System in the south: John W. Mallet, Josiah Gorgas, and uniform product on at the confederate ordnance department

Technology and Culture

Volumn 40, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 517-544

  Collins, Steven G ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0033454534     PISSN: 0040165X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (255)

1. Henri Jomini, The Art of War, ed. Thomas E. Griess and Jay Luvass, trans. G. H. Mendell and W. P. Craighill (Westport, Conn., 1971), 45.
2. The most important work on the Confederate Ordnance Department remains Frank E. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords: Josiah Gorgas and Confederate Ordnance (Austin, Tex., 1952). The most significant article on this topic is W. Stanley Hoole, "John W. Mallet and the Confederate Ordnance Laboratories, 1862-1865," Alabama Review 26 (1973): 33-72, which focuses on Mallet's visits to the many arsenals and the construction of the laboratory. Another valuable source is Maurice Kaye Melton, "Major Military Industries of the Confederate Government" (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1978). For a good overview of the Confederate supply system, see Richard Goff, Confederate Supply (Durham, 1969).
3. The most important work on the Confederate Ordnance Department remains Frank E. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords: Josiah Gorgas and Confederate Ordnance (Austin, Tex., 1952). The most significant article on this topic is W. Stanley Hoole, "John W. Mallet and the Confederate Ordnance Laboratories, 1862-1865," Alabama Review 26 (1973): 33-72, which focuses on Mallet's visits to the many arsenals and the construction of the laboratory. Another valuable source is Maurice Kaye Melton, "Major Military Industries of the Confederate Government" (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1978). For a good overview of the Confederate supply system, see Richard Goff, Confederate Supply (Durham, 1969).
4. The most important work on the Confederate Ordnance Department remains Frank E. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords: Josiah Gorgas and Confederate Ordnance (Austin, Tex., 1952). The most significant article on this topic is W. Stanley Hoole, "John W. Mallet and the Confederate Ordnance Laboratories, 1862-1865," Alabama Review 26 (1973): 33-72, which focuses on Mallet's visits to the many arsenals and the construction of the laboratory. Another valuable source is Maurice Kaye Melton, "Major Military Industries of the Confederate Government" (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1978). For a good overview of the Confederate supply system, see Richard Goff, Confederate Supply (Durham, 1969).
5. The most important work on the Confederate Ordnance Department remains Frank E. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords: Josiah Gorgas and Confederate Ordnance (Austin, Tex., 1952). The most significant article on this topic is W. Stanley Hoole, "John W. Mallet and the Confederate Ordnance Laboratories, 1862-1865," Alabama Review 26 (1973): 33-72, which focuses on Mallet's visits to the many arsenals and the construction of the laboratory. Another valuable source is Maurice Kaye Melton, "Major Military Industries of the Confederate Government" (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1978). For a good overview of the Confederate supply system, see Richard Goff, Confederate Supply (Durham, 1969).
6. See especially Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Otto Mayr and Richard C. Post, eds., Yankee Enterprise: The Rise of the American System of Manufactures (Washington, D.C., 1981); Merritt Roe Smith, ed., Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, Mass., 1985); James J. Farley, Making Arms in the Machine Age: Philadelphia's Frankford Arsenal, 1816-1870 (University Park, Pa., 1994); David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1984); Alfred D. Chandler Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977); James R. Beniger, The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society (Cambridge, Mass., 1986).
7. See especially Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Otto Mayr and Richard C. Post, eds., Yankee Enterprise: The Rise of the American System of Manufactu+res (Washington, D.C., 1981); Merritt Roe Smith, ed., Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, Mass., 1985); James J. Farley, Making Arms in the Machine Age: Philadelphia's Frankford Arsenal, 1816-1870 (University Park, Pa., 1994); David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1984); Alfred D. Chandler Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977); James R. Beniger, The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society (Cambridge, Mass., 1986).
8. See especially Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Otto Mayr and Richard C. Post, eds., Yankee Enterprise: The Rise of the American System of Manufactures (Washington, D.C., 1981); Merritt Roe Smith, ed., Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, Mass., 1985); James J. Farley, Making Arms in the Machine Age: Philadelphia's Frankford Arsenal, 1816-1870 (University Park, Pa., 1994); David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1984); Alfred D. Chandler Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977); James R. Beniger, The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society (Cambridge, Mass., 1986).
9. See especially Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Otto Mayr and Richard C. Post, eds., Yankee Enterprise: The Rise of the American System of Manufactures (Washington, D.C., 1981); Merritt Roe Smith, ed., Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, Mass., 1985); James J. Farley, Making Arms in the Machine Age: Philadelphia's Frankford Arsenal, 1816-1870 (University Park, Pa., 1994); David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1984); Alfred D. Chandler Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977); James R. Beniger, The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society (Cambridge, Mass., 1986).
10. See especially Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Otto Mayr and Richard C. Post, eds., Yankee Enterprise: The Rise of the American System of Manufactures (Washington, D.C., 1981); Merritt Roe Smith, ed., Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, Mass., 1985); James J. Farley, Making Arms in the Machine Age: Philadelphia's Frankford Arsenal, 1816-1870 (University Park, Pa., 1994); David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1984); Alfred D. Chandler Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977); James R. Beniger, The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society (Cambridge, Mass., 1986).
11. See especially Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Otto Mayr and Richard C. Post, eds., Yankee Enterprise: The Rise of the American System of Manufactures (Washington, D.C., 1981); Merritt Roe Smith, ed., Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, Mass., 1985); James J. Farley, Making Arms in the Machine Age: Philadelphia's Frankford Arsenal, 1816-1870 (University Park, Pa., 1994); David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1984); Alfred D. Chandler Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977); James R. Beniger, The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society (Cambridge, Mass., 1986).
12. See especially Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Otto Mayr and Richard C. Post, eds., Yankee Enterprise: The Rise of the American System of Manufactures (Washington, D.C., 1981); Merritt Roe Smith, ed., Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, Mass., 1985); James J. Farley, Making Arms in the Machine Age: Philadelphia's Frankford Arsenal, 1816-1870 (University Park, Pa., 1994); David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1984); Alfred D. Chandler Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977); James R. Beniger, The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society (Cambridge, Mass., 1986).
13. Merritt Roe Smith, "Army Ordnance and the 'American System' of Manufacturing, 1815-1861," in Military Enterprise and Technological Change, 42-46; Farley, 36. See also Stanley L. Falk, "Soldier-Technologist: Major Alfred Mordecai and the Beginnings of Science in the United States Army" (Ph.D. diss., Georgetown University, 1959). For an excellent analysis of the French adoption and abandonment of interchangeable parts, see Ken Alder, Engineering the Revolution: Arms and Enlightenment in France, 1763-1815 (Princeton, 1997), and "Innovation and Amnesia: Engineering Rationality and the Fate of Interchangeable Parts Manufacturing in France," Technology and Culture 38 (1997): 273-311. Alder makes a convincing argument that technological change does not take a predetermined path and that myriad factors, including social, cultural, economic, and political constraints, can lead to the modification or abandonment of a new technology. Merritt Roe Smith also found considerable resistance to technological change from supervisors and workers at Harpers Ferry Armory; Harpers Ferry Armory, 104-252.
14. Merritt Roe Smith, "Army Ordnance and the 'American System' of Manufacturing, 1815-1861," in Military Enterprise and Technological Change, 42-46; Farley, 36. See also Stanley L. Falk, "Soldier-Technologist: Major Alfred Mordecai and the Beginnings of Science in the United States Army" (Ph.D. diss., Georgetown University, 1959). For an excellent analysis of the French adoption and abandonment of interchangeable parts, see Ken Alder, Engineering the Revolution: Arms and Enlightenment in France, 1763-1815 (Princeton, 1997), and "Innovation and Amnesia: Engineering Rationality and the Fate of Interchangeable Parts Manufacturing in France," Technology and Culture 38 (1997): 273-311. Alder makes a convincing argument that technological change does not take a predetermined path and that myriad factors, including social, cultural, economic, and political constraints, can lead to the modification or abandonment of a new technology. Merritt Roe Smith also found considerable resistance to technological change from supervisors and workers at Harpers Ferry Armory; Harpers Ferry Armory, 104-252.
15. Merritt Roe Smith, "Army Ordnance and the 'American System' of Manufacturing, 1815-1861," in Military Enterprise and Technological Change, 42-46; Farley, 36. See also Stanley L. Falk, "Soldier-Technologist: Major Alfred Mordecai and the Beginnings of Science in the United States Army" (Ph.D. diss., Georgetown University, 1959). For an excellent analysis of the French adoption and abandonment of interchangeable parts, see Ken Alder, Engineering the Revolution: Arms and Enlightenment in France, 1763-1815 (Princeton, 1997), and "Innovation and Amnesia: Engineering Rationality and the Fate of Interchangeable Parts Manufacturing in France," Technology and Culture 38 (1997): 273-311. Alder makes a convincing argument that technological change does not take a predetermined path and that myriad factors, including social, cultural, economic, and political constraints, can lead to the modification or abandonment of a new technology. Merritt Roe Smith also found considerable resistance to technological change from supervisors and workers at Harpers Ferry Armory; Harpers Ferry Armory, 104-252.
16. Merritt Roe Smith, "Army Ordnance and the 'American System' of Manufacturing, 1815-1861," in Military Enterprise and Technological Change, 42-46; Farley, 36. See also Stanley L. Falk, "Soldier-Technologist: Major Alfred Mordecai and the Beginnings of Science in the United States Army" (Ph.D. diss., Georgetown University, 1959). For an excellent analysis of the French adoption and abandonment of interchangeable parts, see Ken Alder, Engineering the Revolution: Arms and Enlightenment in France, 1763-1815 (Princeton, 1997), and "Innovation and Amnesia: Engineering Rationality and the Fate of Interchangeable Parts Manufacturing in France," Technology and Culture 38 (1997): 273-311. Alder makes a convincing argument that technological change does not take a predetermined path and that myriad factors, including social, cultural, economic, and political constraints, can lead to the modification or abandonment of a new technology. Merritt Roe Smith also found considerable resistance to technological change from supervisors and workers at Harpers Ferry Armory; Harpers Ferry Armory, 104-252.
17. Smith, "Army Ordnance and the 'American System,'" 56-64, 69, 74, 83; Charles F. O'Connell Jr., "The Corps of Engineers and the Rise of Modern Management, 1827-1856," in Smith, Military Enterprise and Technological Change, 88-116: Alfred E. Chandler Jr., "The American System and Modern Management," in Mayr and Post, 153-70; Hounshell, 21-25; Paul Uselding, "Measuring Techniques and Manufacturing Practice," in Mayr and Post, 103-23. For a detailed discussion, see Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory, 184-251, 280-92; Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Change in the Machine Tool Industry, 1840-1910," Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 414-20; Merritt Roe Smith, "John H. Hall, Simeon North, and the Milling Machine: The Nature of Innovation among Ante-bellum Arms Makers," Technology and Culture 14 (1973): 573-91.
18. Smith, "Army Ordnance and the 'American System,'" 56-64, 69, 74, 83; Charles F. O'Connell Jr., "The Corps of Engineers and the Rise of Modern Management, 1827-1856," in Smith, Military Enterprise and Technological Change, 88-116: Alfred E. Chandler Jr., "The American System and Modern Management," in Mayr and Post, 153-70; Hounshell, 21-25; Paul Uselding, "Measuring Techniques and Manufacturing Practice," in Mayr and Post, 103-23. For a detailed discussion, see Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory, 184-251, 280-92; Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Change in the Machine Tool Industry, 1840-1910," Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 414-20; Merritt Roe Smith, "John H. Hall, Simeon North, and the Milling Machine: The Nature of Innovation among Ante-bellum Arms Makers," Technology and Culture 14 (1973): 573-91.
19. Smith, "Army Ordnance and the 'American System,'" 56-64, 69, 74, 83; Charles F. O'Connell Jr., "The Corps of Engineers and the Rise of Modern Management, 1827-1856," in Smith, Military Enterprise and Technological Change, 88-116: Alfred E. Chandler Jr., "The American System and Modern Management," in Mayr and Post, 153-70; Hounshell, 21-25; Paul Uselding, "Measuring Techniques and Manufacturing Practice," in Mayr and Post, 103-23. For a detailed discussion, see Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory, 184-251, 280-92; Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Change in the Machine Tool Industry, 1840-1910," Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 414-20; Merritt Roe Smith, "John H. Hall, Simeon North, and the Milling Machine: The Nature of Innovation among Ante-bellum Arms Makers," Technology and Culture 14 (1973): 573-91.
20. Smith, "Army Ordnance and the 'American System,'" 56-64, 69, 74, 83; Charles F. O'Connell Jr., "The Corps of Engineers and the Rise of Modern Management, 1827-1856," in Smith, Military Enterprise and Technological Change, 88-116: Alfred E. Chandler Jr., "The American System and Modern Management," in Mayr and Post, 153-70; Hounshell, 21-25; Paul Uselding, "Measuring Techniques and Manufacturing Practice," in Mayr and Post, 103-23. For a detailed discussion, see Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory, 184-251, 280-92; Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Change in the Machine Tool Industry, 1840-1910," Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 414-20; Merritt Roe Smith, "John H. Hall, Simeon North, and the Milling Machine: The Nature of Innovation among Ante-bellum Arms Makers," Technology and Culture 14 (1973): 573-91.
21. Smith, "Army Ordnance and the 'American System,'" 56-64, 69, 74, 83; Charles F. O'Connell Jr., "The Corps of Engineers and the Rise of Modern Management, 1827-1856," in Smith, Military Enterprise and Technological Change, 88-116: Alfred E. Chandler Jr., "The American System and Modern Management," in Mayr and Post, 153-70; Hounshell, 21-25; Paul Uselding, "Measuring Techniques and Manufacturing Practice," in Mayr and Post, 103-23. For a detailed discussion, see Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory, 184-251, 280-92; Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Change in the Machine Tool Industry, 1840-1910," Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 414-20; Merritt Roe Smith, "John H. Hall, Simeon North, and the Milling Machine: The Nature of Innovation among Ante-bellum Arms Makers," Technology and Culture 14 (1973): 573-91.
22. Smith, "Army Ordnance and the 'American System,'" 56-64, 69, 74, 83; Charles F. O'Connell Jr., "The Corps of Engineers and the Rise of Modern Management, 1827-1856," in Smith, Military Enterprise and Technological Change, 88-116: Alfred E. Chandler Jr., "The American System and Modern Management," in Mayr and Post, 153-70; Hounshell, 21-25; Paul Uselding, "Measuring Techniques and Manufacturing Practice," in Mayr and Post, 103-23. For a detailed discussion, see Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory, 184-251, 280-92; Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Change in the Machine Tool Industry, 1840-1910," Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 414-20; Merritt Roe Smith, "John H. Hall, Simeon North, and the Milling Machine: The Nature of Innovation among Ante-bellum Arms Makers," Technology and Culture 14 (1973): 573-91.
23. Smith, "Army Ordnance and the 'American System,'" 56-64, 69, 74, 83; Charles F. O'Connell Jr., "The Corps of Engineers and the Rise of Modern Management, 1827-1856," in Smith, Military Enterprise and Technological Change, 88-116: Alfred E. Chandler Jr., "The American System and Modern Management," in Mayr and Post, 153-70; Hounshell, 21-25; Paul Uselding, "Measuring Techniques and Manufacturing Practice," in Mayr and Post, 103-23. For a detailed discussion, see Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory, 184-251, 280-92; Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Change in the Machine Tool Industry, 1840-1910," Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 414-20; Merritt Roe Smith, "John H. Hall, Simeon North, and the Milling Machine: The Nature of Innovation among Ante-bellum Arms Makers," Technology and Culture 14 (1973): 573-91.
24. Smith, "Army Ordnance and the 'American System,'" 56-64, 69, 74, 83; Charles F. O'Connell Jr., "The Corps of Engineers and the Rise of Modern Management, 1827-1856," in Smith, Military Enterprise and Technological Change, 88-116: Alfred E. Chandler Jr., "The American System and Modern Management," in Mayr and Post, 153-70; Hounshell, 21-25; Paul Uselding, "Measuring Techniques and Manufacturing Practice," in Mayr and Post, 103-23. For a detailed discussion, see Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory, 184-251, 280-92; Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Change in the Machine Tool Industry, 1840-1910," Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 414-20; Merritt Roe Smith, "John H. Hall, Simeon North, and the Milling Machine: The Nature of Innovation among Ante-bellum Arms Makers," Technology and Culture 14 (1973): 573-91.
25. Mary A. DeCredico, Patriotism for Profit: Georgia's Urban Entrepreneurs and the Confederate War Effort (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1990), 16-18. The relationship between technology, industrial progress, social control, and Whig ideology in the antebellum South has garnered scholarly interest in recent years. My views have been influenced by the writings of Daniel Walker Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979); Lawrence F. Kohl, The Politics of Individualism: Parties and the American Character in the Jacksonian Era (Oxford, 1989); John F. Kasson, Civilizing the Machine: Technology and Republican Values in America, 1776-1900 (New York, 1976); J. Mills Thornton III, Politics and Power in a Slave Society: Alabama, 1800-1860 (Baton Rouge, La., 1978); Lacy K. Ford Jr., Origins of Southern Radicalism: The South Carolina Upcountry, 1800-1860 (Oxford, 1988); James Oakes, Slavery and Freedom: An Interpretation of the Old South (New York, 1990); Eugene D. Genovese, The Slaveholders' Dilemma: Freedom and Progress in Southern Conservative Thought, 1820-1860 (Columbia, S.C., 1992); Laurence Shore, Southern Capitalists: The Ideological Leadership of an Elite, 1832-1885 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1986); Vicki Vaughn Johnson, The Men and the Vision of the Southern Commercial Conventions, 1845-1871 (Columbia, Mo., 1992); Paul F. Paskoff, "Invention and Culture in the Old South, 1790-1860" (paper delivered at Works-in-Progress Seminar, Louisiana State University, November 1991).
26. Mary A. DeCredico, Patriotism for Profit: Georgia's Urban Entrepreneurs and the Confederate War Effort (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1990), 16-18. The relationship between technology, industrial progress, social control, and Whig ideology in the antebellum South has garnered scholarly interest in recent years. My views have been influenced by the writings of Daniel Walker Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979); Lawrence F. Kohl, The Politics of Individualism: Parties and the American Character in the Jacksonian Era (Oxford, 1989); John F. Kasson, Civilizing the Machine: Technology and Republican Values in America, 1776-1900 (New York, 1976); J. Mills Thornton III, Politics and Power in a Slave Society: Alabama, 1800-1860 (Baton Rouge, La., 1978); Lacy K. Ford Jr., Origins of Southern Radicalism: The South Carolina Upcountry, 1800-1860 (Oxford, 1988); James Oakes, Slavery and Freedom: An Interpretation of the Old South (New York, 1990); Eugene D. Genovese, The Slaveholders' Dilemma: Freedom and Progress in Southern Conservative Thought, 1820-1860 (Columbia, S.C., 1992); Laurence Shore, Southern Capitalists: The Ideological Leadership of an Elite, 1832-1885 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1986); Vicki Vaughn Johnson, The Men and the Vision of the Southern Commercial Conventions, 1845-1871 (Columbia, Mo., 1992); Paul F. Paskoff, "Invention and Culture in the Old South, 1790-1860" (paper delivered at Works-in-Progress Seminar, Louisiana State University, November 1991).
27. Mary A. DeCredico, Patriotism for Profit: Georgia's Urban Entrepreneurs and the Confederate War Effort (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1990), 16-18. The relationship between technology, industrial progress, social control, and Whig ideology in the antebellum South has garnered scholarly interest in recent years. My views have been influenced by the writings of Daniel Walker Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979); Lawrence F. Kohl, The Politics of Individualism: Parties and the American Character in the Jacksonian Era (Oxford, 1989); John F. Kasson, Civilizing the Machine: Technology and Republican Values in America, 1776-1900 (New York, 1976); J. Mills Thornton III, Politics and Power in a Slave Society: Alabama, 1800-1860 (Baton Rouge, La., 1978); Lacy K. Ford Jr., Origins of Southern Radicalism: The South Carolina Upcountry, 1800-1860 (Oxford, 1988); James Oakes, Slavery and Freedom: An Interpretation of the Old South (New York, 1990); Eugene D. Genovese, The Slaveholders' Dilemma: Freedom and Progress in Southern Conservative Thought, 1820-1860 (Columbia, S.C., 1992); Laurence Shore, Southern Capitalists: The Ideological Leadership of an Elite, 1832-1885 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1986); Vicki Vaughn Johnson, The Men and the Vision of the Southern Commercial Conventions, 1845-1871 (Columbia, Mo., 1992); Paul F. Paskoff, "Invention and Culture in the Old South, 1790-1860" (paper delivered at Works-in-Progress Seminar, Louisiana State University, November 1991).
28. Mary A. DeCredico, Patriotism for Profit: Georgia's Urban Entrepreneurs and the Confederate War Effort (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1990), 16-18. The relationship between technology, industrial progress, social control, and Whig ideology in the antebellum South has garnered scholarly interest in recent years. My views have been influenced by the writings of Daniel Walker Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979); Lawrence F. Kohl, The Politics of Individualism: Parties and the American Character in the Jacksonian Era (Oxford, 1989); John F. Kasson, Civilizing the Machine: Technology and Republican Values in America, 1776-1900 (New York, 1976); J. Mills Thornton III, Politics and Power in a Slave Society: Alabama, 1800-1860 (Baton Rouge, La., 1978); Lacy K. Ford Jr., Origins of Southern Radicalism: The South Carolina Upcountry, 1800-1860 (Oxford, 1988); James Oakes, Slavery and Freedom: An Interpretation of the Old South (New York, 1990); Eugene D. Genovese, The Slaveholders' Dilemma: Freedom and Progress in Southern Conservative Thought, 1820-1860 (Columbia, S.C., 1992); Laurence Shore, Southern Capitalists: The Ideological Leadership of an Elite, 1832-1885 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1986); Vicki Vaughn Johnson, The Men and the Vision of the Southern Commercial Conventions, 1845-1871 (Columbia, Mo., 1992); Paul F. Paskoff, "Invention and Culture in the Old South, 1790-1860" (paper delivered at Works-in-Progress Seminar, Louisiana State University, November 1991).
29. Mary A. DeCredico, Patriotism for Profit: Georgia's Urban Entrepreneurs and the Confederate War Effort (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1990), 16-18. The relationship between technology, industrial progress, social control, and Whig ideology in the antebellum South has garnered scholarly interest in recent years. My views have been influenced by the writings of Daniel Walker Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979); Lawrence F. Kohl, The Politics of Individualism: Parties and the American Character in the Jacksonian Era (Oxford, 1989); John F. Kasson, Civilizing the Machine: Technology and Republican Values in America, 1776-1900 (New York, 1976); J. Mills Thornton III, Politics and Power in a Slave Society: Alabama, 1800-1860 (Baton Rouge, La., 1978); Lacy K. Ford Jr., Origins of Southern Radicalism: The South Carolina Upcountry, 1800-1860 (Oxford, 1988); James Oakes, Slavery and Freedom: An Interpretation of the Old South (New York, 1990); Eugene D. Genovese, The Slaveholders' Dilemma: Freedom and Progress in Southern Conservative Thought, 1820-1860 (Columbia, S.C., 1992); Laurence Shore, Southern Capitalists: The Ideological Leadership of an Elite, 1832-1885 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1986); Vicki Vaughn Johnson, The Men and the Vision of the Southern Commercial Conventions, 1845-1871 (Columbia, Mo., 1992); Paul F. Paskoff, "Invention and Culture in the Old South, 1790-1860" (paper delivered at Works-in-Progress Seminar, Louisiana State University, November 1991).
30. Mary A. DeCredico, Patriotism for Profit: Georgia's Urban Entrepreneurs and the Confederate War Effort (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1990), 16-18. The relationship between technology, industrial progress, social control, and Whig ideology in the antebellum South has garnered scholarly interest in recent years. My views have been influenced by the writings of Daniel Walker Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979); Lawrence F. Kohl, The Politics of Individualism: Parties and the American Character in the Jacksonian Era (Oxford, 1989); John F. Kasson, Civilizing the Machine: Technology and Republican Values in America, 1776-1900 (New York, 1976); J. Mills Thornton III, Politics and Power in a Slave Society: Alabama, 1800-1860 (Baton Rouge, La., 1978); Lacy K. Ford Jr., Origins of Southern Radicalism: The South Carolina Upcountry, 1800-1860 (Oxford, 1988); James Oakes, Slavery and Freedom: An Interpretation of the Old South (New York, 1990); Eugene D. Genovese, The Slaveholders' Dilemma: Freedom and Progress in Southern Conservative Thought, 1820-1860 (Columbia, S.C., 1992); Laurence Shore, Southern Capitalists: The Ideological Leadership of an Elite, 1832-1885 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1986); Vicki Vaughn Johnson, The Men and the Vision of the Southern Commercial Conventions, 1845-1871 (Columbia, Mo., 1992); Paul F. Paskoff, "Invention and Culture in the Old South, 1790-1860" (paper delivered at Works-in-Progress Seminar, Louisiana State University, November 1991).
31. Mary A. DeCredico, Patriotism for Profit: Georgia's Urban Entrepreneurs and the Confederate War Effort (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1990), 16-18. The relationship between technology, industrial progress, social control, and Whig ideology in the antebellum South has garnered scholarly interest in recent years. My views have been influenced by the writings of Daniel Walker Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979); Lawrence F. Kohl, The Politics of Individualism: Parties and the American Character in the Jacksonian Era (Oxford, 1989); John F. Kasson, Civilizing the Machine: Technology and Republican Values in America, 1776-1900 (New York, 1976); J. Mills Thornton III, Politics and Power in a Slave Society: Alabama, 1800-1860 (Baton Rouge, La., 1978); Lacy K. Ford Jr., Origins of Southern Radicalism: The South Carolina Upcountry, 1800-1860 (Oxford, 1988); James Oakes, Slavery and Freedom: An Interpretation of the Old South (New York, 1990); Eugene D. Genovese, The Slaveholders' Dilemma: Freedom and Progress in Southern Conservative Thought, 1820-1860 (Columbia, S.C., 1992); Laurence Shore, Southern Capitalists: The Ideological Leadership of an Elite, 1832-1885 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1986); Vicki Vaughn Johnson, The Men and the Vision of the Southern Commercial Conventions, 1845-1871 (Columbia, Mo., 1992); Paul F. Paskoff, "Invention and Culture in the Old South, 1790-1860" (paper delivered at Works-in-Progress Seminar, Louisiana State University, November 1991).
32. Mary A. DeCredico, Patriotism for Profit: Georgia's Urban Entrepreneurs and the Confederate War Effort (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1990), 16-18. The relationship between technology, industrial progress, social control, and Whig ideology in the antebellum South has garnered scholarly interest in recent years. My views have been influenced by the writings of Daniel Walker Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979); Lawrence F. Kohl, The Politics of Individualism: Parties and the American Character in the Jacksonian Era (Oxford, 1989); John F. Kasson, Civilizing the Machine: Technology and Republican Values in America, 1776-1900 (New York, 1976); J. Mills Thornton III, Politics and Power in a Slave Society: Alabama, 1800-1860 (Baton Rouge, La., 1978); Lacy K. Ford Jr., Origins of Southern Radicalism: The South Carolina Upcountry, 1800-1860 (Oxford, 1988); James Oakes, Slavery and Freedom: An Interpretation of the Old South (New York, 1990); Eugene D. Genovese, The Slaveholders' Dilemma: Freedom and Progress in Southern Conservative Thought, 1820-1860 (Columbia, S.C., 1992); Laurence Shore, Southern Capitalists: The Ideological Leadership of an Elite, 1832-1885 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1986); Vicki Vaughn Johnson, The Men and the Vision of the Southern Commercial Conventions, 1845-1871 (Columbia, Mo., 1992); Paul F. Paskoff, "Invention and Culture in the Old South, 1790-1860" (paper delivered at Works-in-Progress Seminar, Louisiana State University, November 1991).
33. Mary A. DeCredico, Patriotism for Profit: Georgia's Urban Entrepreneurs and the Confederate War Effort (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1990), 16-18. The relationship between technology, industrial progress, social control, and Whig ideology in the antebellum South has garnered scholarly interest in recent years. My views have been influenced by the writings of Daniel Walker Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979); Lawrence F. Kohl, The Politics of Individualism: Parties and the American Character in the Jacksonian Era (Oxford, 1989); John F. Kasson, Civilizing the Machine: Technology and Republican Values in America, 1776-1900 (New York, 1976); J. Mills Thornton III, Politics and Power in a Slave Society: Alabama, 1800-1860 (Baton Rouge, La., 1978); Lacy K. Ford Jr., Origins of Southern Radicalism: The South Carolina Upcountry, 1800-1860 (Oxford, 1988); James Oakes, Slavery and Freedom: An Interpretation of the Old South (New York, 1990); Eugene D. Genovese, The Slaveholders' Dilemma: Freedom and Progress in Southern Conservative Thought, 1820-1860 (Columbia, S.C., 1992); Laurence Shore, Southern Capitalists: The Ideological Leadership of an Elite, 1832-1885 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1986); Vicki Vaughn Johnson, The Men and the Vision of the Southern Commercial Conventions, 1845-1871 (Columbia, Mo., 1992); Paul F. Paskoff, "Invention and Culture in the Old South, 1790-1860" (paper delivered at Works-in-Progress Seminar, Louisiana State University, November 1991).
34. Mary A. DeCredico, Patriotism for Profit: Georgia's Urban Entrepreneurs and the Confederate War Effort (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1990), 16-18. The relationship between technology, industrial progress, social control, and Whig ideology in the antebellum South has garnered scholarly interest in recent years. My views have been influenced by the writings of Daniel Walker Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979); Lawrence F. Kohl, The Politics of Individualism: Parties and the American Character in the Jacksonian Era (Oxford, 1989); John F. Kasson, Civilizing the Machine: Technology and Republican Values in America, 1776-1900 (New York, 1976); J. Mills Thornton III, Politics and Power in a Slave Society: Alabama, 1800-1860 (Baton Rouge, La., 1978); Lacy K. Ford Jr., Origins of Southern Radicalism: The South Carolina Upcountry, 1800-1860 (Oxford, 1988); James Oakes, Slavery and Freedom: An Interpretation of the Old South (New York, 1990); Eugene D. Genovese, The Slaveholders' Dilemma: Freedom and Progress in Southern Conservative Thought, 1820-1860 (Columbia, S.C., 1992); Laurence Shore, Southern Capitalists: The Ideological Leadership of an Elite, 1832-1885 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1986); Vicki Vaughn Johnson, The Men and the Vision of the Southern Commercial Conventions, 1845-1871 (Columbia, Mo., 1992); Paul F. Paskoff, "Invention and Culture in the Old South, 1790-1860" (paper delivered at Works-in-Progress Seminar, Louisiana State University, November 1991).
35. Mary A. DeCredico, Patriotism for Profit: Georgia's Urban Entrepreneurs and the Confederate War Effort (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1990), 16-18. The relationship between technology, industrial progress, social control, and Whig ideology in the antebellum South has garnered scholarly interest in recent years. My views have been influenced by the writings of Daniel Walker Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979); Lawrence F. Kohl, The Politics of Individualism: Parties and the American Character in the Jacksonian Era (Oxford, 1989); John F. Kasson, Civilizing the Machine: Technology and Republican Values in America, 1776-1900 (New York, 1976); J. Mills Thornton III, Politics and Power in a Slave Society: Alabama, 1800-1860 (Baton Rouge, La., 1978); Lacy K. Ford Jr., Origins of Southern Radicalism: The South Carolina Upcountry, 1800-1860 (Oxford, 1988); James Oakes, Slavery and Freedom: An Interpretation of the Old South (New York, 1990); Eugene D. Genovese, The Slaveholders' Dilemma: Freedom and Progress in Southern Conservative Thought, 1820-1860 (Columbia, S.C., 1992); Laurence Shore, Southern Capitalists: The Ideological Leadership of an Elite, 1832-1885 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1986); Vicki Vaughn Johnson, The Men and the Vision of the Southern Commercial Conventions, 1845-1871 (Columbia, Mo., 1992); Paul F. Paskoff, "Invention and Culture in the Old South, 1790-1860" (paper delivered at Works-in-Progress Seminar, Louisiana State University, November 1991).
36. Isham Howze Journal, 29 May 1851, Box 1, Folder 4, and 26 November, Box 1, Folder 5, in Isham Robertson Howze Family Papers, Mississippi Department of Archives and History, Jackson, Mississippi; Jones to Hall, Pratt, et al., 22 October 1853, LPR 39, Box 4, Folder 3, Bolling Hall Papers, Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, Alabama.
37. Report of the President and Directors of the East Tennessee and Georgia Railroad Company . . . Sept. 3, 1856 (Athens, Tenn., 1857), 18-21; Proceedings of the Stockholders of the Charlotte & South Carolina Railroad Company, At Their Sixth Annual Meeting . . . 1854 (Columbia, S. C., 1854), 7.
38. Report of the President and Directors of the East Tennessee and Georgia Railroad Company . . . Sept. 3, 1856 (Athens, Tenn., 1857), 18-21; Proceedings of the Stockholders of the Charlotte & South Carolina Railroad Company, At Their Sixth Annual Meeting . . . 1854 (Columbia, S. C., 1854), 7.
39. Seventh Annual Report of the Directors to the Stockholders in the Memphis and Charleston Railroad Company, July 1, 1857 (Memphis, 1857), 25-26.
40. "Management of Slaves" Southern Cultivator 4 (March 1846): 43-45; "Necessity for System," Southern Planter 10 (January 1850): 30. The Southern Cultivator, a leading agricultural journal in the South, gives many examples of the growth of bureaucratic ideas. See, for example, "Science and Agriculture," 5 (February 1847): 40-43; D. Lee, "Agricultural Education," 10 (October 1852): 312-14, which argues for a "system" of education at both the secondary and university level; "A Word for Progressive Farming," 11 (March 1853): 78; "Plantation Register and Account Books," 12 (February 1854): 55; "Reasons Why every Farmer should pursue his Business as a Science," 12 (January 1855): 19-20; "Farm Book-Keeping," 13 (February 1855): 54; "Manufactories in Southern Slates," 16 (June 1858): 187.
41. "Management of Slaves" Southern Cultivator 4 (March 1846): 43-45; "Necessity for System," Southern Planter 10 (January 1850): 30. The Southern Cultivator, a leading agricultural journal in the South, gives many examples of the growth of bureaucratic ideas. See, for example, "Science and Agriculture," 5 (February 1847): 40-43; D. Lee, "Agricultural Education," 10 (October 1852): 312-14, which argues for a "system" of education at both the secondary and university level; "A Word for Progressive Farming," 11 (March 1853): 78; "Plantation Register and Account Books," 12 (February 1854): 55; "Reasons Why every Farmer should pursue his Business as a Science," 12 (January 1855): 19-20; "Farm Book-Keeping," 13 (February 1855): 54; "Manufactories in Southern Slates," 16 (June 1858): 187.
42. "Management of Slaves" Southern Cultivator 4 (March 1846): 43-45; "Necessity for System," Southern Planter 10 (January 1850): 30. The Southern Cultivator, a leading agricultural journal in the South, gives many examples of the growth of bureaucratic ideas. See, for example, "Science and Agriculture," 5 (February 1847): 40-43; D. Lee, "Agricultural Education," 10 (October 1852): 312-14, which argues for a "system" of education at both the secondary and university level; "A Word for Progressive Farming," 11 (March 1853): 78; "Plantation Register and Account Books," 12 (February 1854): 55; "Reasons Why every Farmer should pursue his Business as a Science," 12 (January 1855): 19-20; "Farm Book-Keeping," 13 (February 1855): 54; "Manufactories in Southern Slates," 16 (June 1858): 187.
43. "Management of Slaves" Southern Cultivator 4 (March 1846): 43-45; "Necessity for System," Southern Planter 10 (January 1850): 30. The Southern Cultivator, a leading agricultural journal in the South, gives many examples of the growth of bureaucratic ideas. See, for example, "Science and Agriculture," 5 (February 1847): 40-43; D. Lee, "Agricultural Education," 10 (October 1852): 312-14, which argues for a "system" of education at both the secondary and university level; "A Word for Progressive Farming," 11 (March 1853): 78; "Plantation Register and Account Books," 12 (February 1854): 55; "Reasons Why every Farmer should pursue his Business as a Science," 12 (January 1855): 19-20; "Farm Book-Keeping," 13 (February 1855): 54; "Manufactories in Southern Slates," 16 (June 1858): 187.
44. "Management of Slaves" Southern Cultivator 4 (March 1846): 43-45; "Necessity for System," Southern Planter 10 (January 1850): 30. The Southern Cultivator, a leading agricultural journal in the South, gives many examples of the growth of bureaucratic ideas. See, for example, "Science and Agriculture," 5 (February 1847): 40-43; D. Lee, "Agricultural Education," 10 (October 1852): 312-14, which argues for a "system" of education at both the secondary and university level; "A Word for Progressive Farming," 11 (March 1853): 78; "Plantation Register and Account Books," 12 (February 1854): 55; "Reasons Why every Farmer should pursue his Business as a Science," 12 (January 1855): 19-20; "Farm Book-Keeping," 13 (February 1855): 54; "Manufactories in Southern Slates," 16 (June 1858): 187.
45. "Management of Slaves" Southern Cultivator 4 (March 1846): 43-45; "Necessity for System," Southern Planter 10 (January 1850): 30. The Southern Cultivator, a leading agricultural journal in the South, gives many examples of the growth of bureaucratic ideas. See, for example, "Science and Agriculture," 5 (February 1847): 40-43; D. Lee, "Agricultural Education," 10 (October 1852): 312-14, which argues for a "system" of education at both the secondary and university level; "A Word for Progressive Farming," 11 (March 1853): 78; "Plantation Register and Account Books," 12 (February 1854): 55; "Reasons Why every Farmer should pursue his Business as a Science," 12 (January 1855): 19-20; "Farm Book-Keeping," 13 (February 1855): 54; "Manufactories in Southern Slates," 16 (June 1858): 187.
46. "Management of Slaves" Southern Cultivator 4 (March 1846): 43-45; "Necessity for System," Southern Planter 10 (January 1850): 30. The Southern Cultivator, a leading agricultural journal in the South, gives many examples of the growth of bureaucratic ideas. See, for example, "Science and Agriculture," 5 (February 1847): 40-43; D. Lee, "Agricultural Education," 10 (October 1852): 312-14, which argues for a "system" of education at both the secondary and university level; "A Word for Progressive Farming," 11 (March 1853): 78; "Plantation Register and Account Books," 12 (February 1854): 55; "Reasons Why every Farmer should pursue his Business as a Science," 12 (January 1855): 19-20; "Farm Book-Keeping," 13 (February 1855): 54; "Manufactories in Southern Slates," 16 (June 1858): 187.
47. "Management of Slaves" Southern Cultivator 4 (March 1846): 43-45; "Necessity for System," Southern Planter 10 (January 1850): 30. The Southern Cultivator, a leading agricultural journal in the South, gives many examples of the growth of bureaucratic ideas. See, for example, "Science and Agriculture," 5 (February 1847): 40-43; D. Lee, "Agricultural Education," 10 (October 1852): 312-14, which argues for a "system" of education at both the secondary and university level; "A Word for Progressive Farming," 11 (March 1853): 78; "Plantation Register and Account Books," 12 (February 1854): 55; "Reasons Why every Farmer should pursue his Business as a Science," 12 (January 1855): 19-20; "Farm Book-Keeping," 13 (February 1855): 54; "Manufactories in Southern Slates," 16 (June 1858): 187.
48. "Management of Slaves" Southern Cultivator 4 (March 1846): 43-45; "Necessity for System," Southern Planter 10 (January 1850): 30. The Southern Cultivator, a leading agricultural journal in the South, gives many examples of the growth of bureaucratic ideas. See, for example, "Science and Agriculture," 5 (February 1847): 40-43; D. Lee, "Agricultural Education," 10 (October 1852): 312-14, which argues for a "system" of education at both the secondary and university level; "A Word for Progressive Farming," 11 (March 1853): 78; "Plantation Register and Account Books," 12 (February 1854): 55; "Reasons Why every Farmer should pursue his Business as a Science," 12 (January 1855): 19-20; "Farm Book-Keeping," 13 (February 1855): 54; "Manufactories in Southern Slates," 16 (June 1858): 187.
49. Jones to Bolling Hall, Pratt, et al.
50. Dan R. Frost, "A Confederate Education in the New South: Southern Academia and the Idea of Progress in the Nineteenth Century" (Ph.D. diss., Louisiana State University, 1994), 13-79; "Railroads," The Self Instructor: A Monthly Journal Devoted to Southern Education and to the Diffusion of a Knowledge of the Resources and Power of the South, as represented by The Negro, The Rail and the Press 1 (November 1853): 39-40; Robert E. Hunt, "Organizing a New South: Education Reformers in Ante-bellum Alabama, 1840-1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Missouri - Columbia, 1988), 328-30.
51. Dan R. Frost, "A Confederate Education in the New South: Southern Academia and the Idea of Progress in the Nineteenth Century" (Ph.D. diss., Louisiana State University, 1994), 13-79; "Railroads," The Self Instructor: A Monthly Journal Devoted to Southern Education and to the Diffusion of a Knowledge of the Resources and Power of the South, as represented by The Negro, The Rail and the Press 1 (November 1853): 39-40; Robert E. Hunt, "Organizing a New South: Education Reformers in Ante-bellum Alabama, 1840-1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Missouri - Columbia, 1988), 328-30.
52. Dan R. Frost, "A Confederate Education in the New South: Southern Academia and the Idea of Progress in the Nineteenth Century" (Ph.D. diss., Louisiana State University, 1994), 13-79; "Railroads," The Self Instructor: A Monthly Journal Devoted to Southern Education and to the Diffusion of a Knowledge of the Resources and Power of the South, as represented by The Negro, The Rail and the Press 1 (November 1853): 39-40; Robert E. Hunt, "Organizing a New South: Education Reformers in Ante-bellum Alabama, 1840-1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Missouri - Columbia, 1988), 328-30.
53. O'Connell (n. 5 above), 103-5; Beniger (n. 3 above), 202-18.
54. O'Connell (n. 5 above), 103-5; Beniger (n. 3 above), 202-18.
55. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 11-14. See also Frank E. Vandiver, "A Note on Josiah Gorgas in the Mexican War," Journal of Southern History 11 (1945): 103-6; Gorgas to Commander of the Baton Rouge Arsenal, 1847, United States Army Collection, Ordnance Department, Louisiana and Lower Mississippi Valley Collections, LSU Libraries, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge; Farley (n. 3 above), 70-71; Keir B. Stirling, Serving the Line with Excellence: The Development of the U. S. Army Ordnance Corps (Washington, D.C., 1987), 25-26; Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, ed., The Journals of Josiah Gorgas, 1857-1878 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1995), 4-37; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 51-53. For an overview of Jefferson Davis's selection of Gorgas, see Stanley L. Falk, "Notes and Documents: Jefferson Davis and Josiah Gorgas, an Appointment of Necessity," Journal of Southern History 28 (1962): 84-86.
56. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 11-14. See also Frank E. Vandiver, "A Note on Josiah Gorgas in the Mexican War," Journal of Southern History 11 (1945): 103-6; Gorgas to Commander of the Baton Rouge Arsenal, 1847, United States Army Collection, Ordnance Department, Louisiana and Lower Mississippi Valley Collections, LSU Libraries, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge; Farley (n. 3 above), 70-71; Keir B. Stirling, Serving the Line with Excellence: The Development of the U. S. Army Ordnance Corps (Washington, D.C., 1987), 25-26; Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, ed., The Journals of Josiah Gorgas, 1857-1878 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1995), 4-37; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 51-53. For an overview of Jefferson Davis's selection of Gorgas, see Stanley L. Falk, "Notes and Documents: Jefferson Davis and Josiah Gorgas, an Appointment of Necessity," Journal of Southern History 28 (1962): 84-86.
57. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 11-14. See also Frank E. Vandiver, "A Note on Josiah Gorgas in the Mexican War," Journal of Southern History 11 (1945): 103-6; Gorgas to Commander of the Baton Rouge Arsenal, 1847, United States Army Collection, Ordnance Department, Louisiana and Lower Mississippi Valley Collections, LSU Libraries, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge; Farley (n. 3 above), 70-71; Keir B. Stirling, Serving the Line with Excellence: The Development of the U. S. Army Ordnance Corps (Washington, D.C., 1987), 25-26; Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, ed., The Journals of Josiah Gorgas, 1857-1878 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1995), 4-37; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 51-53. For an overview of Jefferson Davis's selection of Gorgas, see Stanley L. Falk, "Notes and Documents: Jefferson Davis and Josiah Gorgas, an Appointment of Necessity," Journal of Southern History 28 (1962): 84-86.
58. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 11-14. See also Frank E. Vandiver, "A Note on Josiah Gorgas in the Mexican War," Journal of Southern History 11 (1945): 103-6; Gorgas to Commander of the Baton Rouge Arsenal, 1847, United States Army Collection, Ordnance Department, Louisiana and Lower Mississippi Valley Collections, LSU Libraries, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge; Farley (n. 3 above), 70-71; Keir B. Stirling, Serving the Line with Excellence: The Development of the U. S. Army Ordnance Corps (Washington, D.C., 1987), 25-26; Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, ed., The Journals of Josiah Gorgas, 1857-1878 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1995), 4-37; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 51-53. For an overview of Jefferson Davis's selection of Gorgas, see Stanley L. Falk, "Notes and Documents: Jefferson Davis and Josiah Gorgas, an Appointment of Necessity," Journal of Southern History 28 (1962): 84-86.
59. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 11-14. See also Frank E. Vandiver, "A Note on Josiah Gorgas in the Mexican War," Journal of Southern History 11 (1945): 103-6; Gorgas to Commander of the Baton Rouge Arsenal, 1847, United States Army Collection, Ordnance Department, Louisiana and Lower Mississippi Valley Collections, LSU Libraries, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge; Farley (n. 3 above), 70-71; Keir B. Stirling, Serving the Line with Excellence: The Development of the U. S. Army Ordnance Corps (Washington, D.C., 1987), 25-26; Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, ed., The Journals of Josiah Gorgas, 1857-1878 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1995), 4-37; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 51-53. For an overview of Jefferson Davis's selection of Gorgas, see Stanley L. Falk, "Notes and Documents: Jefferson Davis and Josiah Gorgas, an Appointment of Necessity," Journal of Southern History 28 (1962): 84-86.
60. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 11-14. See also Frank E. Vandiver, "A Note on Josiah Gorgas in the Mexican War," Journal of Southern History 11 (1945): 103-6; Gorgas to Commander of the Baton Rouge Arsenal, 1847, United States Army Collection, Ordnance Department, Louisiana and Lower Mississippi Valley Collections, LSU Libraries, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge; Farley (n. 3 above), 70-71; Keir B. Stirling, Serving the Line with Excellence: The Development of the U. S. Army Ordnance Corps (Washington, D.C., 1987), 25-26; Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, ed., The Journals of Josiah Gorgas, 1857-1878 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1995), 4-37; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 51-53. For an overview of Jefferson Davis's selection of Gorgas, see Stanley L. Falk, "Notes and Documents: Jefferson Davis and Josiah Gorgas, an Appointment of Necessity," Journal of Southern History 28 (1962): 84-86.
61. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 11-14. See also Frank E. Vandiver, "A Note on Josiah Gorgas in the Mexican War," Journal of Southern History 11 (1945): 103-6; Gorgas to Commander of the Baton Rouge Arsenal, 1847, United States Army Collection, Ordnance Department, Louisiana and Lower Mississippi Valley Collections, LSU Libraries, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge; Farley (n. 3 above), 70-71; Keir B. Stirling, Serving the Line with Excellence: The Development of the U. S. Army Ordnance Corps (Washington, D.C., 1987), 25-26; Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, ed., The Journals of Josiah Gorgas, 1857-1878 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1995), 4-37; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 51-53. For an overview of Jefferson Davis's selection of Gorgas, see Stanley L. Falk, "Notes and Documents: Jefferson Davis and Josiah Gorgas, an Appointment of Necessity," Journal of Southern History 28 (1962): 84-86.
62. John W. Mallet, "Memoranda of My Life for My Children," manuscript, 1-3, 26, Special Collections/Manuscripts, Alderman Library, University of Virginia, Charlottesville; Desmond Reilly, "John William Mallet (1832-1912): His Earlier Work in Ireland," Journal of Chemical Education 25 (1948): 634; Melton (n. 2 above), 299; Hoole (n. 2 above), 36.
63. John W. Mallet, "Memoranda of My Life for My Children," manuscript, 1-3, 26, Special Collections/Manuscripts, Alderman Library, University of Virginia, Charlottesville; Desmond Reilly, "John William Mallet (1832-1912): His Earlier Work in Ireland," Journal of Chemical Education 25 (1948): 634; Melton (n. 2 above), 299; Hoole (n. 2 above), 36.
64. John W. Mallet, "Memoranda of My Life for My Children," manuscript, 1-3, 26, Special Collections/Manuscripts, Alderman Library, University of Virginia, Charlottesville; Desmond Reilly, "John William Mallet (1832-1912): His Earlier Work in Ireland," Journal of Chemical Education 25 (1948): 634; Melton (n. 2 above), 299; Hoole (n. 2 above), 36.
65. John W. Mallet, "Memoranda of My Life for My Children," manuscript, 1-3, 26, Special Collections/Manuscripts, Alderman Library, University of Virginia, Charlottesville; Desmond Reilly, "John William Mallet (1832-1912): His Earlier Work in Ireland," Journal of Chemical Education 25 (1948): 634; Melton (n. 2 above), 299; Hoole (n. 2 above), 36.
66. Mallet, "Memoranda of My Life," 3-4, 20, 26-27; Reilly, 635-36; F. P. Dunnington, "A Sketch of Dr. John William Mallet, as a Chemist and a Teacher," Journal of Chemical Education 5 (1928): 184. The American Journal of Science and Arts began publication in 1818, and became one of the most important scientific journals in the country, with articles from the foremost American scientists.
67. Mallet, "Memoranda of My Life," 3-4, 20, 26-27; Reilly, 635-36; F. P. Dunnington, "A Sketch of Dr. John William Mallet, as a Chemist and a Teacher," Journal of Chemical Education 5 (1928): 184. The American Journal of Science and Arts began publication in 1818, and became one of the most important scientific journals in the country, with articles from the foremost American scientists.
68. Mallet, "Memoranda of My Life," 3-4, 20, 26-27; Reilly, 635-36; F. P. Dunnington, "A Sketch of Dr. John William Mallet, as a Chemist and a Teacher," Journal of Chemical Education 5 (1928): 184. The American Journal of Science and Arts began publication in 1818, and became one of the most important scientific journals in the country, with articles from the foremost American scientists.
69. Mallet, "Memoranda of My Life," 5-6.
70. lohn W. Mallet, "Work of the Ordnance Bureau of the War Department of the Confederate States, 1861-1865," Southern Historical Society Papers
71. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 113.
72. Frank E. Vandiver, "Makeshifts of Confederate Ordnance," Journal of Southern History 17 (1951): 181; Melton, 296-97; Mallet, "Work of the Ordnance Bureau," 3, 7-8.
73. Frank E. Vandiver, "Makeshifts of Confederate Ordnance," Journal of Southern History 17 (1951): 181; Melton, 296-97; Mallet, "Work of the Ordnance Bureau," 3, 7-8.
74. Frank E. Vandiver, "Makeshifts of Confederate Ordnance," Journal of Southern History 17 (1951): 181; Melton, 296-97; Mallet, "Work of the Ordnance Bureau," 3, 7-8.
75. In War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, 127 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1880-1901) (hereafter cited as Official Records): report of Brigadier General Henry A. Wise, 17 July 1861, ser. 1, vol. 2, 290; M. L. Bonham to R. E. Lee, 25 May 1861, ser. 1, vol. 2, 43; Riley to Headquarters Army of Tennessee, 1 October 1863, ser. 1, vol. 30, pt. 2, 314; Oladowski to Johnson, March 1863, ser. 1, vol. 23, pt. 2, 763.
76. In War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, 127 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1880-1901) (hereafter cited as Official Records): report of Brigadier General Henry A. Wise, 17 July 1861, ser. 1, vol. 2, 290; M. L. Bonham to R. E. Lee, 25 May 1861, ser. 1, vol. 2, 43; Riley to Headquarters Army of Tennessee, 1 October 1863, ser. 1, vol. 30, pt. 2, 314; Oladowski to Johnson, March 1863, ser. 1, vol. 23, pt. 2, 763.
77. In War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, 127 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1880-1901) (hereafter cited as Official Records): report of Brigadier General Henry A. Wise, 17 July 1861, ser. 1, vol. 2, 290; M. L. Bonham to R. E. Lee, 25 May 1861, ser. 1, vol. 2, 43; Riley to Headquarters Army of Tennessee, 1 October 1863, ser. 1, vol. 30, pt. 2, 314; Oladowski to Johnson, March 1863, ser. 1, vol. 23, pt. 2, 763.
78. In War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, 127 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1880-1901) (hereafter cited as Official Records): report of Brigadier General Henry A. Wise, 17 July 1861, ser. 1, vol. 2, 290; M. L. Bonham to R. E. Lee, 25 May 1861, ser. 1, vol. 2, 43; Riley to Headquarters Army of Tennessee, 1 October 1863, ser. 1, vol. 30, pt. 2, 314; Oladowski to Johnson, March 1863, ser. 1, vol. 23, pt. 2, 763.
79. Melton (n. 2 above), 297; Beauregard to Cooper, 16 September 1363, Official Records, ser. 1, vol. 27, pt. 2, 365; Magruder to Gorgas, 8 October 1861, Official Records, ser. 1, vol. 4, 674-75.
80. Melton (n. 2 above), 297; Beauregard to Cooper, 16 September 1363, Official Records, ser. 1, vol. 27, pt. 2, 365; Magruder to Gorgas, 8 October 1861, Official Records, ser. 1, vol. 4, 674-75.
81. Melton (n. 2 above), 297; Beauregard to Cooper, 16 September 1363, Official Records, ser. 1, vol. 27, pt. 2, 365; Magruder to Gorgas, 8 October 1861, Official Records, ser. 1, vol. 4, 674-75.
82. Gorgas to Randolph, 1 May 1862, quoted in Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 112.
83. Gorgas to Randolph, 1 May 1862, quoted in Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 112.
84. Some definition of terms is needed here. "An arsenal in the strictest sense was a depository which had under its supervision an armory (which did the manufacturing of arms), a laboratory (which made ammunition as well as setting standards and construction procedures), and a depot (which was located at some detached place and could have the missions of collection, repair, and issue of arms)"; Mark Mayo Boatner, The Civil War Dictionary (New York, 1959), 27. It should be noted "that while basically this setup remained the same, exigencies of war caused many changes. Some Depots became Arsenals and vice versa, while some establishments such as Holly Springs and the Briarfield Arsenal melted away completely"; William A. Albaugh III and Edward N. Simmons, Confederate Arms (New York, 1957), 76.
85. Some definition of terms is needed here. "An arsenal in the strictest sense was a depository which had under its supervision an armory (which did the manufacturing of arms), a laboratory (which made ammunition as well as setting standards and construction procedures), and a depot (which was located at some detached place and could have the missions of collection, repair, and issue of arms)"; Mark Mayo Boatner, The Civil War Dictionary (New York, 1959), 27. It should be noted "that while basically this setup remained the same, exigencies of war caused many changes. Some Depots became Arsenals and vice versa, while some establishments such as Holly Springs and the Briarfield Arsenal melted away completely"; William A. Albaugh III and Edward N. Simmons, Confederate Arms (New York, 1957), 76.
86. Josiah Gorgas, "Notes on the Ordnance Department of the Confederate Government," Southern Historical Society Papers 12 (1884): 87-89.
87. Mallet, "Memoranda of My Life" (n. 15 above), 6-7.
88. Mallet to Gorgas, 27 May 1862, "Letters Sent Superintendent of Laboratories, 1862-1865," War Department Collection of Confederate Records, Record Group 109, chap. 4, vols. 24, 28, National Archives, Washington, D.C., from microfilm copy E502, reel 2a, Amelia Gorgas Library, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa (hereafter Superintendent Letters; unless otherwise noted, all citations of Mallet/Gorgas correspondence are to this source). The Gardner machine was invented by Frederick J. Gardner of North Carolina. The Confederate Ordnance Manual of 1863 describes it in a footnote: "A method of attaching the paper cartridge directly to the ball. . . ." Although the machine saved time and paper, complaints from the field about the cartridges led to its cancellation. Gardner received a Confederate patent for his invention, but a search did not locate a U. S. patent. The Ordnance Manual for the Use of the Officers of the Confederate States Army (reprint, Dayton, Ohio, 1976), 253; Dean S. Thomas, "Small Arms: Munitions," in Encyclopedia of the Confederacy, ed. Richard N. Current (New York, 1993) 4:1469-71;
89. Mallet to Gorgas, 27 May 1862, "Letters Sent Superintendent of Laboratories, 1862-1865," War Department Collection of Confederate Records, Record Group 109, chap. 4, vols. 24, 28, National Archives, Washington, D.C., from microfilm copy E502, reel 2a, Amelia Gorgas Library, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa (hereafter Superintendent Letters; unless otherwise noted, all citations of Mallet/Gorgas correspondence are to this source). The Gardner machine was invented by Frederick J. Gardner of North Carolina. The Confederate Ordnance Manual of 1863 describes it in a footnote: "A method of attaching the paper cartridge directly to the ball. . . ." Although the machine saved time and paper, complaints from the field about the cartridges led to its cancellation. Gardner received a Confederate patent for his invention, but a search did not locate a U. S. patent. The Ordnance Manual for the Use of the Officers of the Confederate States Army (reprint, Dayton, Ohio, 1976), 253; Dean S. Thomas, "Small Arms: Munitions," in Encyclopedia of the Confederacy, ed. Richard N. Current (New York, 1993) 4:1469-71;
90. Mallet to Gorgas, 27 May 1862, "Letters Sent Superintendent of Laboratories, 1862-1865," War Department Collection of Confederate Records, Record Group 109, chap. 4, vols. 24, 28, National Archives, Washington, D.C., from microfilm copy E502, reel 2a, Amelia Gorgas Library, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa (hereafter Superintendent Letters; unless otherwise noted, all citations of Mallet/Gorgas correspondence are to this source). The Gardner machine was invented by Frederick J. Gardner of North Carolina. The Confederate Ordnance Manual of 1863 describes it in a footnote: "A method of attaching the paper cartridge directly to the ball. . . ." Although the machine saved time and paper, complaints from the field about the cartridges led to its cancellation. Gardner received a Confederate patent for his invention, but a search did not locate a U. S. patent. The Ordnance Manual for the Use of the Officers of the Confederate States Army (reprint, Dayton, Ohio, 1976), 253; Dean S. Thomas, "Small Arms: Munitions," in Encyclopedia of the Confederacy, ed. Richard N. Current (New York, 1993) 4:1469-71;
91. CSA Patent Office Reports, "Patent 12, 08/17/1861 Frederick J. Gardner of Newbern, NC for Cartridges"; Kenneth W. Dobyns, The Patent Office Pony: A History of the Early Patent Office (Fredericksburg, Va., 1997), 167-70, 207-16.
92. Mallet to Gorgas, 27 May 1862.
93. Robert E. Lee, albeit a year later when conditions of the railroad made it impossible, recognized the same need, writing Jefferson Davis, "I think, too, Colonel Gorgas should commence at once to enlarge his manufacturing arsenals, &c., in the interior. . . ."; Lee to Davis, 11 September 1863, in The Wartime Papers of R. E. Lee, ed. Clifford Dowdey (Boston, 1961), 599.
94. These orders specified the arsenal laboratories in Petersburg, Virginia; Raleigh and Fayetteville, North Carolina; Charleston, South Carolina; Augusta, Atlanta, Macon, Savannah, and Columbus, Georgia; Montgomery and Mobile, Alabama; and Columbus and Grenada, Mississippi. Mallet was then supposed to make his office in Atlanta so he would be centrally located to travel when necessary to trouble spots. Hoole (n. 2 above), 37.
95. Mallet, "Memoranda of My Life," 7; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 114; Beniger (n. 3 above), 174-77; Mallet believed that inspection reports were "the most usefull [sic] in character that I have seen, stating distinctly the faults complained of, and giving the names of the Arsenals from which the defective ammunition was sent out." Mallet to Gorgas, 9 June 1863.
96. Mallet, "Memoranda of My Life," 7; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 114; Beniger (n. 3 above), 174-77; Mallet believed that inspection reports were "the most usefull [sic] in character that I have seen, stating distinctly the faults complained of, and giving the names of the Arsenals from which the defective ammunition was sent out." Mallet to Gorgas, 9 June 1863.
97. Mallet, "Memoranda of My Life," 7; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 114; Beniger (n. 3 above), 174-77; Mallet believed that inspection reports were "the most usefull [sic] in character that I have seen, stating distinctly the faults complained of, and giving the names of the Arsenals from which the defective ammunition was sent out." Mallet to Gorgas, 9 June 1863.
98. Mallet, "Memoranda of My Life," 7; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 114; Beniger (n. 3 above), 174-77; Mallet believed that inspection reports were "the most usefull [sic] in character that I have seen, stating distinctly the faults complained of, and giving the names of the Arsenals from which the defective ammunition was sent out." Mallet to Gorgas, 9 June 1863.
99. Mallet to Gorgas, 8 June 1862.
100. Mallet to Gorgas, 11 June 1862.
101. Hoole, 43; Mallet to Gorgas, 24 June 1862. In September 1863, Mallet wrote Gorgas that "Although I trust our more immediate and pressing wants as regards Laboratory stores - especially lead - will be relieved by the arrival - now taking place - of shipments made by Major Huse . . . the difficulty of obtaining almost all the stores from the internal resources of the Confederacy has increased enormously. . . ." Because of this shortage, Mallet continued, "lead we must import, and largely as no Arsenal - except Richmond - can otherwise be depended on for small-arm's ammunition"; Mallet to Gorgas, 7 September 1863. E. Merton Coulter, The Confederate States of America 1861-1865 (Baton Rouge, La., 1950), 204-5.
102. Hoole, 43; Mallet to Gorgas, 24 June 1862. In September 1863, Mallet wrote Gorgas that "Although I trust our more immediate and pressing wants as regards Laboratory stores - especially lead - will be relieved by the arrival - now taking place - of shipments made by Major Huse . . . the difficulty of obtaining almost all the stores from the internal resources of the Confederacy has increased enormously. . . ." Because of this shortage, Mallet continued, "lead we must import, and largely as no Arsenal - except Richmond - can otherwise be depended on for small-arm's ammunition"; Mallet to Gorgas, 7 September 1863. E. Merton Coulter, The Confederate States of America 1861-1865 (Baton Rouge, La., 1950), 204-5.
103. Hoole, 43; Mallet to Gorgas, 24 June 1862. In September 1863, Mallet wrote Gorgas that "Although I trust our more immediate and pressing wants as regards Laboratory stores - especially lead - will be relieved by the arrival - now taking place -of shipments made by Major Huse . . . the difficulty of obtaining almost all the stores from the internal resources of the Confederacy has increased enormously. . . ." Because of this shortage, Mallet continued, "lead we must import, and largely as no Arsenal - except Richmond - can otherwise be depended on for small-arm's ammunition"; Mallet to Gorgas, 7 September 1863. E. Merton Coulter, The Confederate States of America 1861-1865 (Baton Rouge, La., 1950), 204-5.
104. Hoole, 43; Mallet to Gorgas, 24 June 1862. In September 1863, Mallet wrote Gorgas that "Although I trust our more immediate and pressing wants as regards Laboratory stores - especially lead - will be relieved by the arrival - now taking place - of shipments made by Major Huse . . . the difficulty of obtaining almost all the stores from the internal resources of the Confederacy has increased enormously. . . ." Because of this shortage, Mallet continued, "lead we must import, and largely as no Arsenal - except Richmond - can otherwise be depended on for small-arm's ammunition"; Mallet to Gorgas, 7 September 1863. E. Merton Coulter, The Confederate States of America 1861-1865 (Baton Rouge, La., 1950), 204-5.
105. Mallet to Gorgas, 24 June 1862.
106. Ibid. Bullets could be manufactured in various ways. The most primitive method was casting, in which molten lead was poured into a mold. By the mid-1850s machinery had been developed and constructed at Allegheny Arsenal in Pittsburgh for the production of minié balls. This probably was the type of machinery that Mallet wanted. Dean S. Thomas, Ready . . . Aim . . . Fire! Small Arms Ammunition in the Battle of Gettysburg (Biglerville, Pa., 1981), 6-9.
107. Ibid. Bullets could be manufactured in various ways. The most primitive method was casting, in which molten lead was poured into a mold. By the mid-1850s machinery had been developed and constructed at Allegheny Arsenal in Pittsburgh for the production of minié balls. This probably was the type of machinery that Mallet wanted. Dean S. Thomas, Ready . . . Aim . . . Fire! Small Arms Ammunition in the Battle of Gettysburg (Biglerville, Pa., 1981), 6-9.
108. Mallet to Gorgas, 24 June 1862; Hoole (n. 2 above), 47.
109. Mallet to Gorgas, 24 June 1862; Hoole (n. 2 above), 47.
110. Mallet to Gorgas, 1 July 1862.
111. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 114. Burton's views regarding uniformity in the manufacture and inspection of rifles and cannon mirrored Mallet's demand for uniformity in ammunition production. He had been employed at Harpers Ferry and at Springfield, helped set up the American system of manufacturing at the Royal Small Arms Factory in Enfield, England, and began building a central armory in Macon in 1862. Matthew W. Norman, Colonel Burton's Spiller & Burr Revolver: An Untimely Venture in Confederate Small-Arms Manufacturing (Macon, Ga., 1996), 6-7; Lynda Lasswell Crist and Mary Seaton Dix, eds., The Papers of Jefferson Davis (Baton Rouge, La., 1992), vol. 7, 1861, 228; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 79, 145, 172, 247; Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory (n. 3 above), 285n, 302n, 312; Smith, "Ante-bellum Arms Makers" (n. 5 above), 583. Burton to Gorgas, 11 June 1862; Burton to W. Graham, 21 June 1862; Burton to Gorgas, n.d. [July?] 1862; Burton to Mayor and City Council of Macon, 19 August 1862, "Letters Sent Macon Armory, Georgia 1862-1865," War Department Collection of Confederate Records, Record Group 109, chap. 4, vols. 20, 29, and 31, National Archives, Washington, D.C., from microfilm copy E502, reel. 1a, Amelia Gorgas Library, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa (hereafter Armory Letters).
112. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 114. Burton's views regarding uniformity in the manufacture and inspection of rifles and cannon mirrored Mallet's demand for uniformity in ammunition production. He had been employed at Harpers Ferry and at Springfield, helped set up the American system of manufacturing at the Royal Small Arms Factory in Enfield, England, and began building a central armory in Macon in 1862. Matthew W. Norman, Colonel Burton's Spiller & Burr Revolver: An Untimely Venture in Confederate Small-Arms Manufacturing (Macon, Ga., 1996), 6-7; Lynda Lasswell Crist and Mary Seaton Dix, eds., The Papers of Jefferson Davis (Baton Rouge, La., 1992), vol. 7, 1861, 228; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 79, 145, 172, 247; Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory (n. 3 above), 285n, 302n, 312; Smith, "Ante-bellum Arms Makers" (n. 5 above), 583. Burton to Gorgas, 11 June 1862; Burton to W. Graham, 21 June 1862; Burton to Gorgas, n.d. [July?] 1862; Burton to Mayor and City Council of Macon, 19 August 1862, "Letters Sent Macon Armory, Georgia 1862-1865," War Department Collection of Confederate Records, Record Group 109, chap. 4, vols. 20, 29, and 31, National Archives, Washington, D.C., from microfilm copy E502, reel. 1a, Amelia Gorgas Library, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa (hereafter Armory Letters).
113. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 114. Burton's views regarding uniformity in the manufacture and inspection of rifles and cannon mirrored Mallet's demand for uniformity in ammunition production. He had been employed at Harpers Ferry and at Springfield, helped set up the American system of manufacturing at the Royal Small Arms Factory in Enfield, England, and began building a central armory in Macon in 1862. Matthew W. Norman, Colonel Burton's Spiller & Burr Revolver: An Untimely Venture in Confederate Small-Arms Manufacturing (Macon, Ga., 1996), 6-7; Lynda Lasswell Crist and Mary Seaton Dix, eds., The Papers of Jefferson Davis (Baton Rouge, La., 1992), vol. 7, 1861, 228; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 79, 145, 172, 247; Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory (n. 3 above), 285n, 302n, 312; Smith, "Ante-bellum Arms Makers" (n. 5 above), 583. Burton to Gorgas, 11 June 1862; Burton to W. Graham, 21 June 1862; Burton to Gorgas, n.d. [July?] 1862; Burton to Mayor and City Council of Macon, 19 August 1862, "Letters Sent Macon Armory, Georgia 1862-1865," War Department Collection of Confederate Records, Record Group 109, chap. 4, vols. 20, 29, and 31, National Archives, Washington, D.C., from microfilm copy E502, reel. 1a, Amelia Gorgas Library, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa (hereafter Armory Letters).
114. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 114. Burton's views regarding uniformity in the manufacture and inspection of rifles and cannon mirrored Mallet's demand for uniformity in ammunition production. He had been employed at Harpers Ferry and at Springfield, helped set up the American system of manufacturing at the Royal Small Arms Factory in Enfield, England, and began building a central armory in Macon in 1862. Matthew W. Norman, Colonel Burton's Spiller & Burr Revolver: An Untimely Venture in Confederate Small-Arms Manufacturing (Macon, Ga., 1996), 6-7; Lynda Lasswell Crist and Mary Seaton Dix, eds., The Papers of Jefferson Davis (Baton Rouge, La., 1992), vol. 7, 1861, 228; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 79, 145, 172, 247; Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory (n. 3 above), 285n, 302n, 312; Smith, "Ante-bellum Arms Makers" (n. 5 above), 583. Burton to Gorgas, 11 June 1862; Burton to W. Graham, 21 June 1862; Burton to Gorgas, n.d. [July?] 1862; Burton to Mayor and City Council of Macon, 19 August 1862, "Letters Sent Macon Armory, Georgia 1862-1865," War Department Collection of Confederate Records, Record Group 109, chap. 4, vols. 20, 29, and 31, National Archives, Washington, D.C., from microfilm copy E502, reel. 1a, Amelia Gorgas Library, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa (hereafter Armory Letters).
115. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 114. Burton's views regarding uniformity in the manufacture and inspection of rifles and cannon mirrored Mallet's demand for uniformity in ammunition production. He had been employed at Harpers Ferry and at Springfield, helped set up the American system of manufacturing at the Royal Small Arms Factory in Enfield, England, and began building a central armory in Macon in 1862. Matthew W. Norman, Colonel Burton's Spiller & Burr Revolver: An Untimely Venture in Confederate Small-Arms Manufacturing (Macon, Ga., 1996), 6-7; Lynda Lasswell Crist and Mary Seaton Dix, eds., The Papers of Jefferson Davis (Baton Rouge, La., 1992), vol. 7, 1861, 228; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 79, 145, 172, 247; Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory (n. 3 above), 285n, 302n, 312; Smith, "Ante-bellum Arms Makers" (n. 5 above), 583. Burton to Gorgas, 11 June 1862; Burton to W. Graham, 21 June 1862; Burton to Gorgas, n.d. [July?] 1862; Burton to Mayor and City Council of Macon, 19 August 1862, "Letters Sent Macon Armory, Georgia 1862-1865," War Department Collection of Confederate Records, Record Group 109, chap. 4, vols. 20, 29, and 31, National Archives, Washington, D.C., from microfilm copy E502, reel. 1a, Amelia Gorgas Library, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa (hereafter Armory Letters).
116. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 114. Burton's views regarding uniformity in the manufacture and inspection of rifles and cannon mirrored Mallet's demand for uniformity in ammunition production. He had been employed at Harpers Ferry and at Springfield, helped set up the American system of manufacturing at the Royal Small Arms Factory in Enfield, England, and began building a central armory in Macon in 1862. Matthew W. Norman, Colonel Burton's Spiller & Burr Revolver: An Untimely Venture in Confederate Small-Arms Manufacturing (Macon, Ga., 1996), 6-7; Lynda Lasswell Crist and Mary Seaton Dix, eds., The Papers of Jefferson Davis (Baton Rouge, La., 1992), vol. 7, 1861, 228; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 79, 145, 172, 247; Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory (n. 3 above), 285n, 302n, 312; Smith, "Ante-bellum Arms Makers" (n. 5 above), 583. Burton to Gorgas, 11 June 1862; Burton to W. Graham, 21 June 1862; Burton to Gorgas, n.d. [July?] 1862; Burton to Mayor and City Council of Macon, 19 August 1862, "Letters Sent Macon Armory, Georgia 1862-1865," War Department Collection of Confederate Records, Record Group 109, chap. 4, vols. 20, 29, and 31, National Archives, Washington, D.C., from microfilm copy E502, reel. 1a, Amelia Gorgas Library, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa (hereafter Armory Letters).
117. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 114. Burton's views regarding uniformity in the manufacture and inspection of rifles and cannon mirrored Mallet's demand for uniformity in ammunition production. He had been employed at Harpers Ferry and at Springfield, helped set up the American system of manufacturing at the Royal Small Arms Factory in Enfield, England, and began building a central armory in Macon in 1862. Matthew W. Norman, Colonel Burton's Spiller & Burr Revolver: An Untimely Venture in Confederate Small-Arms Manufacturing (Macon, Ga., 1996), 6-7; Lynda Lasswell Crist and Mary Seaton Dix, eds., The Papers of Jefferson Davis (Baton Rouge, La., 1992), vol. 7, 1861, 228; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 79, 145, 172, 247; Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory (n. 3 above), 285n, 302n, 312; Smith, "Ante-bellum Arms Makers" (n. 5 above), 583. Burton to Gorgas, 11 June 1862; Burton to W. Graham, 21 June 1862; Burton to Gorgas, n.d. [July?] 1862; Burton to Mayor and City Council of Macon, 19 August 1862, "Letters Sent Macon Armory, Georgia 1862-1865," War Department Collection of Confederate Records, Record Group 109, chap. 4, vols. 20, 29, and 31, National Archives, Washington, D.C., from microfilm copy E502, reel. 1a, Amelia Gorgas Library, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa (hereafter Armory Letters).
118. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 114. Burton's views regarding uniformity in the manufacture and inspection of rifles and cannon mirrored Mallet's demand for uniformity in ammunition production. He had been employed at Harpers Ferry and at Springfield, helped set up the American system of manufacturing at the Royal Small Arms Factory in Enfield, England, and began building a central armory in Macon in 1862. Matthew W. Norman, Colonel Burton's Spiller & Burr Revolver: An Untimely Venture in Confederate Small-Arms Manufacturing (Macon, Ga., 1996), 6-7; Lynda Lasswell Crist and Mary Seaton Dix, eds., The Papers of Jefferson Davis (Baton Rouge, La., 1992), vol. 7, 1861, 228; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 79, 145, 172, 247; Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory (n. 3 above), 285n, 302n, 312; Smith, "Ante-bellum Arms Makers" (n. 5 above), 583. Burton to Gorgas, 11 June 1862; Burton to W. Graham, 21 June 1862; Burton to Gorgas, n.d. [July?] 1862; Burton to Mayor and City Council of Macon, 19 August 1862, "Letters Sent Macon Armory, Georgia 1862-1865," War Department Collection of Confederate Records, Record Group 109, chap. 4, vols. 20, 29, and 31, National Archives, Washington, D.C., from microfilm copy E502, reel. 1a, Amelia Gorgas Library, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa (hereafter Armory Letters).
119. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 114. Burton's views regarding uniformity in the manufacture and inspection of rifles and cannon mirrored Mallet's demand for uniformity in ammunition production. He had been employed at Harpers Ferry and at Springfield, helped set up the American system of manufacturing at the Royal Small Arms Factory in Enfield, England, and began building a central armory in Macon in 1862. Matthew W. Norman, Colonel Burton's Spiller & Burr Revolver: An Untimely Venture in Confederate Small-Arms Manufacturing (Macon, Ga., 1996), 6-7; Lynda Lasswell Crist and Mary Seaton Dix, eds., The Papers of Jefferson Davis (Baton Rouge, La., 1992), vol. 7, 1861, 228; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 79, 145, 172, 247; Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory (n. 3 above), 285n, 302n, 312; Smith, "Ante-bellum Arms Makers" (n. 5 above), 583. Burton to Gorgas, 11 June 1862; Burton to W. Graham, 21 June 1862; Burton to Gorgas, n.d. [July?] 1862; Burton to Mayor and City Council of Macon, 19 August 1862, "Letters Sent Macon Armory, Georgia 1862-1865," War Department Collection of Confederate Records, Record Group 109, chap. 4, vols. 20, 29, and 31, National Archives, Washington, D.C., from microfilm copy E502, reel. 1a, Amelia Gorgas Library, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa (hereafter Armory Letters).
120. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 114. Burton's views regarding uniformity in the manufacture and inspection of rifles and cannon mirrored Mallet's demand for uniformity in ammunition production. He had been employed at Harpers Ferry and at Springfield, helped set up the American system of manufacturing at the Royal Small Arms Factory in Enfield, England, and began building a central armory in Macon in 1862. Matthew W. Norman, Colonel Burton's Spiller & Burr Revolver: An Untimely Venture in Confederate Small-Arms Manufacturing (Macon, Ga., 1996), 6-7; Lynda Lasswell Crist and Mary Seaton Dix, eds., The Papers of Jefferson Davis (Baton Rouge, La., 1992), vol. 7, 1861, 228; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 79, 145, 172, 247; Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory (n. 3 above), 285n, 302n, 312; Smith, "Ante-bellum Arms Makers" (n. 5 above), 583. Burton to Gorgas, 11 June 1862; Burton to W. Graham, 21 June 1862; Burton to Gorgas, n.d. [July?] 1862; Burton to Mayor and City Council of Macon, 19 August 1862, "Letters Sent Macon Armory, Georgia 1862-1865," War Department Collection of Confederate Records, Record Group 109, chap. 4, vols. 20, 29, and 31, National Archives, Washington, D.C., from microfilm copy E502, reel. 1a, Amelia Gorgas Library, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa (hereafter Armory Letters).
121. Mallet to Gorgas, 12 August 1862.
122. Mallet, "Rules: To be observed in the Laboratories of C. S. Arsenals and Ordnance Depots," Confederate States of America, Ordnance Bureau, Richmond S. N., 1862, Confederate Imprints 1861-1865, microfilm 4106, reel 30, no. 1437. Louisiana State University, Troy H. Middleton Library, Baton Rouge, 4. These different size bullets included the Mississippi rifle (.54 caliber), fabricated at .525; the Enfield rifle (.577 caliber) and the Minie musket (.58 caliber), at .562; the Belgian rifle (.69 caliber), at .675; and the smoothbore musket (.69 caliber), at .650. Mallet also wanted an extra set of gauges "for verifying . . . the accuracy of the gauges themselves"; Mallet to M. H. Wright, 18 October 1862, Superintendent Letters.
123. Mallet, "Rules," 4-7.
124. Mallet outlined the organization of a large laboratory as follows: carpenter's shop, tin shop, casting room (for bullets), small-arms cartridges and cannor cartridges shop, fixing and packing of ammunition shop, making percussion caps aid friction primers shop, and making fuses, rockets and portfires shop. Ibid., 1-2.
125. Ibid., 2-3.
126. Walter A. Harris, "By Right of Conquest: The Confederate Laboratory at Macon," Georgia Bar Journal 10 (May 1948): 430; Hoole (n. 2 above), 55-56;
127. Walter A. Harris, "By Right of Conquest: The Confederate Laboratory at Macon," Georgia Bar Journal 10 (May 1948): 430; Hoole (n. 2 above), 55-56;
128. Mallet to Gorgas, 20 October 1862;
129. Mallet, "Memoranda of My Life" (n. 15 above), 7,
130. and "Work of the Ordnance Bureau" (n. 18 above), 9.
131. Mallet to Gorgas, 20 October 1862; Mallet to Savannah Republican, 28 November 1862; Mallet to Gorgas, 1 December 1862; Mallet to Major J. L. Locke, 15 December 1862, Mallet to Mayor and City Council of Macon, 22 December 1862, and Mallet to Captain Edward Smith, 24 December 1862, Superintendent Letters; Mallet to Gorgas, 6 January 1863; Hoole, 56, 59.
132. Mallet to Gorgas, 20 October 1862; Mallet to Savannah Republican, 28 November 1862; Mallet to Gorgas, 1 December 1862; Mallet to Major J. L. Locke, 15 December 1862, Mallet to Mayor and City Council of Macon, 22 December 1862, and Mallet to Captain Edward Smith, 24 December 1862, Superintendent Letters; Mallet to Gorgas, 6 January 1863; Hoole, 56, 59.
133. Mallet to Gorgas, 20 October 1862; Mallet to Savannah Republican, 28 November 1862; Mallet to Gorgas, 1 December 1862; Mallet to Major J. L. Locke, 15 December 1862, Mallet to Mayor and City Council of Macon, 22 December 1862, and Mallet to Captain Edward Smith, 24 December 1862, Superintendent Letters; Mallet to Gorgas, 6 January 1863; Hoole, 56, 59.
134. Mallet to Gorgas, 20 October 1862; Mallet to Savannah Republican, 28 November 1862; Mallet to Gorgas, 1 December 1862; Mallet to Major J. L. Locke, 15 December 1862, Mallet to Mayor and City Council of Macon, 22 December 1862, and Mallet to Captain Edward Smith, 24 December 1862, Superintendent Letters; Mallet to Gorgas, 6 January 1863; Hoole, 56, 59.
135. Mallet to Gorgas, 20 October 1862; Mallet to Savannah Republican, 28 November 1862; Mallet to Gorgas, 1 December 1862; Mallet to Major J. L. Locke, 15 December 1862, Mallet to Mayor and City Council of Macon, 22 December 1862, and Mallet to Captain Edward Smith, 24 December 1862, Superintendent Letters; Mallet to Gorgas, 6 January 1863; Hoole, 56, 59.
136. Mallet to Gorgas, 20 October 1862; Mallet to Savannah Republican, 28 November 1862; Mallet to Gorgas, 1 December 1862; Mallet to Major J. L. Locke, 15 December 1862, Mallet to Mayor and City Council of Macon, 22 December 1862, and Mallet to Captain Edward Smith, 24 December 1862, Superintendent Letters; Mallet to Gorgas, 6 January 1863; Hoole, 56, 59.
137. Mallet to Gorgas, 20 October 1862; Mallet to Savannah Republican, 28 November 1862; Mallet to Gorgas, 1 December 1862; Mallet to Major J. L. Locke, 15 December 1862, Mallet to Mayor and City Council of Macon, 22 December 1862, and Mallet to Captain Edward Smith, 24 December 1862, Superintendent Letters; Mallet to Gorgas, 6 January 1863; Hoole, 56, 59.
138. Mallet to Gorgas, 20 October 1862; Mallet to Savannah Republican, 28 November 1862; Mallet to Gorgas, 1 December 1862; Mallet to Major J. L. Locke, 15 December 1862, Mallet to Mayor and City Council of Macon, 22 December 1862, and Mallet to Captain Edward Smith, 24 December 1862, Superintendent Letters; Mallet to Gorgas, 6 January 1863; Hoole, 56, 59.
139. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 115; Melton (n. 2 above), 314. For a discussion of Confederate railroads, see Robert C. Black III, The Railroads of the Confederacy (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1952), and Charles W. Ramsdell, "The Confederate Government and the Railroads," American Historical Review 22 (1916-17): 794-810.
140. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 115; Melton (n. 2 above), 314. For a discussion of Confederate railroads, see Robert C. Black III, The Railroads of the Confederacy (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1952), and Charles W. Ramsdell, "The Confederate Government and the Railroads," American Historical Review 22 (1916-17): 794-810.
141. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 115; Melton (n. 2 above), 314. For a discussion of Confederate railroads, see Robert C. Black III, The Railroads of the Confederacy (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1952), and Charles W. Ramsdell, "The Confederate Government and the Railroads," American Historical Review 22 (1916-17): 794-810.
142. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 115; Melton (n. 2 above), 314. For a discussion of Confederate railroads, see Robert C. Black III, The Railroads of the Confederacy (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1952), and Charles W. Ramsdell, "The Confederate Government and the Railroads," American Historical Review 22 (1916-17): 794-810.
143. Edward B. Smith to Mallet, 14 January 1863, quoted in Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 158; Melton, 313.
144. Edward B. Smith to Mallet, 14 January 1863, quoted in Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 158; Melton, 313.
145. Edward B. Smith to Mallet, 14 January 1863, quoted in Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 158; Melton, 313.
146. Mallet to Gorgas, 19 January 1863.
147. Gorgas to Mallet, 22 January 1863, quoted in Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 159.
148. Gorgas to Mallet, 22 January 1863, quoted in Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 159.
149. Melton, 315; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 158-61; Hoole (n. 2 above), 62.
150. Melton, 315; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 158-61; Hoole (n. 2 above), 62.
151. Melton, 315; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 158-61; Hoole (n. 2 above), 62.
152. Mallet to D. M. Mclntyre, 28 April 1863, Superintendent Letters; Mallet to Gorgas, 24 February 1863; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swards, 164.
153. Mallet to D. M. Mclntyre, 28 April 1863, Superintendent Letters; Mallet to Gorgas, 24 February 1863; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swards, 164.
154. Mallet to D. M. Mclntyre, 28 April 1863, Superintendent Letters; Mallet to Gorgas, 24 February 1863; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swards, 164.
155. Mallet to Gorgas, 1 April 1863; Mallet to Gorgas, 21 February 1863; Melton (n. 2 above), 430-31.
156. Mallet to Gorgas, 1 April 1863; Mallet to Gorgas, 21 February 1863; Melton (n. 2 above), 430-31.
157. Mallet to Gorgas, 1 April 1863; Mallet to Gorgas, 21 February 1863; Melton (n. 2 above), 430-31.
158. Mallet to Gorgas, 7 September 1863.
159. Mallet to A. M. Lockett, 20 November 1863, and Mallet to Thomas Hardeman, 30 July 1863, Superintendent Letters; Mallet to Gorgas, 24 February 1863; Melton, 429-30; Burton to W. H. Doughty, 25 February 1863, Armory Letters. For an excellent discussion of the transformation of the paternalistic master-slave relationship in the urban-industrial climate of Macon and Mallet's dealings with slaves and slaveholders, see Joseph P. Reidy, From Slavery to Agrarian Capitalism in the Cotton Plantation South: Central Georgia, 1800-1880 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992), 108-35.
160. Mallet to A. M. Lockett, 20 November 1863, and Mallet to Thomas Hardeman, 30 July 1863, Superintendent Letters; Mallet to Gorgas, 24 February 1863; Melton, 429-30; Burton to W. H. Doughty, 25 February 1863, Armory Letters. For an excellent discussion of the transformation of the paternalistic master-slave relationship in the urban-industrial climate of Macon and Mallet's dealings with slaves and slaveholders, see Joseph P. Reidy, From Slavery to Agrarian Capitalism in the Cotton Plantation South: Central Georgia, 1800-1880 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992), 108-35.
161. Mallet to A. M. Lockett, 20 November 1863, and Mallet to Thomas Hardeman, 30 July 1863, Superintendent Letters; Mallet to Gorgas, 24 February 1863; Melton, 429-30; Burton to W. H. Doughty, 25 February 1863, Armory Letters. For an excellent discussion of the transformation of the paternalistic master-slave relationship in the urban-industrial climate of Macon and Mallet's dealings with slaves and slaveholders, see Joseph P. Reidy, From Slavery to Agrarian Capitalism in the Cotton Plantation South: Central Georgia, 1800-1880 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992), 108-35.
162. Mallet to A. M. Lockett, 20 November 1863, and Mallet to Thomas Hardeman, 30 July 1863, Superintendent Letters; Mallet to Gorgas, 24 February 1863; Melton, 429-30; Burton to W. H. Doughty, 25 February 1863, Armory Letters. For an excellent discussion of the transformation of the paternalistic master-slave relationship in the urban-industrial climate of Macon and Mallet's dealings with slaves and slaveholders, see Joseph P. Reidy, From Slavery to Agrarian Capitalism in the Cotton Plantation South: Central Georgia, 1800-1880 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992), 108-35.
163. Mallet to A. M. Lockett, 20 November 1863, and Mallet to Thomas Hardeman, 30 July 1863, Superintendent Letters; Mallet to Gorgas, 24 February 1863; Melton, 429-30; Burton to W. H. Doughty, 25 February 1863, Armory Letters. For an excellent discussion of the transformation of the paternalistic master-slave relationship in the urban-industrial climate of Macon and Mallet's dealings with slaves and slaveholders, see Joseph P. Reidy, From Slavery to Agrarian Capitalism in the Cotton Plantation South: Central Georgia, 1800-1880 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992), 108-35.
164. Mallet to A. M. Lockett, 20 November 1863, and Mallet to Thomas Hardeman, 30 July 1863, Superintendent Letters; Mallet to Gorgas, 24 February 1863; Melton, 429-30; Burton to W. H. Doughty, 25 February 1863, Armory Letters. For an excellent discussion of the transformation of the paternalistic master-slave relationship in the urban-industrial climate of Macon and Mallet's dealings with slaves and slaveholders, see Joseph P. Reidy, From Slavery to Agrarian Capitalism in the Cotton Plantation South: Central Georgia, 1800-1880 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992), 108-35.
165. Reidy, 130.
166. Mallet to Gorgas, 3 September 1863. Burton, facing the same problems in building the armory, wrote Gorgas: "I am having some trouble with the men employed in this Armory in regard to the question of wages - I am paying $4.00 per day to first class machinists, Blacksmiths, Pattern Makers &c. . . . The men want to be paid the same rates of wages that are now paid in Richmond which they state are higher than the rates here." Burton to Gorgas, 17 March 1863, Armory Letters.
167. Mallet to Gorgas, 3 September 1863. Burton, facing the same problems in building the armory, wrote Gorgas: "I am having some trouble with the men employed in this Armory in regard to the question of wages - I am paying $4.00 per day to first class machinists, Blacksmiths, Pattern Makers &c. . . . The men want to be paid the same rates of wages that are now paid in Richmond which they state are higher than the rates here." Burton to Gorgas, 17 March 1863, Armory Letters.
168. Hoole (n. 2 above), 62; Mallet to Gorgas, 18 February 1864.
169. Hoole (n. 2 above), 62; Mallet to Gorgas, 18 February 1864.
170. Mallet to Gorgas, 7 May 1863; Mallet to Wadley, Jones and Company, 26 June 1863; Mallet to Dever, 29 May 1863; Mallet to Wood, Meador, and Company, 9 June 1863, Superintendent Letters; Melton (n. 2 above), 371-74, 438.
171. Mallet to Gorgas, 7 May 1863; Mallet to Wadley, Jones and Company, 26 June 1863; Mallet to Dever, 29 May 1863; Mallet to Wood, Meador, and Company, 9 June 1863, Superintendent Letters; Melton (n. 2 above), 371-74, 438.
172. Mallet to Gorgas, 7 May 1863; Mallet to Wadley, Jones and Company, 26 June 1863; Mallet to Dever, 29 May 1863; Mallet to Wood, Meador, and Company, 9 June 1863, Superintendent Letters; Melton (n. 2 above), 371-74, 438.
173. Mallet to Gorgas, 7 May 1863; Mallet to Wadley, Jones and Company, 26 June 1863; Mallet to Dever, 29 May 1863; Mallet to Wood, Meador, and Company, 9 June 1863, Superintendent Letters; Melton (n. 2 above), 371-74, 438.
174. Mallet to Gorgas, 7 May 1863; Mallet to Wadley, Jones and Company, 26 June 1863; Mallet to Dever, 29 May 1863; Mallet to Wood, Meador, and Company, 9 June 1863, Superintendent Letters; Melton (n. 2 above), 371-74, 438.
175. Mallet to Gorgas, 3 August 1863.
176. Mallet had directed Caleb Huse, a Confederate agent in Europe, to purchase these "accurately tested steel guages [sic]" and he provided each arsenal with them so all had the same measuring system; Mallet, "Work of the Ordnance Bureau" (n. 18 above), 8-9. He informed Gorgas in May 1863 that he had issued the "principle Ordnance Depots new gauges for the Enfield pattern" bullet; Mallet to Gorgas, 14 May 1863. Mallet sent out critiques of the samples each month to the arsenal commander and to Gorgas; see, for example, Mallet to Gorgas, 11 May 1863.
177. Mallet had directed Caleb Huse, a Confederate agent in Europe, to purchase these "accurately tested steel guages [sic]" and he provided each arsenal with them so all had the same measuring system; Mallet, "Work of the Ordnance Bureau" (n. 18 above), 8-9. He informed Gorgas in May 1863 that he had issued the "principle Ordnance Depots new gauges for the Enfield pattern" bullet; Mallet to Gorgas, 14 May 1863. Mallet sent out critiques of the samples each month to the arsenal commander and to Gorgas; see, for example, Mallet to Gorgas, 11 May 1863.
178. Mallet to White, 5 December 1863, Superintendent Letters.
179. Mallet to Gorgas, 5 December 1863.
180. Vandiver, "Makeshifts" (n. 19 above), 187; Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 115-16. Historian Maurice K. Melton argues that "Gorgas would soon have second thoughts" on this circular because the caliber in the English Enfield being imported was .577 but the Confederate Enfield, basically built on the American Springfield Pattern (which was based first on the British Enfield), had a caliber of .58. The British Enfield loaded the cartridge paper with the ball, but the Confederate Enfield had separate cartridges between powder and ball, so the ball was loaded "naked." Thus, the size of the balls should be different. The size was not a problem at first because the Enfield bullet with paper fit the bore reasonably tightly in the Confederate Enfield. By 1863, however, the Confederacy had a paper shortage. In addition, the smaller British minié ball became the object of complaints about accuracy because it did not fit tightly in the bore. Melton, 324-37; Frederick Wilkinson, ed., The Illustrated Book of Guns and Rifles (New York, 1979), 84, 89.
181. Vandiver, "Makeshifts" (n. 19 above), 187; Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 115-16. Historian Maurice K. Melton argues that "Gorgas would soon have second thoughts" on this circular because the caliber in the English Enfield being imported was .577 but the Confederate Enfield, basically built on the American Springfield Pattern (which was based first on the British Enfield), had a caliber of .58. The British Enfield loaded the cartridge paper with the ball, but the Confederate Enfield had separate cartridges between powder and ball, so the ball was loaded "naked." Thus, the size of the balls should be different. The size was not a problem at first because the Enfield bullet with paper fit the bore reasonably tightly in the Confederate Enfield. By 1863, however, the Confederacy had a paper shortage. In addition, the smaller British minié ball became the object of complaints about accuracy because it did not fit tightly in the bore. Melton, 324-37; Frederick Wilkinson, ed., The Illustrated Book of Guns and Rifles (New York, 1979), 84, 89.
182. Vandiver, "Makeshifts" (n. 19 above), 187; Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 115-16. Historian Maurice K. Melton argues that "Gorgas would soon have second thoughts" on this circular because the caliber in the English Enfield being imported was .577 but the Confederate Enfield, basically built on the American Springfield Pattern (which was based first on the British Enfield), had a caliber of .58. The British Enfield loaded the cartridge paper with the ball, but the Confederate Enfield had separate cartridges between powder and ball, so the ball was loaded "naked." Thus, the size of the balls should be different. The size was not a problem at first because the Enfield bullet with paper fit the bore reasonably tightly in the Confederate Enfield. By 1863, however, the Confederacy had a paper shortage. In addition, the smaller British minié ball became the object of complaints about accuracy because it did not fit tightly in the bore. Melton, 324-37; Frederick Wilkinson, ed., The Illustrated Book of Guns and Rifles (New York, 1979), 84, 89.
183. Vandiver, "Makeshifts" (n. 19 above), 187; Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 115-16. Historian Maurice K. Melton argues that "Gorgas would soon have second thoughts" on this circular because the caliber in the English Enfield being imported was .577 but the Confederate Enfield, basically built on the American Springfield Pattern (which was based first on the British Enfield), had a caliber of .58. The British Enfield loaded the cartridge paper with the ball, but the Confederate Enfield had separate cartridges between powder and ball, so the ball was loaded "naked." Thus, the size of the balls should be different. The size was not a problem at first because the Enfield bullet with paper fit the bore reasonably tightly in the Confederate Enfield. By 1863, however, the Confederacy had a paper shortage. In addition, the smaller British minié ball became the object of complaints about accuracy because it did not fit tightly in the bore. Melton, 324-37; Frederick Wilkinson, ed., The Illustrated Book of Guns and Rifles (New York, 1979), 84, 89.
184. Mallet to Gorgas, 17 April 1863; Melton (n. 2 above), 304, 326.
185. Mallet to Gorgas, 17 April 1863; Melton (n. 2 above), 304, 326.
186. Mallet to Gorgas, 27 April 1863;
187. Melton, 335-36.
188. Mallet to Gorgas, 8 May 1863; Melton, 381-82. Mallet's primary concern with jamming was "not how many rounds of ammunition can be fired from a clean musket . . . but how many rounds will a soldier probably be able to fire from a gun not previously in the best condition, loaded hastily in the excitement of battle, with ammunition more or less smeared with powder & grease from shaking about in the cartridge box and certain therefore soon to foul the gun to a serious extent." He went on to state that "giving the results of inspection of ammunition for May I said that I could not help still thinking the Miss. rifle bullets and old size Enfield bullets too large. . . ."; Mallet to Gorgas, 9 June 1863. This disagreement mirrors in some ways the debate over cannons in eighteenthcentury France; see Alder, Engineering the Revolution (n. 4 above), 87-112.
189. Mallet to Gorgas, 8 May 1863; Melton, 381-82. Mallet's primary concern with jamming was "not how many rounds of ammunition can be fired from a clean musket . . . but how many rounds will a soldier probably be able to fire from a gun not previously in the best condition, loaded hastily in the excitement of battle, with ammunition more or less smeared with powder & grease from shaking about in the cartridge box and certain therefore soon to foul the gun to a serious extent." He went on to state that "giving the results of inspection of ammunition for May I said that I could not help still thinking the Miss. rifle bullets and old size Enfield bullets too large. . . ."; Mallet to Gorgas, 9 June 1863. This disagreement mirrors in some ways the debate over cannons in eighteenthcentury France; see Alder, Engineering the Revolution (n. 4 above), 87-112.
190. Mallet to Gorgas, 8 May 1863; Melton, 381-82. Mallet's primary concern with jamming was "not how many rounds of ammunition can be fired from a clean musket . . . but how many rounds will a soldier probably be able to fire from a gun not previously in the best condition, loaded hastily in the excitement of battle, with ammunition more or less smeared with powder & grease from shaking about in the cartridge box and certain therefore soon to foul the gun to a serious extent." He went on to state that "giving the results of inspection of ammunition for May I said that I could not help still thinking the Miss. rifle bullets and old size Enfield bullets too large. . . ."; Mallet to Gorgas, 9 June 1863. This disagreement mirrors in some ways the debate over cannons in eighteenthcentury France; see Alder, Engineering the Revolution (n. 4 above), 87-112.
191. Mallet to Gorgas, 8 May 1863; Melton, 381-82. Mallet's primary concern with jamming was "not how many rounds of ammunition can be fired from a clean musket . . . but how many rounds will a soldier probably be able to fire from a gun not previously in the best condition, loaded hastily in the excitement of battle, with ammunition more or less smeared with powder & grease from shaking about in the cartridge box and certain therefore soon to foul the gun to a serious extent." He went on to state that "giving the results of inspection of ammunition for May I said that I could not help still thinking the Miss. rifle bullets and old size Enfield bullets too large. . . ."; Mallet to Gorgas, 9 June 1863. This disagreement mirrors in some ways the debate over cannons in eighteenthcentury France; see Alder, Engineering the Revolution (n. 4 above), 87-112.
192. Alder shows that "technological facts" are "ambiguous"; using this language, one might say that Mallet and White had differing views of the technological facts regarding the proper size of bullets. One of the flaws in the Ordnance Department's organization concerned Mallet's position of ensuring quality control. He could not issue direct orders to the arsenal commanders, many of whom outranked him. Mallet inspected the materials and then forwarded his findings to Gorgas. He had to convince the arsenal commanders of the need for uniformity, and had to encourage Gorgas to issue directives. Melton, 514-16.
193. Mallet to Gorgas, 2 April 1864. A year earlier Mallet had written Major M. H. Wright that "suitable paper stands in the way of making Enfield cartridges after the English pattern without too great a reduction of the calibre of the bullet - When proper paper for these cartridges cannot be had we shall have to make the old U. S. pattern"; Mallet to M. H. Wright, 23 April 1863, Superintendent Letters; Melton, 476-77.
194. Mallet to Gorgas, 2 April 1864. A year earlier Mallet had written Major M. H. Wright that "suitable paper stands in the way of making Enfield cartridges after the English pattern without too great a reduction of the calibre of the bullet - When proper paper for these cartridges cannot be had we shall have to make the old U. S. pattern"; Mallet to M. H. Wright, 23 April 1863, Superintendent Letters; Melton, 476-77.
195. Mallet to Gorgas, 2 April 1864. A year earlier Mallet had written Major M. H. Wright that "suitable paper stands in the way of making Enfield cartridges after the English pattern without too great a reduction of the calibre of the bullet - When proper paper for these cartridges cannot be had we shall have to make the old U. S. pattern"; Mallet to M. H. Wright, 23 April 1863, Superintendent Letters; Melton, 476-77.
196. Mallet to Gorgas, 23 August 1862.
197. "Memorandum: In Regard To Shells With Polygonal Cavities," Confederate States of America, Ordnance Bureau, Circulars from C. S. Central Laboratory (Ordn.), Macon, Ga., Richmond, 21 January 1863, Special Collections Department, Robert W. Woodruff Library, Emory University; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 192; Melton (n. 2 above), 308-10.
198. "Memorandum: In Regard To Shells With Polygonal Cavities," Confederate States of America, Ordnance Bureau, Circulars from C. S. Central Laboratory (Ordn.), Macon, Ga., Richmond, 21 January 1863, Special Collections Department, Robert W. Woodruff Library, Emory University; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 192; Melton (n. 2 above), 308-10.
199. Mallet, "Work of the Ordnance Bureau" (n. 18 above), 9, 14-15; Mallet to Colonel P. Stockton, 13 November 1862, Superintendent Letters; Melton (n. 2 above), 460-79. Mallet also worked to improve the identification of ammunition boxes. For example, he wrote the commander of the arsenal in Richmond: "During my recent visit to Charleston I found a number of boxes of 10 inch Columbiad shell (filled) which were not marked with the name of any Arsenal or with the date of fabrication. On examination of Invoices, &c. it was ascertained that they came from Richmond Arsenal. It is essential in order to enable mistakes and faults to be corrected that the rule requiring the Arsenal and date of fabrication to be always marked upon the boxes should be uniformely observed. . . . The importance of attention to rule in these little matters is not seen unless the products of several different Arsenals are examined side by side or - as they often are in the fieldmixed together"; Mallet to Lieutenant Colonel W. LeRoy Broun, 3 September 1863, Superintendent Letters.
200. Mallet, "Work of the Ordnance Bureau" (n. 18 above), 9, 14-15; Mallet to Colonel P. Stockton, 13 November 1862, Superintendent Letters; Melton (n. 2 above), 460-79. Mallet also worked to improve the identification of ammunition boxes. For example, he wrote the commander of the arsenal in Richmond: "During my recent visit to Charleston I found a number of boxes of 10 inch Columbiad shell (filled) which were not marked with the name of any Arsenal or with the date of fabrication. On examination of Invoices, &c. it was ascertained that they came from Richmond Arsenal. It is essential in order to enable mistakes and faults to be corrected that the rule requiring the Arsenal and date of fabrication to be always marked upon the boxes should be uniformely observed. . . . The importance of attention to rule in these little matters is not seen unless the products of several different Arsenals are examined side by side or - as they often are in the fieldmixed together"; Mallet to Lieutenant Colonel W. LeRoy Broun, 3 September 1863, Superintendent Letters.
201. Mallet, "Work of the Ordnance Bureau" (n. 18 above), 9, 14-15; Mallet to Colonel P. Stockton, 13 November 1862, Superintendent Letters; Melton (n. 2 above), 460-79. Mallet also worked to improve the identification of ammunition boxes. For example, he wrote the commander of the arsenal in Richmond: "During my recent visit to Charleston I found a number of boxes of 10 inch Columbiad shell (filled) which were not marked with the name of any Arsenal or with the date of fabrication. On examination of Invoices, &c. it was ascertained that they came from Richmond Arsenal. It is essential in order to enable mistakes and faults to be corrected that the rule requiring the Arsenal and date of fabrication to be always marked upon the boxes should be uniformely observed. . . . The importance of attention to rule in these little matters is not seen unless the products of several different Arsenals are examined side by side or - as they often are in the fieldmixed together"; Mallet to Lieutenant Colonel W. LeRoy Broun, 3 September 1863, Superintendent Letters.
202. Mallet to C. T. Mason, 30 June 1863, Superintendent Letters; Dunnington (n. 16 above), 184. Mallet found James Island an efficient place for systematic testing because "I have no suitable range here [at Macon], and moreover
203. Mallet to C. T. Mason, 30 June 1863, Superintendent Letters; Dunnington (n. 16 above), 184. Mallet found James Island an efficient place for systematic testing because "I have no suitable range here [at Macon], and moreover dislike to waste ammunition in merely experimental firing when it is possible to use it against the enemy"; Mallet to Colonel G. W. Rains, 7 October 1863, Superintendent Letters. Major Edward Manigault wrote on 23 August 1863 that "Major Mallett [sic], of the Confederate Ordnance Department, came to Legare's Point for the purpose of inspecting, and, if possible, remedying the defects of the fuses and other ordnance stores. He remained, witnessing the firing &c., for two hours, and had full evidence of the worthlessness of the fuses"; Report, Major Edward Manigault, C.S. Artillery, Commanding Artillery at Legare's Point, James Island, 28 August 1863, Official Records, ser. 1, vol. 28, pt. 1, 557.
204. Mallet to C. T. Mason, 30 June 1863, Superintendent Letters; Dunnington (n. 16 above), 184. Mallet found James Island an efficient place for systematic testing because "I have no suitable range here [at Macon], and moreover dislike to waste ammunition in merely experimental firing when it is possible to use it against the enemy"; Mallet to Colonel G. W. Rains, 7 October 1863, Superintendent Letters. Major Edward Manigault wrote on 23 August 1863 that "Major Mallett [sic], of the Confederate Ordnance Department, came to Legare's Point for the purpose of inspecting, and, if possible, remedying the defects of the fuses and other ordnance stores. He remained, witnessing the firing &c., for two hours, and had full evidence of the worthlessness of the fuses"; Report, Major Edward Manigault, C.S. Artillery, Commanding Artillery at Legare's Point, James Island, 28 August 1863, Official Records, ser. 1, vol. 28, pt. 1, 557.
205. Mallet to C. T. Mason, 30 June 1863, Superintendent Letters; Dunnington (n. 16 above), 184. Mallet found James Island an efficient place for systematic testing because "I have no suitable range here [at Macon], and moreover dislike to waste ammunition in merely experimental firing when it is possible to use it against the enemy"; Mallet to Colonel G. W. Rains, 7 October 1863, Superintendent Letters. Major Edward Manigault wrote on 23 August 1863 that "Major Mallett [sic], of the Confederate Ordnance Department, came to Legare's Point for the purpose of inspecting, and, if possible, remedying the defects of the fuses and other ordnance stores. He remained, witnessing the firing &c., for two hours, and had full evidence of the worthlessness of the fuses"; Report, Major Edward Manigault, C.S. Artillery, Commanding Artillery at Legare's Point, James Island, 28 August 1863, Official Records, ser. 1, vol. 28, pt. 1, 557.
206. Mallet to Gorgas, 14 July 1863; Mallet to J. T. Trezevaut, 30 August 1863, Superintendent Letters; Mallet to Gorgas, 3 October 1863.
207. Mallet to Gorgas, 14 July 1863; Mallet to J. T. Trezevaut, 30 August 1863, Superintendent Letters; Mallet to Gorgas, 3 October 1863.
208. Mallet to Gorgas, 14 July 1863; Mallet to J. T. Trezevaut, 30 August 1863, Superintendent Letters; Mallet to Gorgas, 3 October 1863.
209. The choice of Burton made sense because of his vast experience in the field of arms production; Frank E. Vandiver, "A Sketch of Efforts Abroad to Equip the Confederate Armory at Macon," Georgia Historical Quarterly 28 (March 1944): 33-37. See also Burton's report of the mission to Gorgas, Burton to Gorgas, 30 October 1863, Armory Letters; Mallet, "Work of the Ordnance Bureau," 5; Mallet to Gorgas, 7 September 1863. Burton was quite pleased with the machinery he ordered for Mallet. He wrote: "I have been authorized by Major Huse to include in the contract a bullet making machine . . . the same as those at Woolwich Arsenal; and they are to be delivered with the first lot of machinery." Burton also ordered "excellent machines for moulding shot & shell with unskilled labour, resulting in great economy of cost. It might be well to order a few of these machines for Capt. Mallet. . . ."; Burton to Gorgas, 11 July 1863 and 13 April 1863, microfilm roll 398, Burton Papers, Ramsdell Collection, The Center for American History, University of Texas at Austin (hereafter cited as Burton Papers).
210. The choice of Burton made sense because of his vast experience in the field of arms production; Frank E. Vandiver, "A Sketch of Efforts Abroad to Equip the Confederate Armory at Macon," Georgia Historical Quarterly 28 (March 1944): 33-37. See also Burton's report of the mission to Gorgas, Burton to Gorgas, 30 October 1863, Armory Letters; Mallet, "Work of the Ordnance Bureau," 5; Mallet to Gorgas, 7 September 1863. Burton was quite pleased with the machinery he ordered for Mallet. He wrote: "I have been authorized by Major Huse to include in the contract a bullet making machine . . . the same as those at Woolwich Arsenal; and they are to be delivered with the first lot of machinery." Burton also ordered "excellent machines for moulding shot & shell with unskilled labour, resulting in great economy of cost. It might be well to order a few of these machines for Capt. Mallet. . . ."; Burton to Gorgas, 11 July 1863 and 13 April 1863, microfilm roll 398, Burton Papers, Ramsdell Collection, The Center for American History, University of Texas at Austin (hereafter cited as Burton Papers).
211. The choice of Burton made sense because of his vast experience in the field of arms production; Frank E. Vandiver, "A Sketch of Efforts Abroad to Equip the Confederate Armory at Macon," Georgia Historical Quarterly 28 (March 1944): 33-37. See also Burton's report of the mission to Gorgas, Burton to Gorgas, 30 October 1863, Armory Letters; Mallet, "Work of the Ordnance Bureau," 5; Mallet to Gorgas, 7 September 1863. Burton was quite pleased with the machinery he ordered for Mallet. He wrote: "I have been authorized by Major Huse to include in the contract a bullet making machine . . . the same as those at Woolwich Arsenal; and they are to be delivered with the first lot of machinery." Burton also ordered "excellent machines for moulding shot & shell with unskilled labour, resulting in great economy of cost. It might be well to order a few of these machines for Capt. Mallet. . . ."; Burton to Gorgas, 11 July 1863 and 13 April 1863, microfilm roll 398, Burton Papers, Ramsdell Collection, The Center for American History, University of Texas at Austin (hereafter cited as Burton Papers).
212. The choice of Burton made sense because of his vast experience in the field of arms production; Frank E. Vandiver, "A Sketch of Efforts Abroad to Equip the Confederate Armory at Macon," Georgia Historical Quarterly 28 (March 1944): 33-37. See also Burton's report of the mission to Gorgas, Burton to Gorgas, 30 October 1863, Armory Letters; Mallet, "Work of the Ordnance Bureau," 5; Mallet to Gorgas, 7 September 1863. Burton was quite pleased with the machinery he ordered for Mallet. He wrote: "I have been authorized by Major Huse to include in the contract a bullet making machine . . . the same as those at Woolwich Arsenal; and they are to be delivered with the first lot of machinery." Burton also ordered "excellent machines for moulding shot & shell with unskilled labour, resulting in great economy of cost. It might be well to order a few of these machines for Capt. Mallet. . . ."; Burton to Gorgas, 11 July 1863 and 13 April 1863, microfilm roll 398, Burton Papers, Ramsdell Collection, The Center for American History, University of Texas at Austin (hereafter cited as Burton Papers).
213. The choice of Burton made sense because of his vast experience in the field of arms production; Frank E. Vandiver, "A Sketch of Efforts Abroad to Equip the Confederate Armory at Macon," Georgia Historical Quarterly 28 (March 1944): 33-37. See also Burton's report of the mission to Gorgas, Burton to Gorgas, 30 October 1863, Armory Letters; Mallet, "Work of the Ordnance Bureau," 5; Mallet to Gorgas, 7 September 1863. Burton was quite pleased with the machinery he ordered for Mallet. He wrote: "I have been authorized by Major Huse to include in the contract a bullet making machine . . . the same as those at Woolwich Arsenal; and they are to be delivered with the first lot of machinery." Burton also ordered "excellent machines for moulding shot & shell with unskilled labour, resulting in great economy of cost. It might be well to order a few of these machines for Capt. Mallet. . . ."; Burton to Gorgas, 11 July 1863 and 13 April 1863, microfilm roll 398, Burton Papers, Ramsdell Collection, The Center for American History, University of Texas at Austin (hereafter cited as Burton Papers).
214. Burton to Gorgas, 30 July 1863, Burton Papers. A good overview of blockade running is Stephen R. Wise, Lifeline of the Confederacy: Blockade Running During the Civil War (Columbia, S.C., 1988); See also Frank E. Vandiver, ed., Confederate Blockade Running through Bermuda, 1861-1865: Letters and Cargo Manifests (Austin, Tex., 1947).
215. Burton to Gorgas, 30 July 1863, Burton Papers. A good overview of blockade running is Stephen R. Wise, Lifeline of the Confederacy: Blockade Running During the Civil War (Columbia, S.C., 1988); See also Frank E. Vandiver, ed., Confederate Blockade Running through Bermuda, 1861-1865: Letters and Cargo Manifests (Austin, Tex., 1947).
216. Burton to Gorgas, 30 July 1863, Burton Papers. A good overview of blockade running is Stephen R. Wise, Lifeline of the Confederacy: Blockade Running During the Civil War (Columbia, S.C., 1988); See also Frank E. Vandiver, ed., Confederate Blockade Running through Bermuda, 1861-1865: Letters and Cargo Manifests (Austin, Tex., 1947).
217. Gorgas to Breckinridge, 9 February 1865, in Robert G. H. Kean, "Resources of the Confederacy in February, 1865," Southern Historical Society Papers 2 (1876): 58. Gorgas wrote in his diary on 31 January 1864: "In such a war as this - a war for national existence the whole mass of the nation must be engaged. It must be divided into those who go to the field and fight, & those who stay at home to support the fighting portion, sup" plying all the food, and material of war. . . . It is simply absurd to call on all to fight. Some must labor or all will starve"; Wiggins (n. 14 above), 92. Gorgas to Seddon, 13 October 1864, in Kean, 59-60.
218. Gorgas to Breckinridge, 9 February 1865, in Robert G. H. Kean, "Resources of the Confederacy in February, 1865," Southern Historical Society Papers 2 (1876): 58. Gorgas wrote in his diary on 31 January 1864: "In such a war as this - a war for national existence the whole mass of the nation must be engaged. It must be divided into those who go to the field and fight, & those who stay at home to support the fighting portion, sup" plying all the food, and material of war. . . . It is simply absurd to call on all to fight. Some must labor or all will starve"; Wiggins (n. 14 above), 92. Gorgas to Seddon, 13 October 1864, in Kean, 59-60.
219. Gorgas to Breckinridge, 9 February 1865, in Robert G. H. Kean, "Resources of the Confederacy in February, 1865," Southern Historical Society Papers 2 (1876): 58. Gorgas wrote in his diary on 31 January 1864: "In such a war as this - a war for national existence the whole mass of the nation must be engaged. It must be divided into those who go to the field and fight, & those who stay at home to support the fighting portion, sup" plying all the food, and material of war. . . . It is simply absurd to call on all to fight. Some must labor or all will starve"; Wiggins (n. 14 above), 92. Gorgas to Seddon, 13 October 1864, in Kean, 59-60.
220. Gorgas to Breckinridge, 9 February 1865, in Robert G. H. Kean, "Resources of the Confederacy in February, 1865," Southern Historical Society Papers 2 (1876): 58. Gorgas wrote in his diary on 31 January 1864: "In such a war as this - a war for national existence the whole mass of the nation must be engaged. It must be divided into those who go to the field and fight, & those who stay at home to support the fighting portion, sup" plying all the food, and material of war. . . . It is simply absurd to call on all to fight. Some must labor or all will starve"; Wiggins (n. 14 above), 92. Gorgas to Seddon, 13 October 1864, in Kean, 59-60.
221. Gorgas to Seddon, 2 February 1865, in Kean, 63; Gorgas to Seddon, 13 October 1864, in Kean, 59. In August 1864 General Hood directed that all of Mallet's slave labor employed in construction of the laboratory be sent to Atlanta; Hood to Cuyler and Mallett [sic], 1 August 1864, Official Records, ser. 1, vol. 38, pt. 5, 939.
222. Gorgas to Seddon, 2 February 1865, in Kean, 63; Gorgas to Seddon, 13 October 1864, in Kean, 59. In August 1864 General Hood directed that all of Mallet's slave labor employed in construction of the laboratory be sent to Atlanta; Hood to Cuyler and Mallett [sic], 1 August 1864, Official Records, ser. 1, vol. 38, pt. 5, 939.
223. Gorgas to Seddon, 2 February 1865, in Kean, 63; Gorgas to Seddon, 13 October 1864, in Kean, 59. In August 1864 General Hood directed that all of Mallet's slave labor employed in construction of the laboratory be sent to Atlanta; Hood to Cuyler and Mallett [sic], 1 August 1864, Official Records, ser. 1, vol. 38, pt. 5, 939.
224. John Beauchamp Jones, A Rebel War Clerk's Diary, ed. Earl Schenck Miers (New York, 1958), 510.
225. Mallet, "Memoranda of My Life" (n. 15 above), 7-8.
226. Ibid., 7-9; Mallet, "Work of the Ordnance Bureau" (n. 18 above), 14-17.
227. Ibid., 7-9; Mallet, "Work of the Ordnance Bureau" (n. 18 above), 14-17.
228. Mallet to Gorgas, 23 August 1864, "Telegrams Sent Superintendent of Laboratories, 1863-1865," War Department Collection of Confederate Records, Record Group 109, chap. 4, vol. 52, National Archives, Washington, D.C., from microfilm copy E502, reel 3a, Amelia Gorgas Library, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa (hereafter cited as Superintendent Telegrams).
229. Sherman to Major General H. W. Halleck, 3 September 1864, Official Records, ser. 1, vol. 38, pt. 5, 777; Mallet to Gorgas, 5 September 1864, Superintendent Telegrams.
230. Sherman to Major General H. W. Halleck, 3 September 1864, Official Records, ser. 1, vol. 38, pt. 5, 777; Mallet to Gorgas, 5 September 1864, Superintendent Telegrams.
231. Mallet to White, 6 September 1864, Superintendent Telegrams; Mallet to Gorgas, 25 October 1864, Superintendent Telegrams. In 1864-65, the Confederate government expanded the draft pool and fewer waivers were given to workers for deferment form service. General Order No. 82 stated that "The Chief of the Bureau of Ordnance will, without delay, take measures to place in the field one-fifth of all the men employed in his department (including contractors and their employés) of the classes specified. . . . To this end he will direct the several officers in charge of arsenals, workshops, depots, &c., to turn over to the nearest enrolling officer, by list, showing their ages, occupation, and residence, such proportion of their employés . . . of the class above referred to as will constitute in the aggregate one-fifth of the whole number in the said classes. . . . Three days are allowed for the execution of this order after its reception at any post or station of the Ordnance Department." General Order No. 82, Adjutant and Inspector General's Office, 20 October 1864, Official Records, ser. 15, vol. 3, 741.
232. Mallet to White, 6 September 1864, Superintendent Telegrams; Mallet to Gorgas, 25 October 1864, Superintendent Telegrams. In 1864-65, the Confederate government expanded the draft pool and fewer waivers were given to workers for deferment form service. General Order No. 82 stated that "The Chief of the Bureau of Ordnance will, without delay, take measures to place in the field one-fifth of all the men employed in his department (including contractors and their employés) of the classes specified. . . . To this end he will direct the several officers in charge of arsenals, workshops, depots, &c., to turn over to the nearest enrolling officer, by list, showing their ages, occupation, and residence, such proportion of their employés . . . of the class above referred to as will constitute in the aggregate one-fifth of the whole number in the said classes. . . . Three days are allowed for the execution of this order after its reception at any post or station of the Ordnance Department." General Order No. 82, Adjutant and Inspector General's Office, 20 October 1864, Official Records, ser. 15, vol. 3, 741.
233. Mallet to Gorgas, 21 November 1864, Superintendent Telegrams; Mallet, "Work of the Ordnance Bureau," 18.
234. Mallet to Gorgas, 21 November 1864, Superintendent Telegrams; Mallet, "Work of the Ordnance Bureau," 18.
235. Mallet to Gorgas, 2 and 9 February 1865; Mallet to J. L. Nott, 11 February 1865, Superintendent Telegrams.
236. Mallet to Gorgas, 2 and 9 February 1865; Mallet to J. L. Nott, 11 February 1865, Superintendent Telegrams.
237. Mallet to Rains, 15 April 1865, Superintendent Telegrams; Jones (n. 77 above), 530-32; Amelia Gorgas, "As I Saw it: One Woman's Account of the Fall of Richmond," ed. Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, The Civil War Times Illustrated (1986): 40-42; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 266-67; Wiggins, The Journals of Josiah Gorgas (n. 14 above), 158-62.
238. Mallet to Rains, 15 April 1865, Superintendent Telegrams; Jones (n. 77 above), 530-32; Amelia Gorgas, "As I Saw it: One Woman's Account of the Fall of Richmond," ed. Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, The Civil War Times Illustrated (1986): 40-42; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 266-67; Wiggins, The Journals of Josiah Gorgas (n. 14 above), 158-62.
239. Mallet to Rains, 15 April 1865, Superintendent Telegrams; Jones (n. 77 above), 530-32; Amelia Gorgas, "As I Saw it: One Woman's Account of the Fall of Richmond," ed. Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, The Civil War Times Illustrated (1986): 40-42; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 266-67; Wiggins, The Journals of Josiah Gorgas (n. 14 above), 158-62.
240. Mallet to Rains, 15 April 1865, Superintendent Telegrams; Jones (n. 77 above), 530-32; Amelia Gorgas, "As I Saw it: One Woman's Account of the Fall of Richmond," ed. Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, The Civil War Times Illustrated (1986): 40-42; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 266-67; Wiggins, The Journals of Josiah Gorgas (n. 14 above), 158-62.
241. Mallet to Rains, 15 April 1865, Superintendent Telegrams; Jones (n. 77 above), 530-32; Amelia Gorgas, "As I Saw it: One Woman's Account of the Fall of Richmond," ed. Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, The Civil War Times Illustrated (1986): 40-42; Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords (n. 2 above), 266-67; Wiggins, The Journals of Josiah Gorgas (n. 14 above), 158-62.
242. Mallet, "Work of the Ordnance Bureau" (n. 18 above), 18; Mallet, "Memoranda of My Life" (n. 15 above), 9.
243. Mallet, "Work of the Ordnance Bureau" (n. 18 above), 18; Mallet, "Memoranda of My Life" (n. 15 above), 9.
244. Gorgas and Mallet did try their hand in industry. In 1866, Gorgas entered into the iron ore business at Brierfield, Alabama, with the help of Mallet. Gorgas knew the area's resources from the efforts of the Nitre and Mining Bureau during the war. Unfortunately, the iron business, like many businesses immediately after the war, fell onto hard times. The major expense hampering Gorgas's enterprise was the high cost of transportation. By 1868, the business had collapsed. Ironically, Gorgas's ability as a strategic planner brought him to the right place at the wrong time. The area he chose was near the new Pittsburgh of the South, Birmingham, Alabama. Vandiver, Ploughshares into Swords, 272-86.
245. An examination of the Brierfield Iron Works papers is a study in economic desperation. Gorgas was constantly at odds with the railroad over freight rates. For example, he wrote one railroad agent: "It is of course a serious detriment to our business here & reduces the extent of our sales to be subject to these very high rates, & I beg you will see whether you cannot reduce them." Gorgas to E. G. Barney, 23 November 1866, Box 734, Ledger 4, Letter Book, Brierfield Iron Works papers, W. Stanley Hoole Collections, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa.
246. Frost (n. 12 above), 140-99; Otto Eisenschiml, "John W. Mallet: ACS President in 1882," Chemical and Engineering News, 8 January 1951, 110-11.
247. Frost (n. 12 above), 140-99; Otto Eisenschiml, "John W. Mallet: ACS President in 1882," Chemical and Engineering News, 8 January 1951, 110-11.
248. J. W. Mallet, Chemistry Applied to the Arts: A Lecture Delivered before the University of Virginia, May 30, 1868 (Lynchburg, Va., 1868), 6. See also Frost, 155.
249. J. W. Mallet, Chemistry Applied to the Arts: A Lecture Delivered before the University of Virginia, May 30, 1868 (Lynchburg, Va., 1868), 6. See also Frost, 155.
250. J. W. Mallet, "Chemical Researches into the Composition of Tobacco," Southern Planter and Farmer 30 (February 1869): 119-20.
251. Frost, 156. In a similar vein, see Dan R. Frost and Kou K. Nelson, The LSU College of Engineering: Origins and Establishment, 1860-1908, vol. 1 (Baton Rouge, La., 1995), and Robert J. Norrell, A Promising Field: Engineering at Alabama, 1837-1987 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1990). One of Mallet's students, William Carter Stubbs, played a significant role in the modernization of the Louisiana sugar industry after the war; see John Alfred Heitmann, The Modernization of the Louisiana Sugar Industry, 1830-1910 (Baton Rouge, La., 1987): 169-207. On the importance of military thought and social change, see Barton C. Hacker, "Military Institutions, Weapons, and Social Change: Toward a New History of Military Technology," Technology and Culture 35 ( 1994): 826-28.
252. Frost, 156. In a similar vein, see Dan R. Frost and Kou K. Nelson, The LSU College of Engineering: Origins and Establishment, 1860-1908, vol. 1 (Baton Rouge, La., 1995), and Robert J. Norrell, A Promising Field: Engineering at Alabama, 1837-1987 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1990). One of Mallet's students, William Carter Stubbs, played a significant role in the modernization of the Louisiana sugar industry after the war; see John Alfred Heitmann, The Modernization of the Louisiana Sugar Industry, 1830-1910 (Baton Rouge, La., 1987): 169-207. On the importance of military thought and social change, see Barton C. Hacker, "Military Institutions, Weapons, and Social Change: Toward a New History of Military Technology," Technology and Culture 35 ( 1994): 826-28.
253. Frost, 156. In a similar vein, see Dan R. Frost and Kou K. Nelson, The LSU College of Engineering: Origins and Establishment, 1860-1908, vol. 1 (Baton Rouge, La., 1995), and Robert J. Norrell, A Promising Field: Engineering at Alabama, 1837-1987 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1990). One of Mallet's students, William Carter Stubbs, played a significant role in the modernization of the Louisiana sugar industry after the war; see John Alfred Heitmann, The Modernization of the Louisiana Sugar Industry, 1830-1910 (Baton Rouge, La., 1987): 169-207. On the importance of military thought and social change, see Barton C. Hacker, "Military Institutions, Weapons, and Social Change: Toward a New History of Military Technology," Technology and Culture 35 ( 1994): 826-28.
254. Frost, 156. In a similar vein, see Dan R. Frost and Kou K. Nelson, The LSU College of Engineering: Origins and Establishment, 1860-1908, vol. 1 (Baton Rouge, La., 1995), and Robert J. Norrell, A Promising Field: Engineering at Alabama, 1837-1987 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1990). One of Mallet's students, William Carter Stubbs, played a significant role in the modernization of the Louisiana sugar industry after the war; see John Alfred Heitmann, The Modernization of the Louisiana Sugar Industry, 1830-1910 (Baton Rouge, La., 1987): 169-207. On the importance of military thought and social change, see Barton C. Hacker, "Military Institutions, Weapons, and Social Change: Toward a New History of Military Technology," Technology and Culture 35 ( 1994): 826-28.
255. Frost, 156. In a similar vein, see Dan R. Frost and Kou K. Nelson, The LSU College of Engineering: Origins and Establishment, 1860-1908, vol. 1 (Baton Rouge, La., 1995), and Robert J. Norrell, A Promising Field: Engineering at Alabama, 1837-1987 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1990). One of Mallet's students, William Carter Stubbs, played a significant role in the modernization of the Louisiana sugar industry after the war; see John Alfred Heitmann, The Modernization of the Louisiana Sugar Industry, 1830-1910 (Baton Rouge, La., 1987): 169-207. On the importance of military thought and social change, see Barton C. Hacker, "Military Institutions, Weapons, and Social Change: Toward a New History of Military Technology," Technology and Culture 35 ( 1994): 826-28.