Multiculturalism in American public opinion

British Journal of Political Science

Volumn 31, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 247-275

  Citrin, Jack ^a   Sears, David O ^b   Muste, Christopher ^c   Wong, Cara ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035587321     PISSN: 00071234     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007123401000102     Document Type: Article

References (137)

1. C. Taylor, Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992); W. Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995).
2. C. Taylor, Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992); W. Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995).
3. S.M. Okin, Is Multiculturalism Bad for Women? (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), p. 12.
4. Okin, Is Multiculturalism Bad for Women? J. Raz, 'Multiculturalism: A Liberal Perspective', Dissent, 41 (1994), 67-79.
5. Okin, Is Multiculturalism Bad for Women? J. Raz, 'Multiculturalism: A Liberal Perspective', Dissent, 41 (1994), 67-79.
6. M. Lind, The New Nationalism and the Fourth American Revolution (New York: The Free Press, 1995), p. 97.
7. R. Jacoby, The End of Utopia: Politics and Culture in an Age of Apathy (New York: Basic Books, 1999).
8. Neither of these authors provides systematic evidence of elite opinion or the precise meaning they attribute to the term 'multiculturalism'.
9. L. Bobo, 'Group Conflict, Prejudice, and the Paradox of Contemporary Racial Attitudes', in P. Katz and D. Taylor, eds, Eliminating Racism (New York: Plenum, 1988), pp. 85-114; L. Bobo and J. R. Kluegel, 'Opposition to Race-Targeting: Self-Interest, Stratification Ideology, or Racial Attitudes?' American Sociological Review, 58 (1993), 443-64.
10. L. Bobo, 'Group Conflict, Prejudice, and the Paradox of Contemporary Racial Attitudes', in P. Katz and D. Taylor, eds, Eliminating Racism (New York: Plenum, 1988), pp. 85-114; L. Bobo and J. R. Kluegel, 'Opposition to Race-Targeting: Self-Interest, Stratification Ideology, or Racial Attitudes?' American Sociological Review, 58 (1993), 443-64.
11. P. E. Converse, 'The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics', in D. Apter, ed., Ideology and Discontent (Glencoe, NY: The Free Press, 1964), pp. 206-61.
12. Bobo and Kluegel, 'Opposition to Race-Targeting'.
13. P.M. Sniderman and T. Piazza, The Scar of Race (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993).
14. D. O. Sears, 'Symbolic Racism', in P. Katz and D. Taylor, eds, Eliminating Racism (New York: Plenum, 1988), pp. 53-84; D. Kinder and L. Sanders, Divided by Color (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).
15. D. O. Sears, 'Symbolic Racism', in P. Katz and D. Taylor, eds, Eliminating Racism (New York: Plenum, 1988), pp. 53-84; D. Kinder and L. Sanders, Divided by Color (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).
16. D. T. Goldberg, 'Introduction: Multicultural Conditions', in D.T. Goldberg, ed., Multiculturalism: A Critical Reader (Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1994), pp. 1-41; C. Willett, Theorizing Multiculturalism: A Guide to the Current Debate (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 1998); P. McLaren, 'White Terror and Oppositional Agency: Towards a Critical Multiculturalism,' in Goldberg, ed., Multiculturalism, pp. 45-74.
17. D. T. Goldberg, 'Introduction: Multicultural Conditions', in D. T. Goldberg, ed., Multiculturalism: A Critical Reader (Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1994), pp. 1-41; C. Willett, Theorizing Multiculturalism: A Guide to the Current Debate (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 1998); P. McLaren, 'White Terror and Oppositional Agency: Towards a Critical Multiculturalism,' in Goldberg, ed., Multiculturalism, pp. 45-74.
18. D. T. Goldberg, 'Introduction: Multicultural Conditions', in D. T. Goldberg, ed., Multiculturalism: A Critical Reader (Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1994), pp. 1-41; C. Willett, Theorizing Multiculturalism: A Guide to the Current Debate (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 1998); P. McLaren, 'White Terror and Oppositional Agency: Towards a Critical Multiculturalism,' in Goldberg, ed., Multiculturalism, pp. 45-74.
19. T. Turner, 'Anthropology and Multiculturalism: What is Anthropology that Multiculturalists should be Mindful of It?' in Goldberg, ed., Multiculturalism, pp. 406-25; K. A. Appiah, Identity Against Culture: Understandings of Multiculturalism (Berkeley, Calif: Doreen B. Townsend Center for the Humanities, 1994); P. Gleason, Speaking of Diversity: Language and Ethnicity in Twentieth Century America (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992); Taylor, Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition.
20. T. Turner, 'Anthropology and Multiculturalism: What is Anthropology that Multiculturalists should be Mindful of It?' in Goldberg, ed., Multiculturalism, pp. 406-25; K. A. Appiah, Identity Against Culture: Understandings of Multiculturalism (Berkeley, Calif: Doreen B. Townsend Center for the Humanities, 1994); P. Gleason, Speaking of Diversity: Language and Ethnicity in Twentieth Century America (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992); Taylor, Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition.
21. T. Turner, 'Anthropology and Multiculturalism: What is Anthropology that Multiculturalists should be Mindful of It?' in Goldberg, ed., Multiculturalism, pp. 406-25; K. A. Appiah, Identity Against Culture: Understandings of Multiculturalism (Berkeley, Calif: Doreen B. Townsend Center for the Humanities, 1994); P. Gleason, Speaking of Diversity: Language and Ethnicity in Twentieth Century America (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992); Taylor, Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition.
22. T. Turner, 'Anthropology and Multiculturalism: What is Anthropology that Multiculturalists should be Mindful of It?' in Goldberg, ed., Multiculturalism, pp. 406-25; K. A. Appiah, Identity Against Culture: Understandings of Multiculturalism (Berkeley, Calif: Doreen B. Townsend Center for the Humanities, 1994); P. Gleason, Speaking of Diversity: Language and Ethnicity in Twentieth Century America (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992); Taylor, Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition.
23. J. W. Berry, R. Kalin and D. M. Taylor, Multiculturalism and Ethnic Attitudes in Canada (Ottawa: Minister of State for Multiculturalism, 1977).
24. D. Ravitch, 'Multiculturalism: E Pluribus Plures', American Scholar, 59 (1990), 337-54; Goldberg, 'Introduction: Multicultural Conditions'. What we refer to as 'hard' multiculturalism has been described as 'particularistic', 'radical', and 'illiberal'. Cf. Ravitch, 'Multiculturalism: E Pluribus Plures'; D. Miller, On Nationality (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995); K. A. Appiah, 'On Toleration', New York Review of Books, 44 (1997), 30-6. By contrast, these writers use 'pluralistic', 'moderate', and 'liberal' as synonyms for 'soft' multiculturalism.
25. D. Ravitch, 'Multiculturalism: E Pluribus Plures', American Scholar, 59 (1990), 337-54; Goldberg, 'Introduction: Multicultural Conditions'. What we refer to as 'hard' multiculturalism has been described as 'particularistic', 'radical', and 'illiberal'. Cf. Ravitch, 'Multiculturalism: E Pluribus Plures'; D. Miller, On Nationality (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995); K. A. Appiah, 'On Toleration', New York Review of Books, 44 (1997), 30-6. By contrast, these writers use 'pluralistic', 'moderate', and 'liberal' as synonyms for 'soft' multiculturalism.
26. D. Ravitch, 'Multiculturalism: E Pluribus Plures', American Scholar, 59 (1990), 337-54; Goldberg, 'Introduction: Multicultural Conditions'. What we refer to as 'hard' multiculturalism has been described as 'particularistic', 'radical', and 'illiberal'. Cf. Ravitch, 'Multiculturalism: E Pluribus Plures'; D. Miller, On Nationality (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995); K. A. Appiah, 'On Toleration', New York Review of Books, 44 (1997), 30-6. By contrast, these writers use 'pluralistic', 'moderate', and 'liberal' as synonyms for 'soft' multiculturalism.
27. D. Ravitch, 'Multiculturalism: E Pluribus Plures', American Scholar, 59 (1990), 337-54; Goldberg, 'Introduction: Multicultural Conditions'. What we refer to as 'hard' multiculturalism has been described as 'particularistic', 'radical', and 'illiberal'. Cf. Ravitch, 'Multiculturalism: E Pluribus Plures'; D. Miller, On Nationality (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995); K. A. Appiah, 'On Toleration', New York Review of Books, 44 (1997), 30-6. By contrast, these writers use 'pluralistic', 'moderate', and 'liberal' as synonyms for 'soft' multiculturalism.
28. D. Ravitch, 'Multiculturalism: E Pluribus Plures', American Scholar, 59 (1990), 337-54; Goldberg, 'Introduction: Multicultural Conditions'. What we refer to as 'hard' multiculturalism has been described as 'particularistic', 'radical', and 'illiberal'. Cf. Ravitch, 'Multiculturalism: E Pluribus Plures'; D. Miller, On Nationality (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995); K. A. Appiah, 'On Toleration', New York Review of Books, 44 (1997), 30-6. By contrast, these writers use 'pluralistic', 'moderate', and 'liberal' as synonyms for 'soft' multiculturalism.
29. Taylor, Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition; Raz, 'Multiculturalism: A Liberal Perspective'.
30. Taylor, Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition; Raz, 'Multiculturalism: A Liberal Perspective'.
31. Miller, On Nationality, p. 132.
32. McLaren, 'White Terror and Oppositional Agency: Towards a Critical Multiculturalism'.
33. R. T. Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (Boston, Mass.: Little, Brown, 1993).
34. M. Gerson, In the Classroom: Dispatches from an Inner-City School that Works (New York: The Free Press, 1996).
35. I. M. Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990). Though in the academy this viewpoint has a variety of supporters, in practical politics those expressing it tend to be minority group activists.
36. S. Rockefeller, 'Comment', in C. Taylor, Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 87-98, p. 97, emphasis added.
37. Taylor, Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition.
38. M. B. Brewer, 'The Social Self: On Being the Same and Different at the Same Time', Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 17 (1991), 475-82; H. Tajfel and J. Turner, 'The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior', in S. Worchel and W. Austin, eds, Psychology of Intergroup Relations (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1986).
39. M. B. Brewer, 'The Social Self: On Being the Same and Different at the Same Time', Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 17 (1991), 475-82; H. Tajfel and J. Turner, 'The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior', in S. Worchel and W. Austin, eds, Psychology of Intergroup Relations (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1986).
40. R. M. Merelman, 'Racial Conflict and Cultural Politics in the United States', Journal of Politics, 56 (1994), 1-20.
41. Gleason, Speaking of Diversity.
42. S. Tempelman, 'Constructions of Cultural Identity: Multiculturalism and Exclusion', Political Studies, 47 (1999), 17-31.
43. Taylor, Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition; W. Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community, and Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); B. Parekh, 'Discourses on National Identity', Political Studies, 42 (1994), 492-504.
44. Taylor, Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition; W. Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community, and Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); B. Parekh, 'Discourses on National Identity', Political Studies, 42 (1994), 492-504.
45. Taylor, Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition; W. Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community, and Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); B. Parekh, 'Discourses on National Identity', Political Studies, 42 (1994), 492-504.
46. H. M. Kallen, 'Democracy versus the Melting Pot', Nation, 100 (1915), 190-4, 217-20.
47. R. D. Alba, Ethnic Identity: The Transformation of White America (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1990); M. C. Waters, Ethnic Options: Choosing Identities in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
48. R. D. Alba, Ethnic Identity: The Transformation of White America (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1990); M. C. Waters, Ethnic Options: Choosing Identities in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
49. D. Hollinger, Postethnic America (New York: Basic Books, 1995).
50. Hollinger, Postethnic America; D. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985).
51. Hollinger, Postethnic America; D. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985).
52. Y. L. Espiritu, Asian American Panethnicity (Philadelphia, Penn.: Temple University Press, 1992); M. Omi and H. Winant, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s (New York: Routledge, 1994).
53. Y. L. Espiritu, Asian American Panethnicity (Philadelphia, Penn.: Temple University Press, 1992); M. Omi and H. Winant, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s (New York: Routledge, 1994).
54. S. Cornell, The Return of the Native: American Indian Political Resurgence (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 146.
55. Merelman, 'Racial Conflict and Cultural Politics in the United States'; Lind, The New Nationalism and the Fourth American Revolution.
56. Merelman, 'Racial Conflict and Cultural Politics in the United States'; Lind, The New Nationalism and the Fourth American Revolution.
57. N. Glazer, We Are All Multiculturalists Now (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997), pp. 93-5; J. D. Skrentny, The Ironies of Affirmative Action: Politics, Culture, and Justice in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).
58. N. Glazer, We Are All Multiculturalists Now (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997), pp. 93-5; J. D. Skrentny, The Ironies of Affirmative Action: Politics, Culture, and Justice in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).
59. Raz, 'Multiculturalism: A Liberal Perspective'; Parekh, 'Discourses on National Identity'.
60. Raz, 'Multiculturalism: A Liberal Perspective'; Parekh, 'Discourses on National Identity'.
61. D. Bell, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 1976), p. 425.
62. H. K. Girvetz, The Evolution of Liberalism (New York: Collier Books, 1963); M. Walzer, 'Comment', in Taylor, Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition, pp. 99-103.
63. H. K. Girvetz, The Evolution of Liberalism (New York: Collier Books, 1963); M. Walzer, 'Comment', in Taylor, Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition, pp. 99-103.
64. It should be noted, though, that earlier liberal thinkers such as Locke, Jefferson and Mill remained ethnocentric in maintaining that non-Western cultures were inferior and, therefore, less deserving of tolerance and respect. See U. S. Mehta, Liberalism and Empire: A Study in Nineteenth-Century British Liberal Thought (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999).
65. Taylor, Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition.
66. J. Spinner, The Boundaries of Citizenship: Race, Ethnicity, and Nationality in the Liberal State (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994).
67. S. P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1981); P. Gleason, 'American Identity and Americanization', in S. Thernstrom, A. Orlov and O. Handlin, eds, Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980), pp. 31-58; A. M. Schlesinger Jr, The Disuniting of America: Reflections on a Multicultural Society (New York: Norton, 1992); J. Citrin, E. B. Haas, C. Muste and B. Reingold, 'Is American Nationalism Changing? Implications for Foreign Policy', International Studies Quarterly, 38 (1994), 1-31.
68. S. P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1981); P. Gleason, 'American Identity and Americanization', in S. Thernstrom, A. Orlov and O. Handlin, eds, Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980), pp. 31-58; A. M. Schlesinger Jr, The Disuniting of America: Reflections on a Multicultural Society (New York: Norton, 1992); J. Citrin, E. B. Haas, C. Muste and B. Reingold, 'Is American Nationalism Changing? Implications for Foreign Policy', International Studies Quarterly, 38 (1994), 1-31.
69. S. P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1981); P. Gleason, 'American Identity and Americanization', in S. Thernstrom, A. Orlov and O. Handlin, eds, Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980), pp. 31-58; A. M. Schlesinger Jr, The Disuniting of America: Reflections on a Multicultural Society (New York: Norton, 1992); J. Citrin, E. B. Haas, C. Muste and B. Reingold, 'Is American Nationalism Changing? Implications for Foreign Policy', International Studies Quarterly, 38 (1994), 1-31.
70. S. P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1981); P. Gleason, 'American Identity and Americanization', in S. Thernstrom, A. Orlov and O. Handlin, eds, Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980), pp. 31-58; A. M. Schlesinger Jr, The Disuniting of America: Reflections on a Multicultural Society (New York: Norton, 1992); J. Citrin, E. B. Haas, C. Muste and B. Reingold, 'Is American Nationalism Changing? Implications for Foreign Policy', International Studies Quarterly, 38 (1994), 1-31.
71. Lind, The New Nationalism and the Fourth American Revolution.
72. Raz, 'Multiculturalism: A Liberal Perspective'; Tempelman, 'Constructions of Cultural Identity: Multiculturalism and Exclusion'.
73. Raz, 'Multiculturalism: A Liberal Perspective'; Tempelman, 'Constructions of Cultural Identity: Multiculturalism and Exclusion'.
74. Glazer, We Are All Multiculturalists Now, p. 14.
75. Glazer, We Are All Multiculturalists Now, p. 12.
76. J. Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925, 2nd edn (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1988); R. M. Smith, 'Beyond Tocqueville, Myrdal and Hartz: The Multiple Traditions in America', American Political Science Review, 87 (1993), 549-66.
77. J. Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925, 2nd edn (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1988); R. M. Smith, 'Beyond Tocqueville, Myrdal and Hartz: The Multiple Traditions in America', American Political Science Review, 87 (1993), 549-66.
78. P. Brimelow, Alien Nation: Common Sense about America's Immigration Disaster (New York: Random House, 1995).
79. Gleason, 'American Identity and Americanization'.
80. M. Jackman, The Velvet Glove: Paternalism and Conflict in Gender, Class, and Race Relations (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); S. Steinberg, Turning Back: The Retreat from Racial Justice in American Thought and Policy (Boston, Mass.: Beacon Press, 1995); M. Marable, Beyond Black and White: Transforming African-American Politics (London: Verso, 1995); Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference.
81. M. Jackman, The Velvet Glove: Paternalism and Conflict in Gender, Class, and Race Relations (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); S. Steinberg, Turning Back: The Retreat from Racial Justice in American Thought and Policy (Boston, Mass.: Beacon Press, 1995); M. Marable, Beyond Black and White: Transforming African-American Politics (London: Verso, 1995); Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference.
82. M. Jackman, The Velvet Glove: Paternalism and Conflict in Gender, Class, and Race Relations (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); S. Steinberg, Turning Back: The Retreat from Racial Justice in American Thought and Policy (Boston, Mass.: Beacon Press, 1995); M. Marable, Beyond Black and White: Transforming African-American Politics (London: Verso, 1995); Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference.
83. M. Jackman, The Velvet Glove: Paternalism and Conflict in Gender, Class, and Race Relations (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); S. Steinberg, Turning Back: The Retreat from Racial Justice in American Thought and Policy (Boston, Mass.: Beacon Press, 1995); M. Marable, Beyond Black and White: Transforming African-American Politics (London: Verso, 1995); Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference.
84. Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference; Tempelman, 'Constructions of Cultural Identity: Multiculturalism and Exclusion'. Kymlicka's liberal multiculturalism also denies the right to organize their lives according to their own ideas of the good to groups whose ideas are non-liberal. See Tempelman, 'Constructions of Cultural Identity'.
85. Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference; Tempelman, 'Constructions of Cultural Identity: Multiculturalism and Exclusion'. Kymlicka's liberal multiculturalism also denies the right to organize their lives according to their own ideas of the good to groups whose ideas are non-liberal. See Tempelman, 'Constructions of Cultural Identity'.
86. Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference; Tempelman, 'Constructions of Cultural Identity: Multiculturalism and Exclusion'. Kymlicka's liberal multiculturalism also denies the right to organize their lives according to their own ideas of the good to groups whose ideas are non-liberal. See Tempelman, 'Constructions of Cultural Identity'.
87. Schlesinger, The Disuniting of America.
88. Walzer, 'Comment'; Okin, Is Multiculturalism Bad for Women? Raz, 'Multiculturalism: A Liberal Perspective'.
89. Walzer, 'Comment'; Okin, Is Multiculturalism Bad for Women? Raz, 'Multiculturalism: A Liberal Perspective'.
90. Walzer, 'Comment'; Okin, Is Multiculturalism Bad for Women? Raz, 'Multiculturalism: A Liberal Perspective'.
91. Sensitivity to the aspirations of minorities that experience discrimination and political domination has led many contemporary theorists to attempt a synthesis between the values of individual rights and group representation. See Spinner, The Boundaries of Citizenship: Race, Ethnicity, and Nationality in the Liberal State; J. Rawls, Political Liberalism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993); Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community, and Culture.
92. Sensitivity to the aspirations of minorities that experience discrimination and political domination has led many contemporary theorists to attempt a synthesis between the values of individual rights and group representation. See Spinner, The Boundaries of Citizenship: Race, Ethnicity, and Nationality in the Liberal State; J. Rawls, Political Liberalism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993); Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community, and Culture.
93. Sensitivity to the aspirations of minorities that experience discrimination and political domination has led many contemporary theorists to attempt a synthesis between the values of individual rights and group representation. See Spinner, The Boundaries of Citizenship: Race, Ethnicity, and Nationality in the Liberal State; J. Rawls, Political Liberalism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993); Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community, and Culture.
94. J. Davis and T. Smith, The General Social Survey Codebook (Chicago: National Opinion Research Center, 1995). Due to space limitations, the question wordings of the survey items are not provided here. However, they are available on request from the authors.
95. Citrin, Haas, Muste and Reingold, 'Is American Nationalism Changing?'; J. Citrin and B. Duff, 'Alternative Symbolic Meanings of American National Identity' (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Society of Political Psychology, Montreal, Canada, 1998).
96. Citrin, Haas, Muste and Reingold, 'Is American Nationalism Changing?'; J. Citrin and B. Duff, 'Alternative Symbolic Meanings of American National Identity' (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Society of Political Psychology, Montreal, Canada, 1998).
97. Glazer, We Are All Multiculturalists Now, p. 95.
98. D. O. Sears, J. Citrin, S. Cheleden and C. Van Laar, 'Cultural Diversity and Multicultural Politics: Is Ethnic Balkanization Psychologically Inevitable?' in D. Prentice and D. Miller, eds, Cultural Divides: The Social Psychology of Cultural Contact (New York: Russell Sage, 1999), pp. 35-79.
99. In a follow-up question in the GSS survey, 58 per cent said they viewed themselves as 'just an American' on 'all' political issues.
100. Further evidence of the higher level of group consciousness among ethnic minorities comes from the 1995 Los Angeles County Social Survey. Respondents who said they thought of themselves as 'just an American' were asked the follow up question: 'Which of the following is most true for you: just an American or both American and (white, black, or Hispanic, depending on one's background)?' Over half the blacks and Hispanics who initially called themselves 'just Americans' opted for a dual identity, defining themselves, in a sense, as hyphenated Americans. See Sears, Citrin, Cheleden and Van Laar, 'Cultural Diversity and Multicultural Politics'.
101. Sniderman and Piazza, The Scar of Race; H. Schuman, C. Steeh, L. Bobo and M. Krysan, Racial Attitudes in America: Trends and Interpretations (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1997); S. A. Tuch and J. K. Martin, Racial Attitudes in the 1990s: Continuity and Change (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1997); Kinder and Sanders, Divided by Color.
102. Sniderman and Piazza, The Scar of Race; H. Schuman, C. Steeh, L. Bobo and M. Krysan, Racial Attitudes in America: Trends and Interpretations (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1997); S. A. Tuch and J. K. Martin, Racial Attitudes in the 1990s: Continuity and Change (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1997); Kinder and Sanders, Divided by Color.
103. Sniderman and Piazza, The Scar of Race; H. Schuman, C. Steeh, L. Bobo and M. Krysan, Racial Attitudes in America: Trends and Interpretations (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1997); S. A. Tuch and J. K. Martin, Racial Attitudes in the 1990s: Continuity and Change (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1997); Kinder and Sanders, Divided by Color.
104. Sniderman and Piazza, The Scar of Race; H. Schuman, C. Steeh, L. Bobo and M. Krysan, Racial Attitudes in America: Trends and Interpretations (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1997); S. A. Tuch and J. K. Martin, Racial Attitudes in the 1990s: Continuity and Change (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1997); Kinder and Sanders, Divided by Color.
105. H. F. Pitkin, The Concept of Representation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967).
106. In the 1993 National Black Politics Study, 74 per cent of the sample (all black respondents) disagreed with the statement 'blacks should always vote for black candidates when they run'.
107. Higham, Strangers in the Land; Gleason, Speaking of Diversity.
108. Higham, Strangers in the Land; Gleason, Speaking of Diversity.
109. The case study for Taylor's oft-cited defence of multiculturalism is Quebec, where the survival of a 'distinct society' is deemed to justify the provincial government's actions to require the use of French. See Taylor, Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition.
110. J. Citrin, D. P. Green, B. Reingold and E. Walters, 'The "Official English" Movement and the Symbolic Politics of Language in the United States', Western Political Quarterly, 43 (1991), 85-108.
111. Lind, The New Nationalism and the Fourth American Revolution.
112. J. Citrin, B. Reingold and D. P. Green, 'American Identity and the Politics of Ethnic Change', Journal of Politics, 52 (1990), 1124-54. The question regarding bilingual education gave respondents a choice among the three alternative programmes school districts can adopt: an English immersion programme, a transitional programme that teaches students in their native language for a few years, and a cultural maintenance programme that provides native-language instruction throughout high school. These are the policy alternatives available to school districts under the 1971 Bilingual Education Act.
113. J. S. Lapinski, P. Peltola, G. Shaw and A.Yang, 'The Polls - Trends: Immigrants and Immigration', Public Opinion Quarterly, 61 (1997), 356-83.
114. Schuman, Steeh, Bobo and Krysan, Racial Attitudes in America.
115. To conserve space, we do not report the equivalent Los Angeles County data. Those results are virtually identical. See D. O. Sears, J. Citrin, S. Vidanage and N. Valentino, 'What Ordinary Americans Think about Multiculturalism' (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, DC, 1994).
116. D. Kinder and D. O. Sears, 'Public Opinion and Political Participation', in G. Lindzey and E. Aronson, eds, Handbook of Social Psychology, 3rd edn, vol. 5 (Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley, 1985).
117. Citrin, Haas, Muste and Reingold, 'Is American Nationalism Changing?' J. L. Hochschild, Facing Up to the American Dream: Race, Class, and the Soul of the Nation (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995).
118. Citrin, Haas, Muste and Reingold, 'Is American Nationalism Changing?' J. L. Hochschild, Facing Up to the American Dream: Race, Class, and the Soul of the Nation (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995).
119. These indices were developed on the basis of exploratory factor analysis, first of the entire set of multiculturalism items and then of the within-domain groups. We do not report the factor analysis results here for reasons of space. In the case of the more general multiculturalism items, interrelationships were so modest that in the multivariate analysis to follow we do not use a combined index but consider the items separately as predictors. In constructing indices, all items were standardized using z-scores and the indices were created by simple addition of these standardized scores. The items comprising the indices, mean inter-item correlations and reliabilities (Cronbach's alpha) are presented in the Appendix.
120. Citrin and Duff, 'Alternative Symbolic Meanings of American National Identity'.
121. E. G. Carmines and J. A. Stimson, Issue Evolution: Race and the Transformation of American Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989); T. B. Edsall and M. D. Edsall, Chain Reaction: The Impact of Race, Rights, and Taxes on American Politics (New York: Norton, 1992).
122. E. G. Carmines and J. A. Stimson, Issue Evolution: Race and the Transformation of American Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989); T. B. Edsall and M. D. Edsall, Chain Reaction: The Impact of Race, Rights, and Taxes on American Politics (New York: Norton, 1992).
123. Bobo, 'Group Conflict, Prejudice, and the Paradox of Contemporary Racial Attitudes'.
124. Age and education are constructed as dummy variables, with respondents divided into those below 30 or those older, and college graduates or those less educated, respectively.
125. The items referred to the respondents' degree of admiration for and sympathy with blacks as a group; their opinion on whether government was paying too much, the right amount, or too little attention to blacks; and their reaction to the statement that blacks should 'work their way up without special favors', just as the Jews and Irish did. In a factor analysis of a larger number of questions dealing with race, these four items comprised a single factor. The adjusted alpha reliability for this scale was 0.71. These items are included elsewhere in a scale of 'symbolic racism', but here we make no claims about their reflecting any particular form of racial hostility. See D. O. Sears, C. Van Laar, M. Carillo and R. Kosterman, 'Is it Really Racism? The Origins of White Americans' Opposition to Race-Targeted Policies', Public Opinion Quarterly, 61 (1997), 16-53.
126. These results are unchanged when one substitutes measures of economic, social and racial liberalism-conservatism for the self-identification item as measures of political ideology.
127. P. Sniderman and P. Tetlock, 'Symbolic Racism: Problems of Motive Attribution in Political Analysis', Journal of Social Issues, 42 (1986), 129-50; Sears, 'Symbolic Racism'; Bobo, 'Group Conflict, Prejudice, and the Paradox of Contemporary Racial Attitudes'; Kinder and Sanders, Divided by Color.
128. P. Sniderman and P. Tetlock, 'Symbolic Racism: Problems of Motive Attribution in Political Analysis', Journal of Social Issues, 42 (1986), 129-50; Sears, 'Symbolic Racism'; Bobo, 'Group Conflict, Prejudice, and the Paradox of Contemporary Racial Attitudes'; Kinder and Sanders, Divided by Color.
129. P. Sniderman and P. Tetlock, 'Symbolic Racism: Problems of Motive Attribution in Political Analysis', Journal of Social Issues, 42 (1986), 129-50; Sears, 'Symbolic Racism'; Bobo, 'Group Conflict, Prejudice, and the Paradox of Contemporary Racial Attitudes'; Kinder and Sanders, Divided by Color.
130. P. Sniderman and P. Tetlock, 'Symbolic Racism: Problems of Motive Attribution in Political Analysis', Journal of Social Issues, 42 (1986), 129-50; Sears, 'Symbolic Racism'; Bobo, 'Group Conflict, Prejudice, and the Paradox of Contemporary Racial Attitudes'; Kinder and Sanders, Divided by Color.
131. Sears, Van Laar, Carillo and Kosterman, 'Is it Really Racism?' Sniderman and Tetlock object that some of the items included in measures of racial hostility are very close to the racial policy dependent variables, such as when an item asking about whether the government is paying too much attention to blacks is used to predict support for affirmative action programmes. See Sniderman and Tetlock, 'Symbolic Racism'. For this reason, we re-ran the analysis reported in Table 4 by purging the Racial Hostility Index of the 'government attention' item when we were predicting support for Group Representation and removing the 'Work their way up like the Jews and Irish' when we were predicting Immigration Policy scores. This procedure seemed appropriate given the verbal content of the items making up these measures and their 'closeness' to the independent variables in question. The results of this purging procedure were to diminish the size of the Racial Hostility coefficients as might be expected. Nevertheless, these coefficients remained significant (although in the case of Group Representation, the purged index had a statistically significant effect among white respondents only). Moreover, the coefficients for political ideology barely shifted.
132. Sears, Van Laar, Carillo and Kosterman, 'Is it Really Racism?' Sniderman and Tetlock object that some of the items included in measures of racial hostility are very close to the racial policy dependent variables, such as when an item asking about whether the government is paying too much attention to blacks is used to predict support for affirmative action programmes. See Sniderman and Tetlock, 'Symbolic Racism'. For this reason, we re-ran the analysis reported in Table 4 by purging the Racial Hostility Index of the 'government attention' item when we were predicting support for Group Representation and removing the 'Work their way up like the Jews and Irish' when we were predicting Immigration Policy scores. This procedure seemed appropriate given the verbal content of the items making up these measures and their 'closeness' to the independent variables in question. The results of this purging procedure were to diminish the size of the Racial Hostility coefficients as might be expected. Nevertheless, these coefficients remained significant (although in the case of Group Representation, the purged index had a statistically significant effect among white respondents only). Moreover, the coefficients for political ideology barely shifted.
133. Sears, Citrin, Cheleden and Van Laar, 'Cultural Diversity and Multicultural Politics'; C. Wong, 'Group Identity, Group Affect, and Opinions on "Ethnic Issues"' (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Western Political Science Association, Portland, Oregon, 1995).
134. Sears, Citrin, Cheleden and Van Laar, 'Cultural Diversity and Multicultural Politics'; C. Wong, 'Group Identity, Group Affect, and Opinions on "Ethnic Issues"' (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Western Political Science Association, Portland, Oregon, 1995).
135. It should be underscored that this conclusion refers primarily to whites. Our data cannot speak to the possibility that multiculturalism is particularly strong among 'vanguard' elements of ethnic minorities.
136. Edsall and Edsall, Chain Reaction.
137. W. J. Wilson, The Declining Significance of Race (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980).