Labor, race, and technology in the confederate iron industry

Technology and Culture

Volumn 42, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 1-26

  Knowles, Anne Kelly ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035592381     PISSN: 0040165X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/tech.2001.0022     Document Type: Article

References (118)

1. Charles B. Dew, Ironmaker to the Confederacy: Joseph R. Anderson and the Tredegar Iron Works (New Haven, Conn., 1966), 78, 106, 147; Josiah Gorgas, "Notes on the Ordnance Department of the Confederate Government," reprinted in Southern Historical Society Papers 12 (1884), 67-94; Steven G. Collins, "System in the South: John W. Mallet, Josiah Gorgas, and Uniform Production at the Confederate Ordnance Department," Technology and Culture 40 (1999), 529-31.
2. Charles B. Dew, Ironmaker to the Confederacy: Joseph R. Anderson and the Tredegar Iron Works (New Haven, Conn., 1966), 78, 106, 147; Josiah Gorgas, "Notes on the Ordnance Department of the Confederate Government," reprinted in Southern Historical Society Papers 12 (1884), 67-94; Steven G. Collins, "System in the South: John W. Mallet, Josiah Gorgas, and Uniform Production at the Confederate Ordnance Department," Technology and Culture 40 (1999), 529-31.
3. Charles B. Dew, Ironmaker to the Confederacy: Joseph R. Anderson and the Tredegar Iron Works (New Haven, Conn., 1966), 78, 106, 147; Josiah Gorgas, "Notes on the Ordnance Department of the Confederate Government," reprinted in Southern Historical Society Papers 12 (1884), 67-94; Steven G. Collins, "System in the South: John W. Mallet, Josiah Gorgas, and Uniform Production at the Confederate Ordnance Department," Technology and Culture 40 (1999), 529-31.
4. James M. McPherson, Ordeal by Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (New York, 1982), 197, 198, and Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York, 1988), 319-20. Gorgas quoted in Ordeal by Fire, 198, and Battle Cry, 320. The standard sources for Gorgas are Frank E. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords: Josiah Gorgas and Confederate Ordnance (Austin, Tex., 1952); Frank E. Vandiver, ed., The Civil War Diary of General Josiah Gorgas (University, Miss., 1947); and Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, ed., The Journals of Josiah Gorgas, 1857-1878 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1995).
5. James M. McPherson, Ordeal by Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (New York, 1982), 197, 198, and Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York, 1988), 319-20. Gorgas quoted in Ordeal by Fire, 198, and Battle Cry, 320. The standard sources for Gorgas are Frank E. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords: Josiah Gorgas and Confederate Ordnance (Austin, Tex., 1952); Frank E. Vandiver, ed., The Civil War Diary of General Josiah Gorgas (University, Miss., 1947); and Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, ed., The Journals of Josiah Gorgas, 1857-1878 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1995).
6. James M. McPherson, Ordeal by Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (New York, 1982), 197, 198, and Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York, 1988), 319-20. Gorgas quoted in Ordeal by Fire, 198, and Battle Cry, 320. The standard sources for Gorgas are Frank E. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords: Josiah Gorgas and Confederate Ordnance (Austin, Tex., 1952); Frank E. Vandiver, ed., The Civil War Diary of General Josiah Gorgas (University, Miss., 1947); and Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, ed., The Journals of Josiah Gorgas, 1857-1878 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1995).
7. James M. McPherson, Ordeal by Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (New York, 1982), 197, 198, and Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York, 1988), 319-20. Gorgas quoted in Ordeal by Fire, 198, and Battle Cry, 320. The standard sources for Gorgas are Frank E. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords: Josiah Gorgas and Confederate Ordnance (Austin, Tex., 1952); Frank E. Vandiver, ed., The Civil War Diary of General Josiah Gorgas (University, Miss., 1947); and Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, ed., The Journals of Josiah Gorgas, 1857-1878 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1995).
8. James M. McPherson, Ordeal by Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (New York, 1982), 197, 198, and Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York, 1988), 319-20. Gorgas quoted in Ordeal by Fire, 198, and Battle Cry, 320. The standard sources for Gorgas are Frank E. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords: Josiah Gorgas and Confederate Ordnance (Austin, Tex., 1952); Frank E. Vandiver, ed., The Civil War Diary of General Josiah Gorgas (University, Miss., 1947); and Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, ed., The Journals of Josiah Gorgas, 1857-1878 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1995).
9. James M. McPherson, Ordeal by Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (New York, 1982), 197, 198, and Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York, 1988), 319-20. Gorgas quoted in Ordeal by Fire, 198, and Battle Cry, 320. The standard sources for Gorgas are Frank E. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords: Josiah Gorgas and Confederate Ordnance (Austin, Tex., 1952); Frank E. Vandiver, ed., The Civil War Diary of General Josiah Gorgas (University, Miss., 1947); and Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, ed., The Journals of Josiah Gorgas, 1857-1878 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1995).
10. James M. McPherson, Ordeal by Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (New York, 1982), 197, 198, and Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York, 1988), 319-20. Gorgas quoted in Ordeal by Fire, 198, and Battle Cry, 320. The standard sources for Gorgas are Frank E. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords: Josiah Gorgas and Confederate Ordnance (Austin, Tex., 1952); Frank E. Vandiver, ed., The Civil War Diary of General Josiah Gorgas (University, Miss., 1947); and Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, ed., The Journals of Josiah Gorgas, 1857-1878 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1995).
11. Gorgas to James A. Seddon, 13 October 1864, reprinted in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, ed. Fred. C. Ainsworth and Joseph W. Kirkley (Washington, 1900), ser. 4, 3:733-34. See also Gorgas to Seddon, 31 December 1864, same volume, 986-87.
12. J. Peter Lesley, The Iron Manufacturer's Guide to the Furnaces, Forges and Rolling Mills of the United States (New York, 1859); Robert B. Gordon, American Iron, 1607-1900 (Baltimore, 1996), 59-86, 155-65. On the early anthracite iron industry of the Lehigh Valley, see Craig L. Bartholomew and Lance E. Metz, The Anthracite Iron Industry of the Lehigh Valley, ed. Ann Bartholomew (Easton, Pa., 1988).
13. J. Peter Lesley, The Iron Manufacturer's Guide to the Furnaces, Forges and Rolling Mills of the United States (New York, 1859); Robert B. Gordon, American Iron, 1607-1900 (Baltimore, 1996), 59-86, 155-65. On the early anthracite iron industry of the Lehigh Valley, see Craig L. Bartholomew and Lance E. Metz, The Anthracite Iron Industry of the Lehigh Valley, ed. Ann Bartholomew (Easton, Pa., 1988).
14. J. Peter Lesley, The Iron Manufacturer's Guide to the Furnaces, Forges and Rolling Mills of the United States (New York, 1859); Robert B. Gordon, American Iron, 1607-1900 (Baltimore, 1996), 59-86, 155-65. On the early anthracite iron industry of the Lehigh Valley, see Craig L. Bartholomew and Lance E. Metz, The Anthracite Iron Industry of the Lehigh Valley, ed. Ann Bartholomew (Easton, Pa., 1988).
15. Peter Temin, Iron and Steel in Nineteenth-Century America: An Economic Enquiry (Cambridge, Mass., 1964), 268-69, table C.3.
16. Gordon, 55-86, 114, 316-18; Dew (n. 1 above), map opposite p. 100. Letters received from foundries, 1855-1861: reports on guns cast at West Point Foundry, 1855; Lt. W. B. Renshay, Fort Pitt Iron Works, to Bureau of Ordnance, 14 July 1855; report from John A. Dahlgren, 24 January 1856; memoranda from Dahlgren, 7 and 8 February 1856; Andrew A. Harwood to Capt. G. A. Magruder, 7 December 1860, Record Group 74, Records of the Bureau of Ordnance [Navy], National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C. (hereafter NARA).
17. Lesley; Temin, 268-69, table C.3; Anne Kelly Knowles, Calvinists Incorporated: Welsh Immigrants on Ohio's Industrial Frontier (Chicago, 1997), 168-70; James Larry Smith, "Historical Geography of the Southern Charcoal Iron Industry, 1800-1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 1982).
18. Lesley; Temin, 268-69, table C.3; Anne Kelly Knowles, Calvinists Incorporated: Welsh Immigrants on Ohio's Industrial Frontier (Chicago, 1997), 168-70; James Larry Smith, "Historical Geography of the Southern Charcoal Iron Industry, 1800-1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 1982).
19. Lesley; Temin, 268-69, table C.3; Anne Kelly Knowles, Calvinists Incorporated: Welsh Immigrants on Ohio's Industrial Frontier (Chicago, 1997), 168-70; James Larry Smith, "Historical Geography of the Southern Charcoal Iron Industry, 1800-1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 1982).
20. Lesley's directory of the iron industry is exceptionally detailed. Unlike most nineteenth-century iron industry directories, which are little more than lists of ironworks, their owners, date of construction, and production capacity, the Iron Manufacturer's Guide's paragraph-long entries describe the geographical location and endowments of many works, the circumstances of their success or failure, their basic equipment, and sometimes other details of operation and business history. The guide says almost nothing, however, about labor. Entries on Southern ironworks tend to be shorter and less reliable, as the men who collected information in the South for Lesley warned him they would be. See letters to J. P. Lesley in Benjamin Smith Lyman Collection, ser. I, box 14, University of Massachusetts at Amherst, W. E. B. DuBois Library Special Collections; J. Peter and Joseph Lesley Correspondence, J. Peter Lesley Papers, B:L56.2, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.
21. Lesley; Gordon, 79-86; Kenneth Warren, The American Steel Industry, 1850-1970: A Geographical Interpretation (Pittsburgh, 1973), 24-25; Letters received from foundries, Records of the Bureau of Ordnance [Navy], boxes 1-5, Entry 20, RG74, NARA.
22. Lesley; Gordon, 79-86; Kenneth Warren, The American Steel Industry, 1850-1970: A Geographical Interpretation (Pittsburgh, 1973), 24-25; Letters received from foundries, Records of the Bureau of Ordnance [Navy], boxes 1-5, Entry 20, RG74, NARA.
23. Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977), 310-22.
24. Technology may not drive history, but this study suggests a direct and very important relationship between technology and demand for particular kinds of labor. Further study of this relationship may raise new questions about technological determinism, questions skirted or ignored in the classic collection of essays on the subject, Merritt Roe Smith and Leo Marx, eds., Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism (Cambridge, Mass., 1994).
25. Ronald L. Lewis, Coal, Iron, and Slaves: Industrial Slavery in Maryland and Virginia, 1715-1865 (Westport, Conn., 1979), 20-35; Charles B. Dew, Bond of Iron: Master and Slave at Buffalo Forge (New York, 1994), and "David Ross and the Oxford Ironworks: A Study of Industrial Slavery in the Early Nineteenth-Century South," William and Mary Quarterly 31 (1974), 195-97.
26. Ronald L. Lewis, Coal, Iron, and Slaves: Industrial Slavery in Maryland and Virginia, 1715-1865 (Westport, Conn., 1979), 20-35; Charles B. Dew, Bond of Iron: Master and Slave at Buffalo Forge (New York, 1994), and "David Ross and the Oxford Ironworks: A Study of Industrial Slavery in the Early Nineteenth-Century South," William and Mary Quarterly 31 (1974), 195-97.
27. Ronald L. Lewis, Coal, Iron, and Slaves: Industrial Slavery in Maryland and Virginia, 1715-1865 (Westport, Conn., 1979), 20-35; Charles B. Dew, Bond of Iron: Master and Slave at Buffalo Forge (New York, 1994), and "David Ross and the Oxford Ironworks: A Study of Industrial Slavery in the Early Nineteenth-Century South," William and Mary Quarterly 31 (1974), 195-97.
28. Gordon (n. 4 above), 85; Lesley (n. 4 above), 246; U.S. manuscript population census, 1850, Cass County, Georgia.
29. Gordon (n. 4 above), 85; Lesley (n. 4 above), 246; U.S. manuscript population census, 1850, Cass County, Georgia.
30. W. David Lewis, Sloss Furnaces and the Rise of the Birmingham District: An Industrial Epic (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1994), 484-89; U.S. manuscript population census and slave schedules, 1850, Stewart County, Tennessee.
31. Arnulf Grübler, "Time for a Change: On the Patterns of Diffusion of Innovation," Daedalus 125, no. 3 (1996): 21-22. The classic studies are H. M. Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (Chicago, 1992), and Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (Princeton, N.J., 1985). My thanks to Steven Harris and Dan Johnson for introducing me to this literature.
32. Arnulf Grübler, "Time for a Change: On the Patterns of Diffusion of Innovation," Daedalus 125, no. 3 (1996): 21-22. The classic studies are H. M. Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (Chicago, 1992), and Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (Princeton, N.J., 1985). My thanks to Steven Harris and Dan Johnson for introducing me to this literature.
33. Arnulf Grübler, "Time for a Change: On the Patterns of Diffusion of Innovation," Daedalus 125, no. 3 (1996): 21-22. The classic studies are H. M. Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (Chicago, 1992), and Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (Princeton, N.J., 1985). My thanks to Steven Harris and Dan Johnson for introducing me to this literature.
34. Chris Evans, "The Labyrinth of Flames": Work and Social Conflict in Early Industrial Merthyr Tydfil (Cardiff, 1993); John Langton and R. J. Morris, eds., Atlas of Industrializing Britain, 1780-1914 (London, 1986), 129, map 15.3.
35. Chris Evans, "The Labyrinth of Flames": Work and Social Conflict in Early Industrial Merthyr Tydfil (Cardiff, 1993); John Langton and R. J. Morris, eds., Atlas of Industrializing Britain, 1780-1914 (London, 1986), 129, map 15.3.
36. For a summary of the debate over whether Thomas or his employer, George Crane, deserves credit for inventing the process, see Darwin H. Stapleton, The Transfer of Early Industrial Technologies to America (Philadelphia, 1987), 178, and Bartholomew and Metz (n. 4 above), 20-27.
37. For a summary of the debate over whether Thomas or his employer, George Crane, deserves credit for inventing the process, see Darwin H. Stapleton, The Transfer of Early Industrial Technologies to America (Philadelphia, 1987), 178, and Bartholomew and Metz (n. 4 above), 20-27.
38. Minutes of stockholders meeting, 23 May 1839, acc. no. 1198, Lehigh Crane Iron Co., vol. 1a, Eleutherian Mills Historical Library, Wilmington, Del. This was the original plan. Because of delays in shipping equipment from Britain, the furnace cylinders were made in Philadelphia, presumably to Thomas's design. Stapleton, 181-82.
39. U.S. manuscript population census, 1850 and 1860, town of Catasauqua, Lehigh County, Pennsylvania; Peter N. Williams, David Thomas: Iron Man from Wales (Trucksville, Pa., 1995).
40. Welsh immigrant obituaries published between 1838 and 1853 in three Welsh-American periodicals: Y Cyfaill o'r Hen Wlad (The friend from the old country), Y Cenhadwr Americanaidd (The American missionary), and Y Beread (The Berean, referring to the biblical town of Berea and its inhabitants). My thanks to J. Gwynfor Jones for explaining the reference to Berea. For a discussion of this source material and its problems, see Knowles (n. 7 above), 10-13.
41. Thomas to his sister Bess, 11 January 1836, typescript, Edward Thomas letters, National Canal Museum, Easton, Pa. The Canal Museum has photocopies of typescripts of Thomas's letters; the Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center holds photocopies of the manuscripts in its miscellaneous manuscripts collection. My thanks to Lance Metz, historian at the National Canal Museum, for providing me with a copy of the typescripts.
42. Norman J. G. Pounds, "Historical Geography of the Iron and Steel Industry in France," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 47 (1957), 3-14.
43. Donald Reid, The Miners of Decazeville: A Genealogy of Deindustrialization (Cambridge, Mass., 1985), 17-20; Yves Randeynes, "Welsh People in France," n.d., typescript, transcribes births, marriages, and deaths from parish records; electronic correspondence with Joane Jay (Tucson, Ariz.) and Brian Wagstaffe (Neath, Glamorganshire) regarding the migration history of their relative, Rees Joshua Prosser, and his family.
44. Donald Reid, The Miners of Decazeville: A Genealogy of Deindustrialization (Cambridge, Mass., 1985), 17-20; Yves Randeynes, "Welsh People in France," n.d., typescript, transcribes births, marriages, and deaths from parish records; electronic correspondence with Joane Jay (Tucson, Ariz.) and Brian Wagstaffe (Neath, Glamorganshire) regarding the migration history of their relative, Rees Joshua Prosser, and his family.
45. Reid, 18.
46. Agreement between Erskine Hazard, for the Lehigh Crane Iron Company, and David Thomas, 2 July 1839, reprinted in Bartholomew and Metz (n. 4 above), 22; Williams (n. 19 above), 27-28, 65; David Thomas Papers, acc. no. 2023, Eleutherian Mills Historical Library; vols, 1a, 1b (minutes of stockholders' meetings) and 2a, 2b (minutes of the board of directors), Lehigh Crane Iron Company Papers, acc. no. 1198, Eleutherian Mills Historical Library.
47. Agreement between Erskine Hazard, for the Lehigh Crane Iron Company, and David Thomas, 2 July 1839, reprinted in Bartholomew and Metz (n. 4 above), 22; Williams (n. 19 above), 27-28, 65; David Thomas Papers, acc. no. 2023, Eleutherian Mills Historical Library; vols, 1a, 1b (minutes of stockholders' meetings) and 2a, 2b (minutes of the board of directors), Lehigh Crane Iron Company Papers, acc. no. 1198, Eleutherian Mills Historical Library.
48. Edward Thomas to William [Thomas?], 2 February 1836, Edward Thomas letters, National Canal Museum.
49. Ira Berlin and Herbert G. Gutman, "Natives and Immigrants, Free Men and Slaves: Urban Workingmen in the Antebellum American South," American Historical Review 88 (1983), 1175-1200; Dennis C. Rousey, "Aliens in the WASP Nest: Ethnocultural Diversity in the Antebellum Urban South," Journal of American History 79 (1992), 152-64.
50. Ira Berlin and Herbert G. Gutman, "Natives and Immigrants, Free Men and Slaves: Urban Workingmen in the Antebellum American South," American Historical Review 88 (1983), 1175-1200; Dennis C. Rousey, "Aliens in the WASP Nest: Ethnocultural Diversity in the Antebellum Urban South," Journal of American History 79 (1992), 152-64.
51. Obituary of Rhys Davies, Richmond Enquirer, 14 September 1838; Kathleen Bruce, Virginia Iron Manufacture in the Slave Era (New York, 1931), 151, 153, 224.
52. Obituary of Rhys Davies, Richmond Enquirer, 14 September 1838; Kathleen Bruce, Virginia Iron Manufacture in the Slave Era (New York, 1931), 151, 153, 224.
53. J. R. Anderson to Board of Directors, 17 June 1842, and unsigned note in the hand of J. R. Anderson to S. H. Hartman, 18 November 1845, Minutes of the Directors and Stockholders, 12 January 1838-9 January 1850, Tredegar Company Supplementary Records 24808 (23), Library of Virginia; Operations of the Tredegar Iron Works, Suit Papers: Chesapeake and Ohio R.R. Co. vs. Tredegar Co., 1936, Box 6, Tredegar Company Supplementary Records, 1838-1957, Library of Virginia; Richmond City Court Hustings Minutes no. 17, reel 91 (1846-1848), Library of Virginia, Richmond; U.S. manuscript population census, 1850, Henrico County, City of Richmond, Virginia; Patricia A. Schechter, "Free and Slave Labor in the Old South: The Tredegar Ironworkers' Strike of 1847," Labor History 35 (1994), 165-86; Dew, Ironmaker to the Confederacy (n. 1 above), 23-26. In 1845 Anderson swore he would never hire another "Pittsburgh Puddler"; unsigned note, in the hand of J. R. Anderson, to S. H. Hartman, 18 November 1845, Tredegar Company Supplementary Records 24808 (23), Minutes of the Directors and Stockholders, 12 January 1838-9 January 1850, 463-64. He may have meant Welsh puddlers, for they were prominent at antebellum Pittsburgh ironworks and were instrumental in founding the puddlers and boilers union, the Sons of Vulcan, during the Civil War. The Vulcan Record 1 (January 1868); John William Bennett, "Iron Workers in Woods Run and Johnstown: The Union Era 1865-1895" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pittsburgh, 1977).
54. J. R. Anderson to Board of Directors, 17 June 1842, and unsigned note in the hand of J. R. Anderson to S. H. Hartman, 18 November 1845, Minutes of the Directors and Stockholders, 12 January 1838-9 January 1850, Tredegar Company Supplementary Records 24808 (23), Library of Virginia; Operations of the Tredegar Iron Works, Suit Papers: Chesapeake and Ohio R.R. Co. vs. Tredegar Co., 1936, Box 6, Tredegar Company Supplementary Records, 1838-1957, Library of Virginia; Richmond City Court Hustings Minutes no. 17, reel 91 (1846-1848), Library of Virginia, Richmond; U.S. manuscript population census, 1850, Henrico County, City of Richmond, Virginia; Patricia A. Schechter, "Free and Slave Labor in the Old South: The Tredegar Ironworkers' Strike of 1847," Labor History 35 (1994), 165-86; Dew, Ironmaker to the Confederacy (n. 1 above), 23-26. In 1845 Anderson swore he would never hire another "Pittsburgh Puddler"; unsigned note, in the hand of J. R. Anderson, to S. H. Hartman, 18 November 1845, Tredegar Company Supplementary Records 24808 (23), Minutes of the Directors and Stockholders, 12 January 1838-9 January 1850, 463-64. He may have meant Welsh puddlers, for they were prominent at antebellum Pittsburgh ironworks and were instrumental in founding the puddlers and boilers union, the Sons of Vulcan, during the Civil War. The Vulcan Record 1 (January 1868); John William Bennett, "Iron Workers in Woods Run and Johnstown: The Union Era 1865-1895" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pittsburgh, 1977).
55. J. R. Anderson to Board of Directors, 17 June 1842, and unsigned note in the hand of J. R. Anderson to S. H. Hartman, 18 November 1845, Minutes of the Directors and Stockholders, 12 January 1838-9 January 1850, Tredegar Company Supplementary Records 24808 (23), Library of Virginia; Operations of the Tredegar Iron Works, Suit Papers: Chesapeake and Ohio R.R. Co. vs. Tredegar Co., 1936, Box 6, Tredegar Company Supplementary Records, 1838-1957, Library of Virginia; Richmond City Court Hustings Minutes no. 17, reel 91 (1846-1848), Library of Virginia, Richmond; U.S. manuscript population census, 1850, Henrico County, City of Richmond, Virginia; Patricia A. Schechter, "Free and Slave Labor in the Old South: The Tredegar Ironworkers' Strike of 1847," Labor History 35 (1994), 165-86; Dew, Ironmaker to the Confederacy (n. 1 above), 23-26. In 1845 Anderson swore he would never hire another "Pittsburgh Puddler"; unsigned note, in the hand of J. R. Anderson, to S. H. Hartman, 18 November 1845, Tredegar Company Supplementary Records 24808 (23), Minutes of the Directors and Stockholders, 12 January 1838-9 January 1850, 463-64. He may have meant Welsh puddlers, for they were prominent at antebellum Pittsburgh ironworks and were instrumental in founding the puddlers and boilers union, the Sons of Vulcan, during the Civil War. The Vulcan Record 1 (January 1868); John William Bennett, "Iron Workers in Woods Run and Johnstown: The Union Era 1865-1895" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pittsburgh, 1977).
56. J. R. Anderson to Dr. W. E. Daniell, 28 October 1850, cited in Bruce, 239; J. R. Anderson to Major Mark A. Cooper, 15 December 1851, cited in Gregg D. Kimball, "Expanding Slavery with the Skill of Strangers: The Tredegar Iron Works in the Cultural Geography of the 1850s" (paper presented at the 1996 meeting of the Social Science History Association, New Orleans), 28; Joseph R. Anderson to Horace Ware, 12 February 1859, Incoming Correspondence to A. T. Jones, correspondence files 001, Shelby Iron Works Papers (hereafter SIW001), W. S. Hoole Special Collections, University of Alabama.
57. Bruce, 232-35, 246, 248-49. Bruce does not substantiate her claim that "Practically since 1843 slave labor supervised by white puddlers, heaters, and guide rollers, skilled native Americans . . . , had carried on in large part the work of the Tredegar rolling mill" (224). Dew shows conclusively, in Bond of Iron (n. 12 above), that slave artisans dominated rural iron manufacturing in Virginia and probably most other Southern states.
58. The problem of white artisans refusing to train slaves dates back to colonial iron making. "When the Principio [Maryland] proprietors wanted the British artisans to teach their skills to blacks, they encountered difficulties: 'all the Arguments yet could be used cou'd not prevail with the Gloucestershire finers to admit of a clause to teach Negroes.'" Gordon (n. 4 above), 118.
59. Dew, Bond of Iron, 22, 271.
60. Eric Hobsbawm, "The Tramping Artisan," Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 3 (1951): 299-320; Humphrey R. Southall, "Towards a Geography of Unionization: The Spatial Organization and Distribution of Early British Trade Unions," Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 13 (1988): 466-83; Southall, "The Tramping Artisan Revisits: Labour Mobility and Economic Distress in Early Victorian England," Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 44 (1991), 272-96.
61. Eric Hobsbawm, "The Tramping Artisan," Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 3 (1951): 299-320; Humphrey R. Southall, "Towards a Geography of Unionization: The Spatial Organization and Distribution of Early British Trade Unions," Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 13 (1988): 466-83; Southall, "The Tramping Artisan Revisits: Labour Mobility and Economic Distress in Early Victorian England," Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 44 (1991), 272-96.
62. Eric Hobsbawm, "The Tramping Artisan," Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 3 (1951): 299-320; Humphrey R. Southall, "Towards a Geography of Unionization: The Spatial Organization and Distribution of Early British Trade Unions," Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 13 (1988): 466-83; Southall, "The Tramping Artisan Revisits: Labour Mobility and Economic Distress in Early Victorian England," Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 44 (1991), 272-96.
63. Davis to the Confederate House of Representatives, 13 March 1862, reprinted in Ainsworth and Kirkley (n. 3 above), 1:993.
64. Reports submitted by the Confederate Secretary of the Navy to the Confederate Congress, 30 November 1863, 30 April 1864, 5 November 1864, Navy Records transferred from RG45 to RG109, NARA.
65. Steven Collins (n. 1 above), 532-34, 540.
66. Gorgas to Seddon, 25 October 1864, RG109, M437, roll 148, letter G48, NARA. Gorgas says much the same thing in Gorgas to Seddon, 13 October 1864, reprinted in Ainsworth and Kirkley, 3:734.
67. Deposition of Samuel Clabaugh in the case of Andrew T. Jones and Others v. Horace Ware, 22 July 1867, Chancery Court Records, Loose Papers File, Drawer S, Shelby County Museum and Archives, Columbiana, Alabama; payroll no. 10, week ending 10 March 1865, Correspondence 1865, correspondence files 003, Shelby Iron Works Papers (hereafter SIW003). These rates of increase far exceed those recorded at Springfield Armory, where wages increased by about 60 percent during the war. Felicia Johnson Deyrup, Arms Makers of the Connecticut Valley: A Regional Study of the Economic Development of the Small Arms Industry, 1798-1870 (Northampton, Mass., 1948), 200-201. My thanks to Marty Everse for sending me copies of the deposition typescripts.
68. Recapitulations of Estimates of Navy Department, 1861-1865, Navy Records transferred from RG45 to RG109, NARA; Dew, Ironmaker to the Confederacy (n. 1 above), 239-42.
69. S. R. Mallory to Jefferson Davis, 1 July 1864, reprinted in Ainsworth and Kirkley (n. 3 above), 3:520-21. See also George G. Kundahl, Confederate Engineer: Training and Campaigning with John Morris Wampler (Knoxville, Tenn., 1999), 177, 243.
70. S. R. Mallory to Jefferson Davis, 1 July 1864, reprinted in Ainsworth and Kirkley (n. 3 above), 3:520-21. See also George G. Kundahl, Confederate Engineer: Training and Campaigning with John Morris Wampler (Knoxville, Tenn., 1999), 177, 243.
71. Brooke to Stephen Mallory, 30 April 1864, reports submitted by Confederate Secretary of the Navy to the Confederate Congress, 1861-1865, folder November 1863-April 1864, Navy Records transferred from RG45 to RG109, NARA.
72. See Brooke's correspondence with the supervisor of the Selma foundry and rolling mill, Capt. Catesby ap R. Jones, 12 February 1864, 17 August 1864, 25 August 1864, and 8 September 1864, RG109, M1091 (Subject File of the Confederate States Navy, 1861-1865), roll 9, file BA, Ammunition (Papers of Catesby ap R. Jones), NARA. See also Jones to Brooke, 8 May 1864 and 14 May 1864, reprinted in Ainsworth and Kirkley, 3:523; and Jones to Brooke, 12 December 1863, RG109, chap. 9, M437, roll 131, J2, NARA.
73. Raimondo Luraghi, A History of the Confederate Navy, trans. Paolo E. Coletta (Annapolis, Md., 1996), 28. On the Confederate navy's initial difficulties in acquiring men and munitions, see 26-30, 32-54.
74. Anderson to Seddon, 29 July 1863, RG109, chap. 9, M437, roll 80, A150, NARA. For other Anderson letters requesting details of skilled ironworkers and other favors to assist production at the Tredegar works and its suppliers, see roll 30, A406, A414, A460, A461, A462, A463, A471, A503, A510; roll 80, A66, A107, A149, A152, A264, A351
75. Ainsworth and Kirkley, 2:240; Sixth Battalion Virginia Infantry ("Tredegar Battalion") muster rolls, Local Defense Troops, RG109, M324, roll 452, NARA; draft legislation introduced with letter from Gorgas to Seddon, 25 October 1864, RG109, chap. 9, M437, roll 148, G27, NARA. Brooke proposed a similar plan for naval ordnance workers. S. R. Mallory to Jefferson Davis, 1 July 1864, reprinted in Ainsworth and Kirkley, 3:520-21.
76. Ainsworth and Kirkley, 2:240; Sixth Battalion Virginia Infantry ("Tredegar Battalion") muster rolls, Local Defense Troops, RG109, M324, roll 452, NARA; draft legislation introduced with letter from Gorgas to Seddon, 25 October 1864, RG109, chap. 9, M437, roll 148, G27, NARA. Brooke proposed a similar plan for naval ordnance workers. S. R. Mallory to Jefferson Davis, 1 July 1864, reprinted in Ainsworth and Kirkley, 3:520-21.
77. Ella Lonn, Foreigners in the Confederacy (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1940), 394-401; William L. Shaw, "The Confederate Conscription and Exemption Acts," American Journal of Legal History 6 (1962), 368-405. The first Confederate legislation granting exemptions, passed on 21 April 1862, included among exempt occupations "all artisans, mechanics, and employes in the establishments of the Government for the manufacture of arms, ordnance, ordnance stores, and other munitions of war ... who may be certified by the officer in charge thereof, as necessary for such establishments; also, all artisans, mechanics, and employes in the establishments of such persons as are or may be engaged under contracts with the Government in furnishing arms, ordnance, ordnance stores, and other munitions of war: Provided, that the chief of the Ordnance Bureau, or some ordnance officer authorized by him for the purpose, shall approve of the number of the operatives required in such establishment..."; "An Act to exempt certain persons from military duty ...", reprinted in Ainsworth and Kirkley (n. 3 above), 3:160-62.
78. Ella Lonn, Foreigners in the Confederacy (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1940), 394-401; William L. Shaw, "The Confederate Conscription and Exemption Acts," American Journal of Legal History 6 (1962), 368-405. The first Confederate legislation granting exemptions, passed on 21 April 1862, included among exempt occupations "all artisans, mechanics, and employes in the establishments of the Government for the manufacture of arms, ordnance, ordnance stores, and other munitions of war ... who may be certified by the officer in charge thereof, as necessary for such establishments; also, all artisans, mechanics, and employes in the establishments of such persons as are or may be engaged under contracts with the Government in furnishing arms, ordnance, ordnance stores, and other munitions of war: Provided, that the chief of the Ordnance Bureau, or some ordnance officer authorized by him for the purpose, shall approve of the number of the operatives required in such establishment..."; "An Act to exempt certain persons from military duty ...", reprinted in Ainsworth and Kirkley (n. 3 above), 3:160-62.
79. Ella Lonn, Foreigners in the Confederacy (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1940), 394-401; William L. Shaw, "The Confederate Conscription and Exemption Acts," American Journal of Legal History 6 (1962), 368-405. The first Confederate legislation granting exemptions, passed on 21 April 1862, included among exempt occupations "all artisans, mechanics, and employes in the establishments of the Government for the manufacture of arms, ordnance, ordnance stores, and other munitions of war ... who may be certified by the officer in charge thereof, as necessary for such establishments; also, all artisans, mechanics, and employes in the establishments of such persons as are or may be engaged under contracts with the Government in furnishing arms, ordnance, ordnance stores, and other munitions of war: Provided, that the chief of the Ordnance Bureau, or some ordnance officer authorized by him for the purpose, shall approve of the number of the operatives required in such establishment..."; "An Act to exempt certain persons from military duty ...", reprinted in Ainsworth and Kirkley (n. 3 above), 3:160-62.
80. Lapsley to Seddon, 15 February 1864, RG109, chap. 9, M437, roll 132, L68, NARA.
81. The Enrollment Act of 3 March 1863 eliminated occupational exemptions in the North. Drafted men could avoid service by paying a three hundred dollar commutation fee or providing a substitute; see James W. Geary, We Need Men: The Union Draft in the Civil War (DeKalb, Ill., 1991), 66. Northern workers commonly but erroneously believed that men employed by federal arms manufactories were exempt from service; Deyrup (n. 39 above), 199-200
82. The Enrollment Act of 3 March 1863 eliminated occupational exemptions in the North. Drafted men could avoid service by paying a three hundred dollar commutation fee or providing a substitute; see James W. Geary, We Need Men: The Union Draft in the Civil War (DeKalb, Ill., 1991), 66. Northern workers commonly but erroneously believed that men employed by federal arms manufactories were exempt from service; Deyrup (n. 39 above), 199-200
83. Lapsley to Seddon, 15 February 1864, RG109, chap. 9, M437, roll 132, L68, NARA.
84. Dew, Ironmaker to the Confederacy (n. 1 above), 238-39.
85. John K. Mitchell to Stephen Mallory, 16 November 1863, Navy Records transferred from RG45 to RG109, NARA; G. A. Myers to Seddon, 27 January 1864, RG109, chap. 9, M437, roll 134 (December 1863-February 1864), M(WD)77, NARA; charges against the Shelby Iron Co. near Columbiana, 5 June 1863, signed by P. L. Griffiths, Lt. and Enrolling Officer, 4th Alabama District, Correspondence - Labor - Incoming 1861-1863, correspondence files 002, Shelby Iron Works Papers (hereafter SIW002). The alleged deserter, F. M. Jordan, remained at Shelby until the end of the war; see list of men at Shelby Iron Works detailed from the army, 14 March 1865, SIW003.
86. Tredegar Battalion muster rolls, RG109, M324, roll 452, NARA; Record of Enlisted Men Detailed, January-November 1864, Ordnance Department, RG109, chap. 4, vol. 107, NARA. Strictly speaking, men who were detailed were not exempt from service but were sequestered from service by being assigned to military duty away from battle, as in the case of ironworkers assigned to the Tredegar Iron Works' home guard unit. The volume does not make clear whether all the men listed, including many farmers, were actually detailed or were listed because of legal exemption from military service.
87. The two sources differ in the categories they include and the completeness of their information. The muster rolls give ages for all men and place of birth and occupation for about 40 percent of them. The record of exemptions gives name, age, place of birth, and occupation for all men. My method for determining place of birth and occupation for Tredegar Battalion members was to compare name and age for all men in the muster rolls to the exemptions register. This was made possible by the clustering of exemptions by occupation and geographical location in the register: metalworking occupations were most heavily clustered in pages labeled "Richmond." To qualify as a match, entries in the muster rolls and the Virginia register had to have exactly the same last name, though not necessarily the same spelling; have the same first and middle initials (allowing for probable transcription errors such as "T." becoming "F.") or the same full first name, if provided; be of the same age, within five years; and either (a) have the same occupation, (b) have the same birthplace, or (c) live, according to the exemption register entry, in a section of Richmond heavily populated by ironworkers.
88. Although the Welsh were often misidentified as English in mid-nineteenth-century sources (see Knowles [n. 7 above], 4-13), the overall precision of the Virginia register and Joseph Reid Anderson's familiarity with and dislike of the Welsh may well mean that no Welsh were working in the Richmond iron industry in 1863-1864.
89. Similar proportions of Southern, Northern, and European workers were listed as employees at the Macon Armory in 1863-1865: 75 percent from Southern states (44 percent from Georgia), 13 percent from the British Isles, 10 percent from Northern states, and 2 percent from Germany. Roll of Employees, Macon Armory, Georgia, 1863-1865, Ordnance Department, RG109, chap. 4, vol. 46, NARA.
90. Gregg Kimball estimates that Tredegar's rolling mill required about forty-six skilled workers during peak production (full day and night shifts); Kimball (n. 30 above), 15 n. 27. The muster rolls account for only seventeen rolling mill workers.
91. "Furnace &C Estimates," plan for new construction in the hand of Giles Edwards, n.d., unlabeled folder containing correspondence, 1862, SIW002; balance sheet for Shelby Iron Company, 31 December 1863, Statements (1862-1864), SIW001.
92. On the original management structure of the company, see minutes of meetings of the board of directors, 1862-1866, esp. 4 September 1862, SIW002.
93. Employee and Negro Time Records, March 1862-December 1868, ledger no. 5, Shelby Iron Works Papers; payroll no. 10, week ending 10 March 1865, Correspondence 1865, SIW003; Employee Lists, Extra Work 186-1864 [sic], and Employee records, lists, pay, etc. [black and white workers] (1863-1864), SIW001.
94. A List of Clothing given off to Negroes at Shelby Iron Cos. Works, 28 July 1862, unlabeled folder of correspondence and notes, 1862-1863, SIW002.
95. Various correspondence from slave owners to Shelby Iron Company offering and contracting for hire of slaves, SIW001-003; balance sheet for Shelby Iron Company, 31 December 1863, Statements (1862-1864), SIW001. At the end of the war the company owned at least twenty-nine adult male slaves; Time of hands Belonging to Shelby Iron Co. for Work Done on the Ala. and Tenn. RR Road, 26 April-12 May 1865, Correspondence 1865, SIW003; Incoming re: slave labor, 1862, Correspondence, SIW002; list of Tillman's travels to Mississippi and Mobile, Alabama to hire negroes in January 1863, Accounts, SIW003.
96. Sam[uel] Kirkman to A. T. Jones, 27 September 1862 (emphasis in original), and J. J. Hutchenson to A. T. Jones, 16 December 1862, Incoming re: Slave Labor, 1862, Correspondence, SIW002.
97. Extra Time at Ore Bank and Cuttin Pudling Wood, May 1864; Extra time at the Ore Bank & Cutting wood for April 1864; Extra Wood (n.d.); Unloading Cord at night, 31 October [18]64; and Coal hailing on Sunday 30 October [18]64, unlabeled folder of correspondence, 1864-1865, SIW002. Report of Work done by the Ore Bank hands from 1 May to the 15th of December 1863; Employee lists [black and white], extra work 186-1864 [sic], list of "wachmenn (watching all night)" 29 December 1864; Wood choppers, 14 November 1863, SIW001. Employee Lists, Extra Work 186-1864 [sic], notes of 1 August and 31 October 1863, Incoming Correspondence and Other Items, 1862-64, SIW001. The "ore bank" at Shelby was a surface deposit that was probably worked by the method Ohio miners called scraping or benching, a kind of shallow strip mining in which men used a metal scoop to dig ore directly from the hillside, leaving stepped banks; Knowles (n. 7 above), 172.
98. Unlabeled folder of correspondence, 1865, SIW003.
99. Jones to Peters, 16 December 1864, Company Correspondence, Outgoing from A. T. Jones, President . . . 1862-1864, SIW001; Peters to Jones, 16 January 1865, and R. B. G. to Jones, 26 January 1865, unlabeled folder of correspondence, 1865, SIW003.
100. Jones to Gorgas, 16 July 1862, Correspondence, Outgoing re: Labor, 1862, SIW002.
101. J. M. Tillman to C. J. Hazard, 2 July 1863, Correspondence, Internal re: supplies, 1863, SIW002; Report of Work done by the Ore Bank hands from 1 May to the 15th of December 1863, SIW001.
102. T. Stephen Whitman, "Industrial Slavery at the Margin: The Maryland Chemical Works," Journal of Southern History 59 (1993): 31-62; Claudia Dale Goldin, Urban Slavery in the American South, 1820-1860: A Quantitative History (Chicago, 1976); Robert Starobin, Industrial Slavery in the Old South (New York, 1970); Richard Wade, Slavery in the Cities: The South, 1820-1860 (New York, 1964). Charles B. Dew has done most to document the range of freedoms allowed and exercised by slaves at Southern ironworks. See "Disciplining Slave Ironworkers in the Antebellum South: Coercion, Conciliation, and Accommodation," American Historical Review 79 (1974), 393-418; "Slavery and Technology in the Antebellum Southern Iron Industry: The Case of Buffalo Forge," in Science and Medicine in the Old South, ed. Ronald L. Numbers and Todd L. Savitt (Baton Rouge, La., 1994): 107-126; and Bond of Iron (n. 12 above).
103. T. Stephen Whitman, "Industrial Slavery at the Margin: The Maryland Chemical Works," Journal of Southern History 59 (1993): 31-62; Claudia Dale Goldin, Urban Slavery in the American South, 1820-1860: A Quantitative History (Chicago, 1976); Robert Starobin, Industrial Slavery in the Old South (New York, 1970); Richard Wade, Slavery in the Cities: The South, 1820-1860 (New York, 1964). Charles B. Dew has done most to document the range of freedoms allowed and exercised by slaves at Southern ironworks. See "Disciplining Slave Ironworkers in the Antebellum South: Coercion, Conciliation, and Accommodation," American Historical Review 79 (1974), 393-418; "Slavery and Technology in the Antebellum Southern Iron Industry: The Case of Buffalo Forge," in Science and Medicine in the Old South, ed. Ronald L. Numbers and Todd L. Savitt (Baton Rouge, La., 1994): 107-126; and Bond of Iron (n. 12 above).
104. T. Stephen Whitman, "Industrial Slavery at the Margin: The Maryland Chemical Works," Journal of Southern History 59 (1993): 31-62; Claudia Dale Goldin, Urban Slavery in the American South, 1820-1860: A Quantitative History (Chicago, 1976); Robert Starobin, Industrial Slavery in the Old South (New York, 1970); Richard Wade, Slavery in the Cities: The South, 1820-1860 (New York, 1964). Charles B. Dew has done most to document the range of freedoms allowed and exercised by slaves at Southern ironworks. See "Disciplining Slave Ironworkers in the Antebellum South: Coercion, Conciliation, and Accommodation," American Historical Review 79 (1974), 393-418; "Slavery and Technology in the Antebellum Southern Iron Industry: The Case of Buffalo Forge," in Science and Medicine in the Old South, ed. Ronald L. Numbers and Todd L. Savitt (Baton Rouge, La., 1994): 107-126; and Bond of Iron (n. 12 above).
105. T. Stephen Whitman, "Industrial Slavery at the Margin: The Maryland Chemical Works," Journal of Southern History 59 (1993): 31-62; Claudia Dale Goldin, Urban Slavery in the American South, 1820-1860: A Quantitative History (Chicago, 1976); Robert Starobin, Industrial Slavery in the Old South (New York, 1970); Richard Wade, Slavery in the Cities: The South, 1820-1860 (New York, 1964). Charles B. Dew has done most to document the range of freedoms allowed and exercised by slaves at Southern ironworks. See "Disciplining Slave Ironworkers in the Antebellum South: Coercion, Conciliation, and Accommodation," American Historical Review 79 (1974), 393-418; "Slavery and Technology in the Antebellum Southern Iron Industry: The Case of Buffalo Forge," in Science and Medicine in the Old South, ed. Ronald L. Numbers and Todd L. Savitt (Baton Rouge, La., 1994): 107-126; and Bond of Iron (n. 12 above).
106. T. Stephen Whitman, "Industrial Slavery at the Margin: The Maryland Chemical Works," Journal of Southern History 59 (1993): 31-62; Claudia Dale Goldin, Urban Slavery in the American South, 1820-1860: A Quantitative History (Chicago, 1976); Robert Starobin, Industrial Slavery in the Old South (New York, 1970); Richard Wade, Slavery in the Cities: The South, 1820-1860 (New York, 1964). Charles B. Dew has done most to document the range of freedoms allowed and exercised by slaves at Southern ironworks. See "Disciplining Slave Ironworkers in the Antebellum South: Coercion, Conciliation, and Accommodation," American Historical Review 79 (1974), 393-418; "Slavery and Technology in the Antebellum Southern Iron Industry: The Case of Buffalo Forge," in Science and Medicine in the Old South, ed. Ronald L. Numbers and Todd L. Savitt (Baton Rouge, La., 1994): 107-126; and Bond of Iron (n. 12 above).
107. T. Stephen Whitman, "Industrial Slavery at the Margin: The Maryland Chemical Works," Journal of Southern History 59 (1993): 31-62; Claudia Dale Goldin, Urban Slavery in the American South, 1820-1860: A Quantitative History (Chicago, 1976); Robert Starobin, Industrial Slavery in the Old South (New York, 1970); Richard Wade, Slavery in the Cities: The South, 1820-1860 (New York, 1964). Charles B. Dew has done most to document the range of freedoms allowed and exercised by slaves at Southern ironworks. See "Disciplining Slave Ironworkers in the Antebellum South: Coercion, Conciliation, and Accommodation," American Historical Review 79 (1974), 393-418; "Slavery and Technology in the Antebellum Southern Iron Industry: The Case of Buffalo Forge," in Science and Medicine in the Old South, ed. Ronald L. Numbers and Todd L. Savitt (Baton Rouge, La., 1994): 107-126; and Bond of Iron (n. 12 above).
108. T. Stephen Whitman, "Industrial Slavery at the Margin: The Maryland Chemical Works," Journal of Southern History 59 (1993): 31-62; Claudia Dale Goldin, Urban Slavery in the American South, 1820-1860: A Quantitative History (Chicago, 1976); Robert Starobin, Industrial Slavery in the Old South (New York, 1970); Richard Wade, Slavery in the Cities: The South, 1820-1860 (New York, 1964). Charles B. Dew has done most to document the range of freedoms allowed and exercised by slaves at Southern ironworks. See "Disciplining Slave Ironworkers in the Antebellum South: Coercion, Conciliation, and Accommodation," American Historical Review 79 (1974), 393-418; "Slavery and Technology in the Antebellum Southern Iron Industry: The Case of Buffalo Forge," in Science and Medicine in the Old South, ed. Ronald L. Numbers and Todd L. Savitt (Baton Rouge, La., 1994): 107-126; and Bond of Iron (n. 12 above).
109. 1841 Manuscript Census, Merthyr Tydfil, Glamorganshire, microfilm ref. no. HO 107/1415, enumeration district 23, Public Record Office, Kew Gardens; Ethel Armes, The Story of Iron and Coal in Alabama (Birmingham, Ala., 1972), 172-74; plan of Merthyr Tydfil, from actual survey, 1836, attributed to John Wood, Glamorgan County Record Office. My thanks to Sandra Wheatley, University of Wales, Aberystwyth, for providing me with the 1836 plan and helping me determine the location of Giles Edwards' home on this and other nineteenth-century maps.
110. U.S. manuscript population census, 1850, Hanover Township, Lehigh County, Pennsylvania; Armes, 174-75. Armes gives the location of the Thomas ironworks as Tamauqua, but in fact there were no major ironworks there. The Thomas works, built in 1855 in Hockendauqua, are probably where Edwards worked and may have gained his first experience in designing a rolling mill. Lesley (n. 4 above), 8-9.
111. Edwards to Fritz, 20 April 1855, 21 April 1855, 25 April 1855, and 28 April 1855, John Fritz Papers, National Canal Museum. Fritz knew of Edwards' work in Chattanooga and was interested in investing in ironworks in the area. Edwards to Fritz, 18 July 1859; L. R. Speer to Fritz, 18 July 1860, 31 July 1980, 6 September 1860, 15 September 1860, Fritz Papers. Armes describes Edwards as a protege of David Thomas and claims (based on the recollections of Edwards' family) that he left Thomas's employ because of poor health; see Armes, 175. A letter from Edwards to Fritz suggests another explanation. In 1858 Edwards was out of work (the Cambria rolling mill having closed). He appealed to Fritz for a particularly strong recommendation for a job to supervise construction of a rolling mill at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, because "The Thomas'es [company] has also been applied to for information concerning me, but has resulted rather disasterously [sic] to my success, and I may add, that, they have acted in a very vindictive manner towards me." Edwards to Fritz, 27 February 1858, Fritz Papers (emphasis in original).
112. R. Bruce Council, Nicholas Honerkamp, and M. Elizabeth Will, Industry and Technology in Antebellum Tennessee: The Archaeology of Bluff Furnace (Knoxville, Tenn., 1992), 62-65, 67-74.
113. Account of Giles Edwards' Expenses for Trip to Chattanooga, 30 April-8 May 1862, unlabeled folder with correspondence and notes, 1862-1863, SIW002; Accounts of Giles Edwards, May-December 1863, June-July 1862, and February-May 1863, Statements, 1862-1864, SIW001; Employee and Negro Time Records, March 1862-December 1868, list for March 1863, ledger no. 5, 53-070, Shelby Iron Works Papers. The spelling of Moyle's name as "Moel" (a phonetic Welsh spelling) in a few company records lends credence to family tradition that Edwards was a native Welsh speaker, as the majority of ironworkers in Merthyr Tydfil were in the 1830s and 1840s, For the family story, see Ethel Armes, "The Ironmasters of Alabama: The History of Giles Edwards," Advance, 17 November 1906, front page.
114. Richmond City Court Hustings Minutes no. 17, Tuesday, 20 April 1847, reel 91 (1846-1848), Library of Virginia, Richmond; U.S. manuscript population census, 1850, City of Richmond, Henrico County, Virginia; D. J. Davies to Giles Edwards, 12 October 1862, Correspondence - Labor - Incoming, 1861-1863, SIW002; U.S. manuscript population census, 1850, Cass County, Georgia. Davies remained at Shelby through the Civil War: Employees Time Record, 1862-1864, ledger no. 5, 53-070, Shelby Iron Works Papers; payroll no. 10, Correspondence 1865, SIW003.
115. Deyrup (n. 39 above), 197-201; Grace Palladino, Another Civil War: Labor, Capital, and the State in the Anthracite Regions of Pennsylvania, 1840-68 (Urbana, Ill., 1990).
116. Deyrup (n. 39 above), 197-201; Grace Palladino, Another Civil War: Labor, Capital, and the State in the Anthracite Regions of Pennsylvania, 1840-68 (Urbana, Ill., 1990).
117. Lewis (n. 14 above).
118. Dew, "Slavery and Technology" (n. 69 above), 118-19, 124.