Forces to Somalia, Ottawa, 1997, 389.
51. There is a fundamental contradiction between military service and a citizen's human rights, most dramatically illustrated by the right of superiors to order individuals into situations where they will likely be wounded or killed, an act that deprives the individual of his or her most basic human right but for which the individual has few lawful means of redress.
52. Henry Eccler, Military Concepts and Philosophy, (New Jersy, Rutgers University Press, 1965) p. 192.