Transnational Advocacy, Global Civil Society? Emerging Evidence from the Field of Education

Comparative Education Review

Volumn 45, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 85-125

  Mundy, Karen ^a   Murphy, Lynn ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035580915     PISSN: 00104086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/1188876     Document Type: Article

References (247)

1. Miriam Henry, Bob Lingard, Fazal Rizvi, and Sandra Taylor, The OECD, Globalization and Education Policy (Oxford: Pergamon, 2000); Phillip Jones, "Unesco and the Politics of Global Literacy," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 1 (1988): 41-60, World Bank Financing of Education (New York: Routledge, 1992), and International Policies for Third World Education: Unesco, Literacy and Development (New York: Routledge, 1988); Connie McNeely and Yun-Kyung Cha, "Worldwide Educational Convergence through International Organizations: Avenues for Research," Educational Policy Analysis Archives 2, no. 14 (1994), available at http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v2n14.html; Karen Mundy, "Educational Multilateralism and World (Dis)Order," Comparative Education Review 42, no. 4 (1998): 448-78, and "Unesco and the Limits of the Possible," International Journal of Educational Development 19, no. 1 (1999): 27-52; Francisco Ramirez and John Boli, "Global Patterns of Educational Institutionalization," in Institutional Structure: Constituting State, Society and the Individual, ed. George Thomas, John W. Meyer, Francisco O. Ramirez, and John Boli (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1987), pp. 150-72.
2. Miriam Henry, Bob Lingard, Fazal Rizvi, and Sandra Taylor, The OECD, Globalization and Education Policy (Oxford: Pergamon, 2000); Phillip Jones, "Unesco and the Politics of Global Literacy," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 1 (1988): 41-60, World Bank Financing of Education (New York: Routledge, 1992), and International Policies for Third World Education: Unesco, Literacy and Development (New York: Routledge, 1988); Connie McNeely and Yun-Kyung Cha, "Worldwide Educational Convergence through International Organizations: Avenues for Research," Educational Policy Analysis Archives 2, no. 14 (1994), available at http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v2n14.html; Karen Mundy, "Educational Multilateralism and World (Dis)Order," Comparative Education Review 42, no. 4 (1998): 448-78, and "Unesco and the Limits of the Possible," International Journal of Educational Development 19, no. 1 (1999): 27-52; Francisco Ramirez and John Boli, "Global Patterns of Educational Institutionalization," in Institutional Structure: Constituting State, Society and the Individual, ed. George Thomas, John W. Meyer, Francisco O. Ramirez, and John Boli (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1987), pp. 150-72.
3. Miriam Henry, Bob Lingard, Fazal Rizvi, and Sandra Taylor, The OECD, Globalization and Education Policy (Oxford: Pergamon, 2000); Phillip Jones, "Unesco and the Politics of Global Literacy," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 1 (1988): 41-60, World Bank Financing of Education (New York: Routledge, 1992), and International Policies for Third World Education: Unesco, Literacy and Development (New York: Routledge, 1988); Connie McNeely and Yun-Kyung Cha, "Worldwide Educational Convergence through International Organizations: Avenues for Research," Educational Policy Analysis Archives 2, no. 14 (1994), available at http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v2n14.html; Karen Mundy, "Educational Multilateralism and World (Dis)Order," Comparative Education Review 42, no. 4 (1998): 448-78, and "Unesco and the Limits of the Possible," International Journal of Educational Development 19, no. 1 (1999): 27-52; Francisco Ramirez and John Boli, "Global Patterns of Educational Institutionalization," in Institutional Structure: Constituting State, Society and the Individual, ed. George Thomas, John W. Meyer, Francisco O. Ramirez, and John Boli (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1987), pp. 150-72.
4. Miriam Henry, Bob Lingard, Fazal Rizvi, and Sandra Taylor, The OECD, Globalization and Education Policy (Oxford: Pergamon, 2000); Phillip Jones, "Unesco and the Politics of Global Literacy," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 1 (1988): 41-60, World Bank Financing of Education (New York: Routledge, 1992), and International Policies for Third World Education: Unesco, Literacy and Development (New York: Routledge, 1988); Connie McNeely and Yun-Kyung Cha, "Worldwide Educational Convergence through International Organizations: Avenues for Research," Educational Policy Analysis Archives 2, no. 14 (1994), available at http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v2n14.html; Karen Mundy, "Educational Multilateralism and World (Dis)Order," Comparative Education Review 42, no. 4 (1998): 448-78, and "Unesco and the Limits of the Possible," International Journal of Educational Development 19, no. 1 (1999): 27-52; Francisco Ramirez and John Boli, "Global Patterns of Educational Institutionalization," in Institutional Structure: Constituting State, Society and the Individual, ed. George Thomas, John W. Meyer, Francisco O. Ramirez, and John Boli (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1987), pp. 150-72.
5. Miriam Henry, Bob Lingard, Fazal Rizvi, and Sandra Taylor, The OECD, Globalization and Education Policy (Oxford: Pergamon, 2000); Phillip Jones, "Unesco and the Politics of Global Literacy," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 1 (1988): 41-60, World Bank Financing of Education (New York: Routledge, 1992), and International Policies for Third World Education: Unesco, Literacy and Development (New York: Routledge, 1988); Connie McNeely and Yun-Kyung Cha, "Worldwide Educational Convergence through International Organizations: Avenues for Research," Educational Policy Analysis Archives 2, no. 14 (1994), available at http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v2n14.html; Karen Mundy, "Educational Multilateralism and World (Dis)Order," Comparative Education Review 42, no. 4 (1998): 448-78, and "Unesco and the Limits of the Possible," International Journal of Educational Development 19, no. 1 (1999): 27-52; Francisco Ramirez and John Boli, "Global Patterns of Educational Institutionalization," in Institutional Structure: Constituting State, Society and the Individual, ed. George Thomas, John W. Meyer, Francisco O. Ramirez, and John Boli (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1987), pp. 150-72.
6. Miriam Henry, Bob Lingard, Fazal Rizvi, and Sandra Taylor, The OECD, Globalization and Education Policy (Oxford: Pergamon, 2000); Phillip Jones, "Unesco and the Politics of Global Literacy," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 1 (1988): 41-60, World Bank Financing of Education (New York: Routledge, 1992), and International Policies for Third World Education: Unesco, Literacy and Development (New York: Routledge, 1988); Connie McNeely and Yun-Kyung Cha, "Worldwide Educational Convergence through International Organizations: Avenues for Research," Educational Policy Analysis Archives 2, no. 14 (1994), available at http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v2n14.html; Karen Mundy, "Educational Multilateralism and World (Dis)Order," Comparative Education Review 42, no. 4 (1998): 448-78, and "Unesco and the Limits of the Possible," International Journal of Educational Development 19, no. 1 (1999): 27-52; Francisco Ramirez and John Boli, "Global Patterns of Educational Institutionalization," in Institutional Structure: Constituting State, Society and the Individual, ed. George Thomas, John W. Meyer, Francisco O. Ramirez, and John Boli (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1987), pp. 150-72.
7. Miriam Henry, Bob Lingard, Fazal Rizvi, and Sandra Taylor, The OECD, Globalization and Education Policy (Oxford: Pergamon, 2000); Phillip Jones, "Unesco and the Politics of Global Literacy," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 1 (1988): 41-60, World Bank Financing of Education (New York: Routledge, 1992), and International Policies for Third World Education: Unesco, Literacy and Development (New York: Routledge, 1988); Connie McNeely and Yun-Kyung Cha, "Worldwide Educational Convergence through International Organizations: Avenues for Research," Educational Policy Analysis Archives 2, no. 14 (1994), available at http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v2n14.html; Karen Mundy, "Educational Multilateralism and World (Dis)Order," Comparative Education Review 42, no. 4 (1998): 448-78, and "Unesco and the Limits of the Possible," International Journal of Educational Development 19, no. 1 (1999): 27-52; Francisco Ramirez and John Boli, "Global Patterns of Educational Institutionalization," in Institutional Structure: Constituting State, Society and the Individual, ed. George Thomas, John W. Meyer, Francisco O. Ramirez, and John Boli (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1987), pp. 150-72.
8. Miriam Henry, Bob Lingard, Fazal Rizvi, and Sandra Taylor, The OECD, Globalization and Education Policy (Oxford: Pergamon, 2000); Phillip Jones, "Unesco and the Politics of Global Literacy," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 1 (1988): 41-60, World Bank Financing of Education (New York: Routledge, 1992), and International Policies for Third World Education: Unesco, Literacy and Development (New York: Routledge, 1988); Connie McNeely and Yun-Kyung Cha, "Worldwide Educational Convergence through International Organizations: Avenues for Research," Educational Policy Analysis Archives 2, no. 14 (1994), available at http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v2n14.html; Karen Mundy, "Educational Multilateralism and World (Dis)Order," Comparative Education Review 42, no. 4 (1998): 448-78, and "Unesco and the Limits of the Possible," International Journal of Educational Development 19, no. 1 (1999): 27-52; Francisco Ramirez and John Boli, "Global Patterns of Educational Institutionalization," in Institutional Structure: Constituting State, Society and the Individual, ed. George Thomas, John W. Meyer, Francisco O. Ramirez, and John Boli (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1987), pp. 150-72.
9. John Boli and George Thomas, eds., Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organizations since 1875 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999): Margaret Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists beyond Borders (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998); Ronnie Lipschutz, "Reconstructing World Politics: The Emergence of Global Civil Society," in International Society after the Cold War, ed. Rich Fawn and Jeremy Larkins (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996), pp. 101-31; James Rosenau, Along the Domestic-Foreign Frontier (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Jackie Smith, ed., Transnational Social Movements, Solidarity beyond the State (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1997).
10. John Boli and George Thomas, eds., Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organizations since 1875 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999): Margaret Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists beyond Borders (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998); Ronnie Lipschutz, "Reconstructing World Politics: The Emergence of Global Civil Society," in International Society after the Cold War, ed. Rich Fawn and Jeremy Larkins (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996), pp. 101-31; James Rosenau, Along the Domestic-Foreign Frontier (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Jackie Smith, ed., Transnational Social Movements, Solidarity beyond the State (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1997).
11. John Boli and George Thomas, eds., Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organizations since 1875 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999): Margaret Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists beyond Borders (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998); Ronnie Lipschutz, "Reconstructing World Politics: The Emergence of Global Civil Society," in International Society after the Cold War, ed. Rich Fawn and Jeremy Larkins (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996), pp. 101-31; James Rosenau, Along the Domestic-Foreign Frontier (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Jackie Smith, ed., Transnational Social Movements, Solidarity beyond the State (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1997).
12. John Boli and George Thomas, eds., Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organizations since 1875 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999): Margaret Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists beyond Borders (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998); Ronnie Lipschutz, "Reconstructing World Politics: The Emergence of Global Civil Society," in International Society after the Cold War, ed. Rich Fawn and Jeremy Larkins (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996), pp. 101-31; James Rosenau, Along the Domestic-Foreign Frontier (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Jackie Smith, ed., Transnational Social Movements, Solidarity beyond the State (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1997).
13. John Boli and George Thomas, eds., Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organizations since 1875 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999): Margaret Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists beyond Borders (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998); Ronnie Lipschutz, "Reconstructing World Politics: The Emergence of Global Civil Society," in International Society after the Cold War, ed. Rich Fawn and Jeremy Larkins (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996), pp. 101-31; James Rosenau, Along the Domestic-Foreign Frontier (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Jackie Smith, ed., Transnational Social Movements, Solidarity beyond the State (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1997).
14. It is not our intention to review the literature on nongovernmental organizations in domestic educational arenas, although this has been a thriving theme of debate in recent years in the field of comparative education. See, e.g., David Archer, "The Changing Roles of Non-governmental Organizations in the Field of Education," International Journal of Educational Development 14, no. 3 (1994): 223-32; and also articles by Robert Arnove and Rachel Christina ("NGO-State Relations: An Argument in Favor of the State and Complementarity Efforts"), Steve Klees ("NGO's: A Progressive Force or Neoliberal Tool"), and Nelly Stromquist ("NGOs in a New Paradym of Civil Society"), all in Current Issues in Comparative Education 1, no. 1 (November 1998), an electronic journal (http://www.tc.columbia.edu/ ~academic/ice/, March 10, 1999).
15. It is not our intention to review the literature on nongovernmental organizations in domestic educational arenas, although this has been a thriving theme of debate in recent years in the field of comparative education. See, e.g., David Archer, "The Changing Roles of Non-governmental Organizations in the Field of Education," International Journal of Educational Development 14, no. 3 (1994): 223-32; and also articles by Robert Arnove and Rachel Christina ("NGO-State Relations: An Argument in Favor of the State and Complementarity Efforts"), Steve Klees ("NGO's: A Progressive Force or Neoliberal Tool"), and Nelly Stromquist ("NGOs in a New Paradym of Civil Society"), all in Current Issues in Comparative Education 1, no. 1 (November 1998), an electronic journal (http://www.tc.columbia.edu/ ~academic/ice/, March 10, 1999).
16. It is not our intention to review the literature on nongovernmental organizations in domestic educational arenas, although this has been a thriving theme of debate in recent years in the field of comparative education. See, e.g., David Archer, "The Changing Roles of Non-governmental Organizations in the Field of Education," International Journal of Educational Development 14, no. 3 (1994): 223-32; and also articles by Robert Arnove and Rachel Christina ("NGO-State Relations: An Argument in Favor of the State and Complementarity Efforts"), Steve Klees ("NGO's: A Progressive Force or Neoliberal Tool"), and Nelly Stromquist ("NGOs in a New Paradym of Civil Society"), all in Current Issues in Comparative Education 1, no. 1 (November 1998), an electronic journal (http://www.tc.columbia.edu/ ~academic/ice/, March 10, 1999).
17. It is not our intention to review the literature on nongovernmental organizations in domestic educational arenas, although this has been a thriving theme of debate in recent years in the field of comparative education. See, e.g., David Archer, "The Changing Roles of Non-governmental Organizations in the Field of Education," International Journal of Educational Development 14, no. 3 (1994): 223-32; and also articles by Robert Arnove and Rachel Christina ("NGO-State Relations: An Argument in Favor of the State and Complementarity Efforts"), Steve Klees ("NGO's: A Progressive Force or Neoliberal Tool"), and Nelly Stromquist ("NGOs in a New Paradym of Civil Society"), all in Current Issues in Comparative Education 1, no. 1 (November 1998), an electronic journal (http://www.tc.columbia.edu/ ~academic/ice/, March 10, 1999).
18. James Nye and Robert Keohane, Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition (Boston: Little Brown, 1977); James Rosenau, "Governance, Order and Change in World Politics," in Governance without Government, ed. James N. Rosenau and Earnest O. Czempiel (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 1-291, and Along the Domestic-Foreign Frontier.
19. James Nye and Robert Keohane, Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition (Boston: Little Brown, 1977); James Rosenau, "Governance, Order and Change in World Politics," in Governance without Government, ed. James N. Rosenau and Earnest O. Czempiel (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 1-291, and Along the Domestic-Foreign Frontier.
20. James Nye and Robert Keohane, Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition (Boston: Little Brown, 1977); James Rosenau, "Governance, Order and Change in World Politics," in Governance without Government, ed. James N. Rosenau and Earnest O. Czempiel (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 1-291, and Along the Domestic-Foreign Frontier.
21. For historical case studies, see Boli and Thomas; Lyman Cromwell White, International Non-governmental Organizations: Their Purposes, Methods and Accomplishments (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1951); Martha Finnemore, National Interests in International Society (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996); and Smith.
22. For historical case studies, see Boli and Thomas; Lyman Cromwell White, International Non- governmental Organizations: Their Purposes, Methods and Accomplishments (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1951); Martha Finnemore, National Interests in International Society (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996); and Smith.
23. David Held and Anthony McGrew, Global Transformations: Politics, Economics and Culture (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999), quote on p. 431. See also Manuel Castells, The Power of Identity, The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture, vol. 2 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997); Rosenau, "Governance, Order and Change in World Politics."
24. David Held and Anthony McGrew, Global Transformations: Politics, Economics and Culture (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999), quote on p. 431. See also Manuel Castells, The Power of Identity, The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture, vol. 2 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997); Rosenau, "Governance, Order and Change in World Politics."
25. David Held and Anthony McGrew, Global Transformations: Politics, Economics and Culture (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999), quote on p. 431. See also Manuel Castells, The Power of Identity, The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture., vol. 2 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997); Rosenau, "Governance, Order and Change in World Politics."
26. Keck and Sikkink, p. 11. Also, strong empirical evidence of the overall growth of international nongovernmental actors is provided by Boli and Thomas; also see Smith.
27. Anne Marie Clark, Elisabeth J. Friedman, and Kathryn Hochsteltler, "The Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society: A Comparison of NGO Participation in UN World Conferences on the Environment, Human Rights, and Women," World Politics 51, no. 1 (October 1998): 1-35; Alison Van Rooy, "The Frontiers of Influence: NGO Lobbying at the 1974 World Food Conference, the 1992 Earth Summit and Beyond," World Development 25, no. 1 (1997): 93-114; L. Gordenker and T. G. Weiss, "NGO Participation in the International Policy Process," Third World Quarterly 16, no. 3 (1995): 543-613.
28. Anne Marie Clark, Elisabeth J. Friedman, and Kathryn Hochsteltler, "The Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society: A Comparison of NGO Participation in UN World Conferences on the Environment, Human Rights, and Women," World Politics 51, no. 1 (October 1998): 1-35; Alison Van Rooy, "The Frontiers of Influence: NGO Lobbying at the 1974 World Food Conference, the 1992 Earth Summit and Beyond," World Development 25, no. 1 (1997): 93-114; L. Gordenker and T. G. Weiss, "NGO Participation in the International Policy Process," Third World Quarterly 16, no. 3 (1995): 543-613.
29. Anne Marie Clark, Elisabeth J. Friedman, and Kathryn Hochsteltler, "The Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society: A Comparison of NGO Participation in UN World Conferences on the Environment, Human Rights, and Women," World Politics 51, no. 1 (October 1998): 1-35; Alison Van Rooy, "The Frontiers of Influence: NGO Lobbying at the 1974 World Food Conference, the 1992 Earth Summit and Beyond," World Development 25, no. 1 (1997): 93-114; L. Gordenker and T. G. Weiss, "NGO Participation in the International Policy Process," Third World Quarterly 16, no. 3 (1995): 543-613.
30. Jubilee 2000 is a "worldwide movement to cancel the crushing international debt of impoverished countries by the new millennium" (http://www.oneworld.org/jubilee2000). The campaign is led by a coalition of church-based and development organizations and has achieved significant prominence through worldwide lobbying of national governments and a direct action campaign that utilizes the formation of "human chains" around the sites of key intergovernmental conferences, most recently at the G7 interministerial meetings in June 1999. See John Mihevc, "Jubilee 2000: Starting from Scratch," New Internationalist, no. 312 (May 1999): 22-24.
31. Jubilee 2000 is a "worldwide movement to cancel the crushing international debt of impoverished countries by the new millennium" (http://www.oneworld.org/jubilee2000). The campaign is led by a coalition of church-based and development organizations and has achieved significant prominence through worldwide lobbying of national governments and a direct action campaign that utilizes the formation of "human chains" around the sites of key intergovernmental conferences, most recently at the G7 interministerial meetings in June 1999. See John Mihevc, "Jubilee 2000: Starting from Scratch," New Internationalist, no. 312 (May 1999): 22-24.
32. Richard Price, "Reversing the Gun Sights: Transnational Civil Society Targets Land Mines," International Organization 52, no. 3 (Summer 1998): 613-44.
33. Cecilia Lynch, "Social Movements and the Problem of Globalization," Alternatives 23 (1998): 149-73. For extensive coverage of World Trade Organization events, see Seattle Times (November 26- December 3, 1999); and World Bank, Development News (November 26-30, 1999) (http://www.devnews@ worldbank.org). For protests in Washington, D.C., see World Bank, Development News (April 17, 2000); or "IMF and World Bank Carry on Meeting Even with Protests," Washington Post (April 17, 2000), p. A07. Several web sites also hosted extensive coverage of the protests and the coalitions that have formed to monitor them, such as A16 (http://www.a16.org) and WTOwatch (http://www.wtowatch.org). The A16 (or August 16) web site is run by a consortium of antiglobalization NGOs and citizen organizations under the title "Mobilization for Global Justice." The WTOwatch is a web site devoted to news and analysis on the World Trade Organization, trade, and sustainable development. It is operated by the Institute of Agriculture and Trade Policy, a nonprofit research organization based in Minneapolis that was formed in 1986.
34. Cecilia Lynch, "Social Movements and the Problem of Globalization," Alternatives 23 (1998): 149-73. For extensive coverage of World Trade Organization events, see Seattle Times (November 26-December 3, 1999); and World Bank, Development News (November 26-30, 1999) (http://www.devnews@ worldbank.org). For protests in Washington, D.C., see World Bank, Development News (April 17, 2000); or "IMF and World Bank Carry on Meeting Even with Protests," Washington Post (April 17, 2000), p. A07. Several web sites also hosted extensive coverage of the protests and the coalitions that have formed to monitor them, such as A16 (http://www.a16.org) and WTOwatch (http://www.wtowatch.org). The A16 (or August 16) web site is run by a consortium of antiglobalization NGOs and citizen organizations under the title "Mobilization for Global Justice." The WTOwatch is a web site devoted to news and analysis on the World Trade Organization, trade, and sustainable development. It is operated by the Institute of Agriculture and Trade Policy, a nonprofit research organization based in Minneapolis that was formed in 1986.
35. Cecilia Lynch, "Social Movements and the Problem of Globalization," Alternatives 23 (1998): 149-73. For extensive coverage of World Trade Organization events, see Seattle Times (November 26- December 3, 1999); and World Bank, Development News (November 26-30, 1999) (http://www.devnews@ worldbank.org). For protests in Washington, D.C., see World Bank, Development News (April 17, 2000); or "IMF and World Bank Carry on Meeting Even with Protests," Washington Post (April 17, 2000), p. A07. Several web sites also hosted extensive coverage of the protests and the coalitions that have formed to monitor them, such as A16 (http://www.a16.org) and WTOwatch (http://www.wtowatch.org). The A16 (or August 16) web site is run by a consortium of antiglobalization NGOs and citizen organizations under the title "Mobilization for Global Justice." The WTOwatch is a web site devoted to news and analysis on the World Trade Organization, trade, and sustainable development. It is operated by the Institute of Agriculture and Trade Policy, a nonprofit research organization based in Minneapolis that was formed in 1986.
36. Cecilia Lynch, "Social Movements and the Problem of Globalization," Alternatives 23 (1998): 149-73. For extensive coverage of World Trade Organization events, see Seattle Times (November 26- December 3, 1999); and World Bank, Development News (November 26-30, 1999) (http://www.devnews@ worldbank.org). For protests in Washington, D.C., see World Bank, Development News (April 17, 2000); or "IMF and World Bank Carry on Meeting Even with Protests," Washington Post (April 17, 2000), p. A07. Several web sites also hosted extensive coverage of the protests and the coalitions that have formed to monitor them, such as A16 (http://www.a16.org) and WTOwatch (http://www.wtowatch.org). The A16 (or August 16) web site is run by a consortium of antiglobalization NGOs and citizen organizations under the title "Mobilization for Global Justice." The WTOwatch is a web site devoted to news and analysis on the World Trade Organization, trade, and sustainable development. It is operated by the Institute of Agriculture and Trade Policy, a nonprofit research organization based in Minneapolis that was formed in 1986.
37. Cecilia Lynch, "Social Movements and the Problem of Globalization," Alternatives 23 (1998): 149-73. For extensive coverage of World Trade Organization events, see Seattle Times (November 26- December 3, 1999); and World Bank, Development News (November 26-30, 1999) (http://www.devnews@ worldbank.org). For protests in Washington, D.C., see World Bank, Development News (April 17, 2000); or "IMF and World Bank Carry on Meeting Even with Protests," Washington Post (April 17, 2000), p. A07. Several web sites also hosted extensive coverage of the protests and the coalitions that have formed to monitor them, such as A16 (http://www.a16.org) and WTOwatch (http://www.wtowatch.org). The A16 (or August 16) web site is run by a consortium of antiglobalization NGOs and citizen organizations under the title "Mobilization for Global Justice." The WTOwatch is a web site devoted to news and analysis on the World Trade Organization, trade, and sustainable development. It is operated by the Institute of Agriculture and Trade Policy, a nonprofit research organization based in Minneapolis that was formed in 1986.
38. Keck and Sikkink (n. 2 above), p. 12; Smith (n. 2 above); Price; Lipschutz (n. 2 above); Clark, Friedman, and Hochstelter "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society"; Boli and Thomas (n. 2 above); Lynch. For an overarching assessment of the normative potential held by such organizations, see Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink, "International Norm Dynamics and Political Change," International Organization 52, no, 4 (autumn 1998): 887-917.
39. Keck and Sikkink (n. 2 above), p. 12; Smith (n. 2 above); Price; Lipschutz (n. 2 above); Clark, Friedman, and Hochstelter "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society"; Boli and Thomas (n. 2 above); Lynch. For an overarching assessment of the normative potential held by such organizations, see Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink, "International Norm Dynamics and Political Change," International Organization 52, no, 4 (autumn 1998): 887-917.
40. Keck and Sikkink (n. 2 above), p. 12; Smith (n. 2 above); Price; Lipschutz (n. 2 above); Clark, Friedman, and Hochstelter "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society"; Boli and Thomas (n. 2 above); Lynch. For an overarching assessment of the normative potential held by such organizations, see Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink, "International Norm Dynamics and Political Change," International Organization 52, no, 4 (autumn 1998): 887-917.
41. Keck and Sikkink (n. 2 above), p. 12; Smith (n. 2 above); Price; Lipschutz (n. 2 above); Clark, Friedman, and Hochstelter "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society"; Boli and Thomas (n. 2 above); Lynch. For an overarching assessment of the normative potential held by such organizations, see Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink, "International Norm Dynamics and Political Change," International Organization 52, no, 4 (autumn 1998): 887-917.
42. Keck and Sikkink (n. 2 above), p. 12; Smith (n. 2 above); Price; Lipschutz (n. 2 above); Clark, Friedman, and Hochstelter "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society"; Boli and Thomas (n. 2 above); Lynch. For an overarching assessment of the normative potential held by such organizations, see Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink, "International Norm Dynamics and Political Change," International Organization 52, no, 4 (autumn 1998): 887-917.
43. Keck and Sikkink (n. 2 above), p. 12; Smith (n. 2 above); Price; Lipschutz (n. 2 above); Clark, Friedman, and Hochstelter "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society"; Boli and Thomas (n. 2 above); Lynch. For an overarching assessment of the normative potential held by such organizations, see Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink, "International Norm Dynamics and Political Change," International Organization 52, no, 4 (autumn 1998): 887-917.
44. Keck and Sikkink, p. 12.
45. Clark, Friedman, and Hochsteltler, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society"; Lipschutz; Mustapha Pasha and David Blaney, "Elusive Paradise: The Promise and Peril of Global Civil Society," Alternatives 23 (1998): 417-50; Diane Otto, "Nongovernmental Organizations in the United Nations System: The Emerging Role of International Civil Society" Human Rights Quarterly 18, no. 1 (1996): 107-14; W. Andy Knight, "Engineering Space in Global Governance: The Emergence of Civil Society in Evolving 'New' Multilateralism," in Future Multilateralism, ed. Michael G. Schechter (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 255-91; M. Smouts, "Multilateralism from Below: a Prerequisite for Global Governance," in Schechter, ed., pp. 292-311; Lisa Jordan and Peter van Tuijl, "Political Responsibility in NGO Advocacy: Exploring Emerging Shapes of Global Democracy," Novib web site, April 1998 (http>//www.oneworld.org/ euforic/novib/novib1.htm, July 12, 1999); Michael Edwards, David Hulme, and T. Wallace, "NGOs in a Global Future: Marrying Local Delivery to World Wide Leverage" (Ford Foundation, 1999, mimeographed); Blair Rutherford, "Civil (Dis)Obedience and Social Development in the New Policy Agenda: Research Priorities for Analyzing the Role of Civil Society Organizations in Social Policy Reform, with Particular Attention to Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America," 1998 (http://www.idrc.ca/socdev/pub/ documents/civilsociety.html, April 8, 1999), International Development Research Center; Alison Van Rooy, Civil Society and the Aid Industry: The Politics and Promise (London: Earthscan, 1998). For an official account of the significance of "global civil society," see the United Nations Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighborhood (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
46. Clark, Friedman, and Hochsteltler, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society"; Lipschutz; Mustapha Pasha and David Blaney, "Elusive Paradise: The Promise and Peril of Global Civil Society," Alternatives 23 (1998): 417-50; Diane Otto, "Nongovernmental Organizations in the United Nations System: The Emerging Role of International Civil Society" Human Rights Quarterly 18, no. 1 (1996): 107-14; W. Andy Knight, "Engineering Space in Global Governance: The Emergence of Civil Society in Evolving 'New' Multilateralism," in Future Multilateralism, ed. Michael G. Schechter (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 255-91; M. Smouts, "Multilateralism from Below: a Prerequisite for Global Governance," in Schechter, ed., pp. 292-311; Lisa Jordan and Peter van Tuijl, "Political Responsibility in NGO Advocacy: Exploring Emerging Shapes of Global Democracy," Novib web site, April 1998 (http>//www.oneworld.org/ euforic/novib/novib1.htm, July 12, 1999); Michael Edwards, David Hulme, and T. Wallace, "NGOs in a Global Future: Marrying Local Delivery to World Wide Leverage" (Ford Foundation, 1999, mimeographed); Blair Rutherford, "Civil (Dis)Obedience and Social Development in the New Policy Agenda: Research Priorities for Analyzing the Role of Civil Society Organizations in Social Policy Reform, with Particular Attention to Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America," 1998 (http://www.idrc.ca/socdev/pub/ documents/civilsociety.html, April 8, 1999), International Development Research Center; Alison Van Rooy, Civil Society and the Aid Industry: The Politics and Promise (London: Earthscan, 1998). For an official account of the significance of "global civil society," see the United Nations Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighborhood (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
47. Clark, Friedman, and Hochsteltler, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society"; Lipschutz; Mustapha Pasha and David Blaney, "Elusive Paradise: The Promise and Peril of Global Civil Society," Alternatives 23 (1998): 417-50; Diane Otto, "Nongovernmental Organizations in the United Nations System: The Emerging Role of International Civil Society" Human Rights Quarterly 18, no. 1 (1996): 107-14; W. Andy Knight, "Engineering Space in Global Governance: The Emergence of Civil Society in Evolving 'New' Multilateralism," in Future Multilateralism, ed. Michael G. Schechter (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 255-91; M. Smouts, "Multilateralism from Below: a Prerequisite for Global Governance," in Schechter, ed., pp. 292-311; Lisa Jordan and Peter van Tuijl, "Political Responsibility in NGO Advocacy: Exploring Emerging Shapes of Global Democracy," Novib web site, April 1998 (http>//www.oneworld.org/ euforic/novib/novib1.htm, July 12, 1999); Michael Edwards, David Hulme, and T. Wallace, "NGOs in a Global Future: Marrying Local Delivery to World Wide Leverage" (Ford Foundation, 1999, mimeographed); Blair Rutherford, "Civil (Dis)Obedience and Social Development in the New Policy Agenda: Research Priorities for Analyzing the Role of Civil Society Organizations in Social Policy Reform, with Particular Attention to Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America," 1998 (http://www.idrc.ca/socdev/pub/ documents/civilsociety.html, April 8, 1999), International Development Research Center; Alison Van Rooy, Civil Society and the Aid Industry: The Politics and Promise (London: Earthscan, 1998). For an official account of the significance of "global civil society," see the United Nations Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighborhood (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
48. Clark, Friedman, and Hochsteltler, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society"; Lipschutz; Mustapha Pasha and David Blaney, "Elusive Paradise: The Promise and Peril of Global Civil Society," Alternatives 23 (1998): 417-50; Diane Otto, "Nongovernmental Organizations in the United Nations System: The Emerging Role of International Civil Society" Human Rights Quarterly 18, no. 1 (1996): 107-14; W. Andy Knight, "Engineering Space in Global Governance: The Emergence of Civil Society in Evolving 'New' Multilateralism," in Future Multilateralism, ed. Michael G. Schechter (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 255-91; M. Smouts, "Multilateralism from Below: a Prerequisite for Global Governance," in Schechter, ed., pp. 292-311; Lisa Jordan and Peter van Tuijl, "Political Responsibility in NGO Advocacy: Exploring Emerging Shapes of Global Democracy," Novib web site, April 1998 (http>//www.oneworld.org/ euforic/novib/novib1.htm, July 12, 1999); Michael Edwards, David Hulme, and T. Wallace, "NGOs in a Global Future: Marrying Local Delivery to World Wide Leverage" (Ford Foundation, 1999, mimeographed); Blair Rutherford, "Civil (Dis)Obedience and Social Development in the New Policy Agenda: Research Priorities for Analyzing the Role of Civil Society Organizations in Social Policy Reform, with Particular Attention to Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America," 1998 (http://www.idrc.ca/socdev/pub/ documents/civilsociety.html, April 8, 1999), International Development Research Center; Alison Van Rooy, Civil Society and the Aid Industry: The Politics and Promise (London: Earthscan, 1998). For an official account of the significance of "global civil society," see the United Nations Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighborhood (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
49. Clark, Friedman, and Hochsteltler, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society"; Lipschutz; Mustapha Pasha and David Blaney, "Elusive Paradise: The Promise and Peril of Global Civil Society," Alternatives 23 (1998): 417-50; Diane Otto, "Nongovernmental Organizations in the United Nations System: The Emerging Role of International Civil Society" Human Rights Quarterly 18, no. 1 (1996): 107-14; W. Andy Knight, "Engineering Space in Global Governance: The Emergence of Civil Society in Evolving 'New' Multilateralism," in Future Multilateralism, ed. Michael G. Schechter (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 255-91; M. Smouts, "Multilateralism from Below: a Prerequisite for Global Governance," in Schechter, ed., pp. 292-311; Lisa Jordan and Peter van Tuijl, "Political Responsibility in NGO Advocacy: Exploring Emerging Shapes of Global Democracy," Novib web site, April 1998 (http>//www.oneworld.org/ euforic/novib/novib1.htm, July 12, 1999); Michael Edwards, David Hulme, and T. Wallace, "NGOs in a Global Future: Marrying Local Delivery to World Wide Leverage" (Ford Foundation, 1999, mimeographed); Blair Rutherford, "Civil (Dis)Obedience and Social Development in the New Policy Agenda: Research Priorities for Analyzing the Role of Civil Society Organizations in Social Policy Reform, with Particular Attention to Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America," 1998 (http://www.idrc.ca/socdev/pub/ documents/civilsociety.html, April 8, 1999), International Development Research Center; Alison Van Rooy, Civil Society and the Aid Industry: The Politics and Promise (London: Earthscan, 1998). For an official account of the significance of "global civil society," see the United Nations Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighborhood (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
50. Clark, Friedman, and Hochsteltler, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society"; Lipschutz; Mustapha Pasha and David Blaney, "Elusive Paradise: The Promise and Peril of Global Civil Society," Alternatives 23 (1998): 417-50; Diane Otto, "Nongovernmental Organizations in the United Nations System: The Emerging Role of International Civil Society" Human Rights Quarterly 18, no. 1 (1996): 107-14; W. Andy Knight, "Engineering Space in Global Governance: The Emergence of Civil Society in Evolving 'New' Multilateralism," in Future Multilateralism, ed. Michael G. Schechter (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 255-91; M. Smouts, "Multilateralism from Below: a Prerequisite for Global Governance," in Schechter, ed., pp. 292-311; Lisa Jordan and Peter van Tuijl, "Political Responsibility in NGO Advocacy: Exploring Emerging Shapes of Global Democracy," Novib web site, April 1998 (http>//www.oneworld.org/ euforic/novib/novib1.htm, July 12, 1999); Michael Edwards, David Hulme, and T. Wallace, "NGOs in a Global Future: Marrying Local Delivery to World Wide Leverage" (Ford Foundation, 1999, mimeographed); Blair Rutherford, "Civil (Dis)Obedience and Social Development in the New Policy Agenda: Research Priorities for Analyzing the Role of Civil Society Organizations in Social Policy Reform, with Particular Attention to Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America," 1998 (http://www.idrc.ca/socdev/pub/ documents/civilsociety.html, April 8, 1999), International Development Research Center; Alison Van Rooy, Civil Society and the Aid Industry: The Politics and Promise (London: Earthscan, 1998). For an official account of the significance of "global civil society," see the United Nations Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighborhood (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
51. Clark, Friedman, and Hochsteltler, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society"; Lipschutz; Mustapha Pasha and David Blaney, "Elusive Paradise: The Promise and Peril of Global Civil Society," Alternatives 23 (1998): 417-50; Diane Otto, "Nongovernmental Organizations in the United Nations System: The Emerging Role of International Civil Society" Human Rights Quarterly 18, no. 1 (1996): 107-14; W. Andy Knight, "Engineering Space in Global Governance: The Emergence of Civil Society in Evolving 'New' Multilateralism," in Future Multilateralism, ed. Michael G. Schechter (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 255-91; M. Smouts, "Multilateralism from Below: a Prerequisite for Global Governance," in Schechter, ed., pp. 292-311; Lisa Jordan and Peter van Tuijl, "Political Responsibility in NGO Advocacy: Exploring Emerging Shapes of Global Democracy," Novib web site, April 1998 (http>//www.oneworld.org/ euforic/novib/novib1.htm, July 12, 1999); Michael Edwards, David Hulme, and T. Wallace, "NGOs in a Global Future: Marrying Local Delivery to World Wide Leverage" (Ford Foundation, 1999, mimeographed); Blair Rutherford, "Civil (Dis)Obedience and Social Development in the New Policy Agenda: Research Priorities for Analyzing the Role of Civil Society Organizations in Social Policy Reform, with Particular Attention to Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America," 1998 (http://www.idrc.ca/socdev/pub/ documents/civilsociety.html, April 8, 1999), International Development Research Center; Alison Van Rooy, Civil Society and the Aid Industry: The Politics and Promise (London: Earthscan, 1998). For an official account of the significance of "global civil society," see the United Nations Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighborhood (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
52. Clark, Friedman, and Hochsteltler, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society"; Lipschutz; Mustapha Pasha and David Blaney, "Elusive Paradise: The Promise and Peril of Global Civil Society," Alternatives 23 (1998): 417-50; Diane Otto, "Nongovernmental Organizations in the United Nations System: The Emerging Role of International Civil Society" Human Rights Quarterly 18, no. 1 (1996): 107-14; W. Andy Knight, "Engineering Space in Global Governance: The Emergence of Civil Society in Evolving 'New' Multilateralism," in Future Multilateralism, ed. Michael G. Schechter (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 255-91; M. Smouts, "Multilateralism from Below: a Prerequisite for Global Governance," in Schechter, ed., pp. 292-311; Lisa Jordan and Peter van Tuijl, "Political Responsibility in NGO Advocacy: Exploring Emerging Shapes of Global Democracy," Novib web site, April 1998 (http>//www.oneworld.org/ euforic/novib/novib1.htm, July 12, 1999); Michael Edwards, David Hulme, and T. Wallace, "NGOs in a Global Future: Marrying Local Delivery to World Wide Leverage" (Ford Foundation, 1999, mimeographed); Blair Rutherford, "Civil (Dis)Obedience and Social Development in the New Policy Agenda: Research Priorities for Analyzing the Role of Civil Society Organizations in Social Policy Reform, with Particular Attention to Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America," 1998 (http://www.idrc.ca/socdev/pub/ documents/civilsociety.html, April 8, 1999), International Development Research Center; Alison Van Rooy, Civil Society and the Aid Industry: The Politics and Promise (London: Earthscan, 1998). For an official account of the significance of "global civil society," see the United Nations Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighborhood (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
53. Clark, Friedman, and Hochsteltler, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society"; Lipschutz; Mustapha Pasha and David Blaney, "Elusive Paradise: The Promise and Peril of Global Civil Society," Alternatives 23 (1998): 417-50; Diane Otto, "Nongovernmental Organizations in the United Nations System: The Emerging Role of International Civil Society" Human Rights Quarterly 18, no. 1 (1996): 107-14; W. Andy Knight, "Engineering Space in Global Governance: The Emergence of Civil Society in Evolving 'New' Multilateralism," in Future Multilateralism, ed. Michael G. Schechter (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 255-91; M. Smouts, "Multilateralism from Below: a Prerequisite for Global Governance," in Schechter, ed., pp. 292-311; Lisa Jordan and Peter van Tuijl, "Political Responsibility in NGO Advocacy: Exploring Emerging Shapes of Global Democracy," Novib web site, April 1998 (http>//www.oneworld.org/ euforic/novib/novib1.htm, July 12, 1999); Michael Edwards, David Hulme, and T. Wallace, "NGOs in a Global Future: Marrying Local Delivery to World Wide Leverage" (Ford Foundation, 1999, mimeographed); Blair Rutherford, "Civil (Dis)Obedience and Social Development in the New Policy Agenda: Research Priorities for Analyzing the Role of Civil Society Organizations in Social Policy Reform, with Particular Attention to Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America," 1998 (http://www.idrc.ca/socdev/pub/ documents/civilsociety.html, April 8, 1999), International Development Research Center; Alison Van Rooy, Civil Society and the Aid Industry: The Politics and Promise (London: Earthscan, 1998). For an official account of the significance of "global civil society," see the United Nations Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighborhood (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
54. Clark, Friedman, and Hochsteltler, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society"; Lipschutz; Mustapha Pasha and David Blaney, "Elusive Paradise: The Promise and Peril of Global Civil Society," Alternatives 23 (1998): 417-50; Diane Otto, "Nongovernmental Organizations in the United Nations System: The Emerging Role of International Civil Society" Human Rights Quarterly 18, no. 1 (1996): 107-14; W. Andy Knight, "Engineering Space in Global Governance: The Emergence of Civil Society in Evolving 'New' Multilateralism," in Future Multilateralism, ed. Michael G. Schechter (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 255-91; M. Smouts, "Multilateralism from Below: a Prerequisite for Global Governance," in Schechter, ed., pp. 292-311; Lisa Jordan and Peter van Tuijl, "Political Responsibility in NGO Advocacy: Exploring Emerging Shapes of Global Democracy," Novib web site, April 1998 (http>//www.oneworld.org/ euforic/novib/novib1.htm, July 12, 1999); Michael Edwards, David Hulme, and T. Wallace, "NGOs in a Global Future: Marrying Local Delivery to World Wide Leverage" (Ford Foundation, 1999, mimeographed); Blair Rutherford, "Civil (Dis)Obedience and Social Development in the New Policy Agenda: Research Priorities for Analyzing the Role of Civil Society Organizations in Social Policy Reform, with Particular Attention to Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America," 1998 (http://www.idrc.ca/socdev/pub/ documents/civilsociety.html, April 8, 1999), International Development Research Center; Alison Van Rooy, Civil Society and the Aid Industry: The Politics and Promise (London: Earthscan, 1998). For an official account of the significance of "global civil society," see the United Nations Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighborhood (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
55. See John McCarthy, "The Globalization of Social Movement Theory," in Smith, ed., pp. 243-57; Dieter Rucht, "The Transnationalization of Social Movements: Trends, Causes, Problems," in Social Movements in a Globalizing World, ed. Hanspeter Kriesi, Dieter Rucht, and Donatella della Porta (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 206-22; and Sydney Tarrow, "Transnational Contention," in Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics, ed. Sidney Tarrow (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 176-95. See Smouts, p. 304. The idea of "framing" is drawn from David Snow and Robert Benford, "Master Frames and Cycles of Protest," in Frontiers of Social Movement Theory, ed. Aldon Morres and Carol Mueller (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1992), pp. 133-55. Smith (n. 2 above) transposes this to the study of transnational social movements and describes framing as the development of interpretive frames that "process political information, interpreting certain conditions as problems in need of attention and conveying the need and potential efficacy of collective attempts to address the problem" (p. 73). See also, Clark, Friedman, and Hochsteltler, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society."
56. See John McCarthy, "The Globalization of Social Movement Theory," in Smith, ed., pp. 243-57; Dieter Rucht, "The Transnationalization of Social Movements: Trends, Causes, Problems," in Social Movements in a Globalizing World, ed. Hanspeter Kriesi, Dieter Rucht, and Donatella della Porta (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 206-22; and Sydney Tarrow, "Transnational Contention," in Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics, ed. Sidney Tarrow (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 176-95. See Smouts, p. 304. The idea of "framing" is drawn from David Snow and Robert Benford, "Master Frames and Cycles of Protest," in Frontiers of Social Movement Theory, ed. Aldon Morres and Carol Mueller (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1992), pp. 133-55. Smith (n. 2 above) transposes this to the study of transnational social movements and describes framing as the development of interpretive frames that "process political information, interpreting certain conditions as problems in need of attention and conveying the need and potential efficacy of collective attempts to address the problem" (p. 73). See also, Clark, Friedman, and Hochsteltler, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society."
57. See John McCarthy, "The Globalization of Social Movement Theory," in Smith, ed., pp. 243-57; Dieter Rucht, "The Transnationalization of Social Movements: Trends, Causes, Problems," in Social Movements in a Globalizing World, ed. Hanspeter Kriesi, Dieter Rucht, and Donatella della Porta (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 206-22; and Sydney Tarrow, "Transnational Contention," in Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics, ed. Sidney Tarrow (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 176-95. See Smouts, p. 304. The idea of "framing" is drawn from David Snow and Robert Benford, "Master Frames and Cycles of Protest," in Frontiers of Social Movement Theory, ed. Aldon Morres and Carol Mueller (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1992), pp. 133-55. Smith (n. 2 above) transposes this to the study of transnational social movements and describes framing as the development of interpretive frames that "process political information, interpreting certain conditions as problems in need of attention and conveying the need and potential efficacy of collective attempts to address the problem" (p. 73). See also, Clark, Friedman, and Hochsteltler, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society."
58. See John McCarthy, "The Globalization of Social Movement Theory," in Smith, ed., pp. 243-57; Dieter Rucht, "The Transnationalization of Social Movements: Trends, Causes, Problems," in Social Movements in a Globalizing World, ed. Hanspeter Kriesi, Dieter Rucht, and Donatella della Porta (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 206-22; and Sydney Tarrow, "Transnational Contention," in Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics, ed. Sidney Tarrow (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 176-95. See Smouts, p. 304. The idea of "framing" is drawn from David Snow and Robert Benford, "Master Frames and Cycles of Protest," in Frontiers of Social Movement Theory, ed. Aldon Morres and Carol Mueller (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1992), pp. 133-55. Smith (n. 2 above) transposes this to the study of transnational social movements and describes framing as the development of interpretive frames that "process political information, interpreting certain conditions as problems in need of attention and conveying the need and potential efficacy of collective attempts to address the problem" (p. 73). See also, Clark, Friedman, and Hochsteltler, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society."
59. See John McCarthy, "The Globalization of Social Movement Theory," in Smith, ed., pp. 243-57; Dieter Rucht, "The Transnationalization of Social Movements: Trends, Causes, Problems," in Social Movements in a Globalizing World, ed. Hanspeter Kriesi, Dieter Rucht, and Donatella della Porta (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 206-22; and Sydney Tarrow, "Transnational Contention," in Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics, ed. Sidney Tarrow (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 176-95. See Smouts, p. 304. The idea of "framing" is drawn from David Snow and Robert Benford, "Master Frames and Cycles of Protest," in Frontiers of Social Movement Theory, ed. Aldon Morres and Carol Mueller (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1992), pp. 133-55. Smith (n. 2 above) transposes this to the study of transnational social movements and describes framing as the development of interpretive frames that "process political information, interpreting certain conditions as problems in need of attention and conveying the need and potential efficacy of collective attempts to address the problem" (p. 73). See also, Clark, Friedman, and Hochsteltler, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society."
60. See John McCarthy, "The Globalization of Social Movement Theory," in Smith, ed., pp. 243-57; Dieter Rucht, "The Transnationalization of Social Movements: Trends, Causes, Problems," in Social Movements in a Globalizing World, ed. Hanspeter Kriesi, Dieter Rucht, and Donatella della Porta (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 206-22; and Sydney Tarrow, "Transnational Contention," in Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics, ed. Sidney Tarrow (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 176-95. See Smouts, p. 304. The idea of "framing" is drawn from David Snow and Robert Benford, "Master
61. See Sidney Tarrow, "Cycles of Collective Action: Between Moments of Madness and Repertoires of Contention," in his Repertoires and Cycles of Collective Action (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press 1995), p. 91.
62. John Hall, ed. Civil Society: Theory, History, Comparison (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1995); Andrew Arato and Jean Cohen, Civil Society and Political Theory (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1992).
63. John Hall, ed. Civil Society: Theory, History, Comparison (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1995); Andrew Arato and Jean Cohen, Civil Society and Political Theory (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1992).
64. Clark, Friedman, and Hochsteltler, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society" (n. 8 above), p. 3.
65. Ibid.
66. Robert Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993); Alexander de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (New York: Doubleday, 1969).
67. Robert Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993); Alexander de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (New York: Doubleday, 1969).
68. See Clark, Friedman, and Hocbsteltler, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society."
69. Jordan and van Tuijl; see also Johannes Galtung, True Worlds: A Transnational Perspective (New York: Free Press, 1980),
70. and "Self-Reliance: An Overriding Strategy for Transition," in Toward ajust World Order, ed. Richard Falk, Samuel Kim, and Saul Mendlovitz (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1982).
71. For discussion, see, e.g., Galtung, True Worlds; Richard Falk, On Humane Governance: Toward a New (Global Politics (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995); Held, Democracy and the Global Order (n. 6 above); Held and McGrew (n. 6 above); and Smouts (n. 14 above).
72. For discussion, see, e.g., Galtung, True Worlds; Richard Falk, On Humane Governance: Toward a New (Global Politics (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995); Held, Democracy and the Global Order (n. 6 above); Held and McGrew (n. 6 above); and Smouts (n. 14 above).
73. For discussion, see, e.g., Galtung, True Worlds; Richard Falk, On Humane Governance: Toward a New (Global Politics (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995); Held, Democracy and the Global Order (n. 6 above); Held and McGrew (n. 6 above); and Smouts (n. 14 above).
74. See discussions by Robert Cox, "Social Forces, States and World Order: Beyond International Relations Theory," Millennium 10, no. 2 (1981): 126-55; Jordan and van Tuijl (n. 14 above); Lynch (n. 11 above); Claus Offe, "New Social Movements: Challenging the Boundaries of Institutional Politics," Social Research 52, no. 4 (1985): 817-69; Smith (n. 2 above); McCarthy (n. 15 above); and Tarrow, "Transnational Contention" (n. 15 above), and "Cycles of Collective Action." See also Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks: 1929-35, ed. Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Novell Smith (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1971).
75. See discussions by Robert Cox, "Social Forces, States and World Order: Beyond International Relations Theory," Millennium 10, no. 2 (1981): 126-55; Jordan and van Tuijl (n. 14 above); Lynch (n. 11 above); Claus Offe, "New Social Movements: Challenging the Boundaries of Institutional Politics," Social Research 52, no. 4 (1985): 817-69; Smith (n. 2 above); McCarthy (n. 15 above); and Tarrow, "Transnational Contention" (n. 15 above), and "Cycles of Collective Action." See also Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks: 1929-35, ed. Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Novell Smith (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1971).
76. See discussions by Robert Cox, "Social Forces, States and World Order: Beyond International Relations Theory," Millennium 10, no. 2 (1981): 126-55; Jordan and van Tuijl (n. 14 above); Lynch (n. 11 above); Claus Offe, "New Social Movements: Challenging the Boundaries of Institutional Politics," Social Research 52, no. 4 (1985): 817-69; Smith (n. 2 above); McCarthy (n. 15 above); and Tarrow, "Transnational Contention" (n. 15 above), and "Cycles of Collective Action." See also Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks: 1929-35, ed. Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Novell Smith (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1971).
77. See discussions by Robert Cox, "Social Forces, States and World Order: Beyond International Relations Theory," Millennium 10, no. 2 (1981): 126-55; Jordan and van Tuijl (n. 14 above); Lynch (n. 11 above); Claus Offe, "New Social Movements: Challenging the Boundaries of Institutional Politics," Social Research 52, no. 4 (1985): 817-69; Smith (n. 2 above); McCarthy (n. 15 above); and Tarrow, "Transnational Contention" (n. 15 above), and "Cycles of Collective Action." See also Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks: 1929-35, ed. Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Novell Smith (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1971).
78. See discussions by Robert Cox, "Social Forces, States and World Order: Beyond International Relations Theory," Millennium 10, no. 2 (1981): 126-55; Jordan and van Tuijl (n. 14 above); Lynch (n. 11 above); Claus Offe, "New Social Movements: Challenging the Boundaries of Institutional Politics," Social Research 52, no. 4 (1985): 817-69; Smith (n. 2 above); McCarthy (n. 15 above); and Tarrow, "Transnational Contention" (n. 15 above), and "Cycles of Collective Action." See also Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks: 1929-35, ed. Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Novell Smith (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1971).
79. As Lynch and Pasha and Blaney (n. 14 above) point out, discussions about civil society from Hegel and Gramsci onward intermarry liberal and critical ideas about the possibility of governance, notions of economic causality, and notions about economic causality and public morality. Tensions and contradictions between liberal and critical notions of international civil society are especially marked around the issue of economic globalization.
80. Hermann Rohrs and Volker Lenhart, eds., Progressive Education across the Continents (Berlin: Peter Lang, 1995); Douglas Hodgson, "The Historical Development and Internationalisation of the Children's Rights Movement," Australian Journal of Family Law 6, no. 3 (December 1992): 252-79; Institute on World Organization, World Organization; A Balance Sheet of the First Great Experiment (Washington D.C.: American Council of Public Affairs, 1942).
81. Hermann Rohrs and Volker Lenhart, eds., Progressive Education across the Continents (Berlin: Peter Lang, 1995); Douglas Hodgson, "The Historical Development and Internationalisation of the Children's Rights Movement," Australian Journal of Family Law 6, no. 3 (December 1992): 252-79; Institute on World Organization, World Organization; A Balance Sheet of the First Great Experiment (Washington D.C.: American Council of Public Affairs, 1942).
82. Hermann Rohrs and Volker Lenhart, eds., Progressive Education across the Continents (Berlin: Peter Lang, 1995); Douglas Hodgson, "The Historical Development and Internationalisation of the Children's Rights Movement," Australian Journal of Family Law 6, no. 3 (December 1992): 252-79; Institute on World Organization, World Organization; A Balance Sheet of the First Great Experiment (Washington D.C.: American Council of Public Affairs, 1942).
83. Here we differ with White, who suggested in 1951 that "only a few of these [educational organizations] have done useful or important work; on the whole it must be said that the influence of private international organizations in the field of education has not been extensive. One gains the impression that their contribution has been insignificant in comparison with achievements of INGOS in the fields of business, labor, social welfare, religion, etc" (White [n. 5 above], p. 124).
84. Key nongovernmental organizations advocating for formalized structures of international educational cooperation included the New Education Fellowship, the World Federation of Education Associations, the International Council of Women, and the Suffragist Conference of Allied Countries. See Adolphe Fernere, "The New Education Movement," in Education Yearbook, 1924, ed. Isaac Kandel (New York: Columbia University, Institute for International Education, Teachers College, 1924), pp. 597-628; Rohrs and Lenhart; Pedro Rosselló, Forerunners of the International Bureau of Education, trans. Marie Butts (London: Evans Brothers, 1944); Unesco, Unesco: 50 Years for Education (Paris: Unesco, 1997), pp. 56-63; and White. Foundations also played a role: Carnegie supported the original appeal to the league, while Rockefeller provided an initial grant for the formation of the International Bureau of Education (IBE).
85. Key nongovernmental organizations advocating for formalized structures of international educational cooperation included the New Education Fellowship, the World Federation of Education Associations, the International Council of Women, and the Suffragist Conference of Allied Countries. See Adolphe Fernere, "The New Education Movement," in Education Yearbook, 1924, ed. Isaac Kandel (New York: Columbia University, Institute for International Education, Teachers College, 1924), pp. 597-628; Rohrs and Lenhart; Pedro Rosselló, Forerunners of the International Bureau of Education, trans. Marie Butts (London: Evans Brothers, 1944); Unesco, Unesco: 50 Years for Education (Paris: Unesco, 1997), pp. 56-63; and White. Foundations also played a role: Carnegie supported the original appeal to the league, while Rockefeller provided an initial grant for the formation of the International Bureau of Education (IBE).
86. Key nongovernmental organizations advocating for formalized structures of international educational cooperation included the New Education Fellowship, the World Federation of Education Associations, the International Council of Women, and the Suffragist Conference of Allied Countries. See Adolphe Fernere, "The New Education Movement," in Education Yearbook, 1924, ed. Isaac Kandel (New York: Columbia University, Institute for International Education, Teachers College, 1924), pp. 597-628; Rohrs and Lenhart; Pedro Rosselló, Forerunners of the International Bureau of Education, trans. Marie Butts (London: Evans Brothers, 1944); Unesco, Unesco: 50 Years for Education (Paris: Unesco, 1997), pp. 56-63; and White. Foundations also played a role: Carnegie supported the original appeal to the league, while Rockefeller provided an initial grant for the formation of the International Bureau of Education (IBE).
87. Dorothy Robins, Experiment in Democracy: The Story of U.S. Citizen Organizations in Forging the Charter of the United Nations (New York: Parkside, 1971).
88. Mundy, "Educational Multilateralism" (n. 1 above).
89. Edward Thompson, "International Teachers' Organizations and Their Activities," in Teacher Unions and Associations, ed. Albert Blum (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1969), pp. 333-49.
90. Colette Chabbott, "Defining Development: The Making of the International Development Field, 1945-90," in World Polity Formation since 1875: World Culture and International Non-governmental Organizations, ed. John Boli (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999), pp. 222-48; see also the articles by Arnove, Klees, and Stromquist (n. 3 above).
91. Mundy, "Educational Multilateralism"; Ramirez and Boli (n. 1 above).
92. Arthur Gillette, NGOs and Unesco: What? Why? How? The Results? (Paris: Unesco, 1968); Richard Hoggart, "Unesco and NGOs: A Memoire," in The Conscience of the World: The Influence of Nongovernmental Organizations in the United Nations System, ed. Peter Willetts, pp. 31-62 (London: Hurst, 1996); Susan Rauch, "The Quest for Universal Literacy: Who Got What from International Literacy Year, Why and How" (Ed.D. diss., University of Massachusetts, 1995); J. Thomas-Fontaine, "Collective Consultation on Literacy for All: Appraisal and Prospects" (Unesco, Paris, 1993, mimeographed). For an overview of the marginalization of nongovernmental actors within the United Nations system, see Otto (n. 14 above); Gordenker and Weiss (n. 8 above); and Willets, ed.
93. Arthur Gillette, NGOs and Unesco: What? Why? How? The Results? (Paris: Unesco, 1968); Richard Hoggart, "Unesco and NGOs: A Memoire," in The Conscience of the World: The Influence of Nongovernmental Organizations in the United Nations System, ed. Peter Willetts, pp. 31-62 (London: Hurst, 1996); Susan Rauch, "The Quest for Universal Literacy: Who Got What from International Literacy Year, Why and How" (Ed.D. diss., University of Massachusetts, 1995); J. Thomas-Fontaine, "Collective Consultation on Literacy for All: Appraisal and Prospects" (Unesco, Paris, 1993, mimeographed). For an overview of the marginalization of nongovernmental actors within the United Nations system, see Otto (n. 14 above); Gordenker and Weiss (n. 8 above); and Willets, ed.
94. Arthur Gillette, NGOs and Unesco: What? Why? How? The Results? (Paris: Unesco, 1968); Richard Hoggart, "Unesco and NGOs: A Memoire," in The Conscience of the World: The Influence of Nongovernmental Organizations in the United Nations System, ed. Peter Willetts, pp. 31-62 (London: Hurst, 1996); Susan Rauch, "The Quest for Universal Literacy: Who Got What from International Literacy Year, Why and How" (Ed.D. diss., University of Massachusetts, 1995); J. Thomas-Fontaine, "Collective Consultation on Literacy for All: Appraisal and Prospects" (Unesco, Paris, 1993, mimeographed). For an overview of the marginalization of nongovernmental actors within the United Nations system, see Otto (n. 14 above); Gordenker and Weiss (n. 8 above); and Willets, ed.
95. Arthur Gillette, NGOs and Unesco: What? Why? How? The Results? (Paris: Unesco, 1968); Richard Hoggart, "Unesco and NGOs: A Memoire," in The Conscience of the World: The Influence of Nongovernmental Organizations in the United Nations System, ed. Peter Willetts, pp. 31-62 (London: Hurst, 1996); Susan Rauch, "The Quest for Universal Literacy: Who Got What from International Literacy Year, Why and How" (Ed.D. diss., University of Massachusetts, 1995); J. Thomas-Fontaine, "Collective Consultation on Literacy for All: Appraisal and Prospects" (Unesco, Paris, 1993, mimeographed). For an overview of the marginalization of nongovernmental actors within the United Nations system, see Otto (n. 14 above); Gordenker and Weiss (n. 8 above); and Willets, ed.
96. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), "Policy Conference on Economic Growth and Investment in Education" (paper presented at the OECD Conference on Economic Growth and Investment in Education, Washington, D.C., 1961); F. Ward, ed., Education and Development Reconsidered: The Bellagio Conference Papers (New York: Praeger, 1974). The major American foundations were by and large the only visible nongovernmental participants at these events.
97. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), "Policy Conference on Economic Growth and Investment in Education" (paper presented at the OECD Conference on Economic Growth and Investment in Education, Washington, D.C., 1961); F. Ward, ed., Education and Development Reconsidered: The Bellagio Conference Papers (New York: Praeger, 1974). The major American foundations were by and large the only visible nongovernmental participants at these events.
98. Roger Fieldhouse, The Workers Education Association: Aims and Achievements, 1903-77 (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1977); Brian Simon, The Search for Enlightenment: The Working Class and Adult Education in the Twentieth Century (London: Lawrence & Wishhart, 1990).
99. Roger Fieldhouse, The Workers Education Association: Aims and Achievements, 1903-77 (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1977); Brian Simon, The Search for Enlightenment: The Working Class and Adult Education in the Twentieth Century (London: Lawrence & Wishhart, 1990).
100. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Herder & Herder, 1970); Johan Galtung, "Literacy, Education and Schooling - For What?" in A Turning Point for Literacy, ed. Leon Bataille (Oxford: Pergamon, 1976), pp. 93-105; Budd Hall, "The International Council for Adult Education: Global Civil Society Structure" (University of Toronto, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Toronto, 1999, mimeographed); NORRAG News, no. 7, "World Conference on Education for All and International Literacy Year," in Northern Research Review and in Advisory Network on Education and Training, March 1990, ed. Kenneth King and Christine McNab (Edinburgh: Northern Research Review and Advisory Group [NORRAG], 1990), pp. 1-55; NORRAG News, no. 8, "What Happened at Jomtien?" in King and McNab, eds., pp. 1-59; Noel McGinn, ed., Crossing the Lines: Research and Policy Networks for Developing Country Education (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1996).
101. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Herder & Herder, 1970); Johan Galtung, "Literacy, Education and Schooling - For What?" in A Turning Point for Literacy, ed. Leon Bataille (Oxford: Pergamon, 1976), pp. 93-105; Budd Hall, "The International Council for Adult Education: Global Civil Society Structure" (University of Toronto, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Toronto, 1999, mimeographed); NORRAG News, no. 7, "World Conference on Education for All and International Literacy Year," in Northern Research Review and in Advisory Network on Education and Training, March 1990, ed. Kenneth King and Christine McNab (Edinburgh: Northern Research Review and Advisory Group [NORRAG], 1990), pp. 1-55; NORRAG News, no. 8, "What Happened at Jomtien?" in King and McNab, eds., pp. 1-59; Noel McGinn, ed., Crossing the Lines: Research and Policy Networks for Developing Country Education (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1996).
102. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Herder & Herder, 1970); Johan Galtung, "Literacy, Education and Schooling - For What?" in A Turning Point for Literacy, ed. Leon Bataille (Oxford: Pergamon, 1976), pp. 93-105; Budd Hall, "The International Council for Adult Education: Global Civil Society Structure" (University of Toronto, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Toronto, 1999, mimeographed); NORRAG News, no. 7, "World Conference on Education for All and International Literacy Year," in Northern Research Review and in Advisory Network on Education and Training, March 1990, ed. Kenneth King and Christine McNab (Edinburgh: Northern Research Review and Advisory Group [NORRAG], 1990), pp. 1-55; NORRAG News, no. 8, "What Happened at Jomtien?" in King and McNab, eds., pp. 1-59; Noel McGinn, ed., Crossing the Lines: Research and Policy Networks for Developing Country Education (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1996).
103. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Herder & Herder, 1970); Johan Galtung, "Literacy, Education and Schooling - For What?" in A Turning Point for Literacy, ed. Leon Bataille (Oxford: Pergamon, 1976), pp. 93-105; Budd Hall, "The International Council for Adult Education: Global Civil Society Structure" (University of Toronto, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Toronto, 1999, mimeographed); NORRAG News, no. 7, "World Conference on Education for All and International Literacy Year," in Northern Research Review and in Advisory Network on Education and Training, March 1990, ed. Kenneth King and Christine McNab (Edinburgh: Northern Research Review and Advisory Group [NORRAG], 1990), pp. 1-55; NORRAG News, no. 8, "What Happened at Jomtien?" in King and McNab, eds., pp. 1-59; Noel McGinn, ed., Crossing the Lines: Research and Policy Networks for Developing Country Education (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1996).
104. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Herder & Herder, 1970); Johan Galtung, "Literacy, Education and Schooling - For What?" in A Turning Point for Literacy, ed. Leon Bataille (Oxford: Pergamon, 1976), pp. 93-105; Budd Hall, "The International Council for Adult Education: Global Civil Society Structure" (University of Toronto, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Toronto, 1999, mimeographed); NORRAG News, no. 7, "World Conference on Education for All and International Literacy Year," in Northern Research Review and in Advisory Network on Education and Training, March 1990, ed. Kenneth King and Christine McNab (Edinburgh: Northern Research Review and Advisory Group [NORRAG], 1990), pp. 1-55; NORRAG News, no. 8, "What Happened at Jomtien?" in King and McNab, eds., pp. 1-59; Noel McGinn, ed., Crossing the Lines: Research and Policy Networks for Developing Country Education (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1996).
105. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Herder & Herder, 1970); Johan Galtung, "Literacy, Education and Schooling - For What?" in A Turning Point for Literacy, ed. Leon Bataille (Oxford: Pergamon, 1976), pp. 93-105; Budd Hall, "The International Council for Adult Education: Global Civil Society Structure" (University of Toronto, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Toronto, 1999, mimeographed); NORRAG News, no. 7, "World Conference on Education for All and International Literacy Year," in Northern Research Review and in Advisory Network on Education and Training, March 1990, ed. Kenneth King and Christine McNab (Edinburgh: Northern Research Review and Advisory Group [NORRAG], 1990), pp. 1-55; NORRAG News, no. 8, "What Happened at Jomtien?" in King and McNab, eds., pp. 1-59; Noel McGinn, ed., Crossing the Lines: Research and Policy Networks for Developing Country Education (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1996).
106. Colette Chabbott, "Constructing Educational Development: International Development Organizations and the World Conference on Education for All" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1996); Jones, World Bank Financing of Education (n. 1 above); Leslie Limage, "Literacy Practices and Literacy Policies: Where Has Unesco Been and Where Might It Be Going?," International Journal of Education Development 19, no. 1 (January 1999): 75-90; Rauch.
107. Colette Chabbott, "Constructing Educational Development: International Development Organizations and the World Conference on Education for All" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1996); Jones, World Bank Financing of Education (n. 1 above); Leslie Limage, "Literacy Practices and Literacy Policies: Where Has Unesco Been and Where Might It Be Going?," International Journal of Education Development 19, no. 1 (January 1999): 75-90; Rauch.
108. Colette Chabbott, "Constructing Educational Development: International Development Organizations and the World Conference on Education for All" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1996); Jones, World Bank Financing of Education (n. 1 above); Leslie Limage, "Literacy Practices and Literacy Policies: Where Has Unesco Been and Where Might It Be Going?," International Journal of Education Development 19, no. 1 (January 1999): 75-90; Rauch.
109. See Rauch, p. 103.
110. Fernando Reimers and L. Tiburcio, Education, Adjustment and Reconstruction: Options for Change (Paris: Unesco, 1993); Joel Samoff, ed., Coping with Crisis: Austerity, Adjustment and Human Resources (London: Cassell and Unesco, 1994); World Bank, Education in Sub Saharan Africa (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1988).
111. Fernando Reimers and L. Tiburcio, Education, Adjustment and Reconstruction: Options for Change (Paris: Unesco, 1993); Joel Samoff, ed., Coping with Crisis: Austerity, Adjustment and Human Resources (London: Cassell and Unesco, 1994); World Bank, Education in Sub Saharan Africa (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1988).
112. Fernando Reimers and L. Tiburcio, Education, Adjustment and Reconstruction: Options for Change (Paris: Unesco, 1993); Joel Samoff, ed., Coping with Crisis: Austerity, Adjustment and Human Resources (London: Cassell and Unesco, 1994); World Bank, Education in Sub Saharan Africa (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1988).
113. Martin Carnoy, "Structural Adjustment and the Changing Face of Education," International Labor Review 134, no. 6 (1995): 653-73; Christopher Colclough and James Manor, States or Markets? Neo-Liberalism and the Development Policy Debate (Oxford: Clarendon, 1993); Keith Hinchcliff, "Neo-Liberal Prescriptions for Education Financing: Unfortunately Necessary or Inherently Desirable?" International Journal of Education Development 13, no. 2 (1993): 183-87; Mundy, "Educational Multilateralism" (n. 1 above); Henry et al. (n. 1 above).
114. Martin Carnoy, "Structural Adjustment and the Changing Face of Education," International Labor Review 134, no. 6 (1995): 653-73; Christopher Colclough and James Manor, States or Markets? Neo-Liberalism and the Development Policy Debate (Oxford: Clarendon, 1993); Keith Hinchcliff, "Neo-Liberal Prescriptions for Education Financing: Unfortunately Necessary or Inherently Desirable?" International Journal of Education Development 13, no. 2 (1993): 183-87; Mundy, "Educational Multilateralism" (n. 1 above); Henry et al. (n. 1 above).
115. Martin Carnoy, "Structural Adjustment and the Changing Face of Education," International Labor Review 134, no. 6 (1995): 653-73; Christopher Colclough and James Manor, States or Markets? Neo-Liberalism and the Development Policy Debate (Oxford: Clarendon, 1993); Keith Hinchcliff, "Neo-Liberal Prescriptions for Education Financing: Unfortunately Necessary or Inherently Desirable?" International Journal of Education Development 13, no. 2 (1993): 183-87; Mundy, "Educational Multilateralism" (n. 1 above); Henry et al. (n. 1 above).
116. Martin Carnoy, "Structural Adjustment and the Changing Face of Education," International Labor Review 134, no. 6 (1995): 653-73; Christopher Colclough and James Manor, States or Markets? Neo-Liberalism and the Development Policy Debate (Oxford: Clarendon, 1993); Keith Hinchcliff, "Neo-Liberal Prescriptions for Education Financing: Unfortunately Necessary or Inherently Desirable?" International Journal of Education Development 13, no. 2 (1993): 183-87; Mundy, "Educational Multilateralism" (n. 1 above); Henry et al. (n. 1 above).
117. Among the international organizations, Unicef's director, Jim Grant, took the lead in proposing the World Conference on Education for All conference, in part because he was keen to expand its successes in child survival and saw in the promotion of basic education a way of expanding its public legitimacy and resource base. Unesco hoped that by joining it could rectify the fiscal and legitimacy crisis it faced after the withdrawal of the United States and Britain in the 1980s. The World Bank was also seeking new ways of legitimating and reconstituting its work in the late 1980s. It probably hoped to offset the damage caused by highly publicized transnational protests of its structural adjustment policies and convince the increasingly parsimonious OECD governments that contributions to its concessional loan fund should be expanded. See Maggie Black, Children First: The Story of Unicef, Past and Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Mundy, "Educational Multilateralism"; Chabbott, Constructing Education Development (n. 33 above); Rauch, pp. 136-38.
118. Among the international organizations, Unicef's director, Jim Grant, took the lead in proposing the World Conference on Education for All conference, in part because he was keen to expand its successes in child survival and saw in the promotion of basic education a way of expanding its public legitimacy and resource base. Unesco hoped that by joining it could rectify the fiscal and legitimacy crisis it faced after the withdrawal of the United States and Britain in the 1980s. The World Bank was also seeking new ways of legitimating and reconstituting its work in the late 1980s. It probably hoped to offset the damage caused by highly publicized transnational protests of its structural adjustment policies and convince the increasingly parsimonious OECD governments that contributions to its concessional loan fund should be expanded. See Maggie Black, Children First: The Story of Unicef, Past and Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Mundy, "Educational Multilateralism"; Chabbott, Constructing Education Development (n. 33 above); Rauch, pp. 136-38.
119. Among the international organizations, Unicef's director, Jim Grant, took the lead in proposing the World Conference on Education for All conference, in part because he was keen to expand its successes in child survival and saw in the promotion of basic education a way of expanding its public legitimacy and resource base. Unesco hoped that by joining it could rectify the fiscal and legitimacy crisis it faced after the withdrawal of the United States and Britain in the 1980s. The World Bank was also seeking new ways of legitimating and reconstituting its work in the late 1980s. It probably hoped to offset the damage caused by highly publicized transnational protests of its structural adjustment policies and convince the increasingly parsimonious OECD governments that contributions to its concessional loan fund should be expanded. See Maggie Black, Children First: The Story of Unicef, Past and Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Mundy, "Educational Multilateralism"; Chabbott, Constructing Education Development (n. 33 above); Rauch, pp. 136-38.
120. Black; Hodgson (n. 27 above); Cynthia Price Cohen, "The Role of Nongovernmental Organization in the Drafting of the Rights of the Child," Human Rights Quarterly 12 (1990): 137-47.
121. See declarations made at various conferences, e.g., those of the United Nations: Convention on the Rights of the Child (New York: United Nations, 1991), Agenda 21: Programme of Action for Sustainable Development: Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro: United Nations, 1993), "World Conference on Human Rights: The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, June 1993," in United Nations World Conference on Human Rights (Vienna: United Nations, 1993), p. 71, "Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development," in International Conference on Population and Development (Cairo: United Nations, 1994), Report of the World Summit for Social Development (Copenhagen: United Nations, 1996), and The Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action/Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, September 4-15, 1995 (New York: United Nations, 1996). Another such example is OECD, Shaping the 21st Century (Paris: OECD, 1996).
122. See declarations made at various conferences, e.g., those of the United Nations: Convention on the Rights of the Child (New York: United Nations, 1991), Agenda 21: Programme of Action for Sustainable Development: Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro: United Nations, 1993), "World Conference on Human Rights: The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, June 1993," in United Nations World Conference on Human Rights (Vienna: United Nations, 1993), p. 71, "Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development," in International Conference on Population and Development (Cairo: United Nations, 1994), Report of the World Summit for Social Development (Copenhagen: United Nations, 1996), and The Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action/Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, September 4-15, 1995 (New York: United Nations, 1996). Another such example is OECD, Shaping the 21st Century (Paris: OECD, 1996).
123. See declarations made at various conferences, e.g., those of the United Nations: Convention on the Rights of the Child (New York: United Nations, 1991), Agenda 21: Programme of Action for Sustainable Development: Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro: United Nations, 1993), "World Conference on Human Rights: The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, June 1993," in United Nations World Conference on Human Rights (Vienna: United Nations, 1993), p. 71, "Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development," in International Conference on Population and Development (Cairo: United Nations, 1994), Report of the World Summit for Social Development (Copenhagen: United Nations, 1996), and The Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action/Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, September 4-15, 1995 (New York: United Nations, 1996). Another such example is OECD, Shaping the 21st Century (Paris: OECD, 1996).
124. See declarations made at various conferences, e.g., those of the United Nations: Convention on the Rights of the Child (New York: United Nations, 1991), Agenda 21: Programme of Action for Sustainable Development: Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro: United Nations, 1993), "World Conference on Human Rights: The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, June 1993," in United Nations World Conference on Human Rights (Vienna: United Nations, 1993), p. 71, "Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development," in International Conference on Population and Development (Cairo: United Nations, 1994), Report of the World Summit for Social Development (Copenhagen: United Nations, 1996), and The Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action/Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, September 4-15, 1995 (New York: United Nations, 1996). Another such example is OECD, Shaping the 21st Century (Paris: OECD, 1996).
125. See declarations made at various conferences, e.g., those of the United Nations: Convention on the Rights of the Child (New York: United Nations, 1991), Agenda 21: Programme of Action for Sustainable Development: Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro: United Nations, 1993), "World Conference on Human Rights: The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, June 1993," in United Nations World Conference on Human Rights (Vienna: United Nations, 1993), p. 71, "Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development," in International Conference on Population and Development (Cairo: United Nations, 1994), Report of the World Summit for Social Development (Copenhagen: United Nations, 1996), and The Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action/Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, September 4-15, 1995 (New York: United Nations, 1996). Another such example is OECD, Shaping the 21st Century (Paris: OECD, 1996).
126. See declarations made at various conferences, e.g., those of the United Nations: Convention on the Rights of the Child (New York: United Nations, 1991), Agenda 21: Programme of Action for Sustainable Development: Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro: United Nations, 1993), "World Conference on Human Rights: The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, June 1993," in United Nations World Conference on Human Rights (Vienna: United Nations, 1993), p. 71, "Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development," in International Conference on Population and Development (Cairo: United Nations, 1994), Report of the World Summit for Social Development (Copenhagen: United Nations, 1996), and The Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action/Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, September 4-15, 1995 (New York: United Nations, 1996). Another such example is OECD, Shaping the 21st Century (Paris: OECD, 1996).
127. See declarations made at various conferences, e.g., those of the United Nations: Convention on the Rights of the Child (New York: United Nations, 1991), Agenda 21: Programme of Action for Sustainable Development: Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro: United Nations, 1993), "World Conference on Human Rights: The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, June 1993," in United Nations World Conference on Human Rights (Vienna: United Nations, 1993), p. 71, "Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development," in International Conference on Population and Development (Cairo: United Nations, 1994), Report of the World Summit for Social Development (Copenhagen: United Nations, 1996), and The Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action/Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, September 4-15, 1995 (New York: United Nations, 1996). Another such example is OECD, Shaping the 21st Century (Paris: OECD, 1996).
128. The World Declaration on Education for All (article 7) encourages the active involvement of a wide range of partners - families, teachers, communities, private enterprises, government and nongovernmental organizations. Article 7 of the declaration also notes that "great potential lies in possible joint actions with nongovernmental organizations at all levels." See Inter-agency Commission, Final Report, World Conference on Education for All (Jomtien, Thailand: United Nations Development Program, Unesco, Unicef, and World Bank, 1990).
129. NORRAG News, nos. 7 and 8 (n. 38 above); Angela Little and Errol Miller, A Report to the Forum's Steering Committee: An Evaluation of the International Consultative Forum on Education for All, 1990-2000 (Dakar: World Education Forum, 2000), p. 38; Interview no. 11a, representative of International Council on Adult Education representative, July 4, 1999, Toronto. Interviews for this research were undertaken by the authors between June 1999 and July 2000. They included informants from a variety of nongovernmental organizations and international organizations. Most interviews were conducted by telephone or at the organizations with which the informants were affiliated. Some interviews were also conducted at the World Education Forum in April 2000. In these notes, interviews are cited by a coded number, the affiliation of the informant, the date of the interview, and the location of the interview. Where more than one interview was conducted with the same informant, a letter (a, b, c, etc.) is added to the number.
130. NORRAG News, nos. 7 and 8 (n. 38 above); Angela Little and Errol Miller, A Report to the Forum's Steering Committee: An Evaluation of the International Consultative Forum on Education for All, 1990-2000 (Dakar: World Education Forum, 2000), p. 38; Interview no. 11a, representative of International Council on Adult Education representative, July 4, 1999, Toronto. Interviews for this research were undertaken by the authors between June 1999 and July 2000. They included informants from a variety of nongovernmental organizations and international organizations. Most interviews were conducted by telephone or at the organizations with which the informants were affiliated. Some interviews were also conducted at the World Education Forum in April 2000. In these notes, interviews are cited by a coded number, the affiliation of the informant, the date of the interview, and the location of the interview. Where more than one interview was conducted with the same informant, a letter (a, b, c, etc.) is added to the number.
131. For related literature on the rise of NGOs as educational service providers, see Archer (n. 3 above); Stromquist (n. 3 above); Klees (n. 3 above); and Arnove (n. 3 above). An overview of the trend across service sectors can be found in Jordan and van Tuijl (n. 14 above); Alison Van Rooy, ed. (n. 14 above); and Michael Edwards and David Hulme, Beyond the Magic Bullet: Nongovernmental Performance and Accountability in the Post Cold War World (West Hartfield, Conn.: Kumarian, 1996). In a typical official statement supporting this expanded role for NGOs, a World Bank report suggests "it has become more important for residual state functions to become more efficient through the discipline of greater public accountability and for civil society (including the private sector, NGOs, and local government) to assume certain functions for which the state was previously responsible" (Bhuvan Bhatnagar and Aubrey C. Williams, cited in Rutherford, "Civil (Dis)Obedience and Social Development in the New Policy Agenda" [n. 14 above]).
132. For related literature on the rise of NGOs as educational service providers, see Archer (n. 3 above); Stromquist (n. 3 above); Klees (n. 3 above); and Arnove (n. 3 above). An overview of the trend across service sectors can be found in Jordan and van Tuijl (n. 14 above); Alison Van Rooy, ed. (n. 14 above); and Michael Edwards and David Hulme, Beyond the Magic Bullet: Nongovernmental Performance and Accountability in the Post Cold War World (West Hartfield, Conn.: Kumarian, 1996). In a typical official statement supporting this expanded role for NGOs, a World Bank report suggests "it has become more important for residual state functions to become more efficient through the discipline of greater public accountability and for civil society (including the private sector, NGOs, and local government) to assume certain functions for which the state was previously responsible" (Bhuvan Bhatnagar and Aubrey C. Williams, cited in Rutherford, "Civil (Dis)Obedience and Social Development in the New Policy Agenda" [n. 14 above]).
133. Chabbott, Constructing Educational Development (n. 39 above), p. 136.
134. Rauch (n. 35 above); Hall, (n. 38 above). A classic statement of this skepticism can be found in the paper prepared by the African Association for Literacy and Adult Education (AALAE) entitled "Education for All by a Few: A Critique of the Basic Education for All Initiative, Jomtien 1990" (AALAE, Jomtien, 1990), p. 25: "Basic education for all is not achievable by the year 2000, neither is it a feasible priority . . . it must be realized that it is not a lack of these skills that is threatening the survival and quality of African peoples' lives." See also NORRAG News, nos. 7 and 8 (n. 38 above); Birgit Brock-Utne, Whose Education for All? (New York: Falmer, 2000); and Interview no. 11a, representative of the International Council on Adult Education representative, July 4, 1999, Toronto.
135. Rauch (n. 35 above); Hall, (n. 38 above). A classic statement of this skepticism can be found in the paper prepared by the African Association for Literacy and Adult Education (AALAE) entitled "Education for All by a Few: A Critique of the Basic Education for All Initiative, Jomtien 1990" (AALAE, Jomtien, 1990), p. 25: "Basic education for all is not achievable by the year 2000, neither is it a feasible priority . . . it must be realized that it is not a lack of these skills that is threatening the survival and quality of African peoples' lives." See also NORRAG News, nos. 7 and 8 (n. 38 above); Birgit Brock-Utne, Whose Education for All? (New York: Falmer, 2000); and Interview no. 11a, representative of the International Council on Adult Education representative, July 4, 1999, Toronto.
136. Rauch (n. 35 above); Hall, (n. 38 above). A classic statement of this skepticism can be found in the paper prepared by the African Association for Literacy and Adult Education (AALAE) entitled "Education for All by a Few: A Critique of the Basic Education for All Initiative, Jomtien 1990" (AALAE, Jomtien, 1990), p. 25: "Basic education for all is not achievable by the year 2000, neither is it a feasible priority . . . it must be realized that it is not a lack of these skills that is threatening the survival and quality of African peoples' lives." See also NORRAG News, nos. 7 and 8 (n. 38 above); Birgit Brock-Utne, Whose Education for All? (New York: Falmer, 2000); and Interview no. 11a, representative of the International Council on Adult Education representative, July 4, 1999, Toronto.
137. Interview no. 12a, cochair of the Unesco-NGO Collective Consultation on Literacy and EFA representative, July 7, 1999, High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom. See also Thomas-Fontaine (n. 35 above); J. Chambon-Fountain, "Collective Consultation on Literacy for All: Appraisal and Prospects" (Unesco, Paris, 1995. mimeographed). Thomas-Fontaine provides a detailed breakdown of membership in the Unesco-NGO Collective Consultation, which has included regular participation by several large INGOS (e.g., World Education, International Council of Adult Education, and the Catholic International Education Office), one of the international teachers unions, women's INGOs, the International Union of Students, representatives from the book trade, as well as a host of smaller regional and national coalitions of literacy NGOs. Until the mid-1990s, participation in the Unesco-NGO Collective Consultation was restricted to organizations that were formally accredited with Unesco; Unesco regulations did not allow national NGOs to participate directly. 52 The two cochairs of the Unesco Collective Consultation were invited to become the only NGO representatives on the 35-person EFA steering committee in 1997. See Interviews nos. 12a and 12b, cochairs of Unesco-NGO Collective Consultation on Literacy and EFA representative, July 7 and July 13, 1999, Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom.
138. Interview no. 12a, cochair of the Unesco-NGO Collective Consultation on Literacy and EFA representative, July 7, 1999, High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom. See also Thomas-Fontaine (n. 35 above); J. Chambon-Fountain, "Collective Consultation on Literacy for All: Appraisal and Prospects" (Unesco, Paris, 1995. mimeographed). Thomas-Fontaine provides a detailed breakdown of membership in the Unesco-NGO Collective Consultation, which has included regular participation by several large INGOS (e.g., World Education, International Council of Adult Education, and the Catholic International Education Office), one of the international teachers unions, women's INGOs, the International Union of Students, representatives from the book trade, as well as a host of smaller regional and national coalitions of literacy NGOs. Until the mid-1990s, participation in the Unesco-NGO Collective Consultation was restricted to organizations that were formally accredited with Unesco; Unesco regulations did not allow national NGOs to participate directly. 52 The two cochairs of the Unesco Collective Consultation were invited to become the only NGO representatives on the 35-person EFA steering committee in 1997. See Interviews nos. 12a and 12b, cochairs of Unesco-NGO Collective Consultation on Literacy and EFA representative, July 7 and July 13, 1999, Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom.
139. Historically participation in the Unesco-NGO Collective Consultation has been quite erratic and highly dependent on Unesco funding and the location of the meetings - thus, e.g., between 1984 and 1993 only about 30 NGOs participated in each annual consultation, and only 20 could be characterized as regular participants. Since 1995, wider participation has been encouraged, but funding has not increased. Rauch, p. 102; Thomas-Fontaine, p. 2. See also Unesco-NGO Collective Consultation on Literacy and Education for All, Report of the 14th Annual Meeting, 19-21 October 1998 (Paris: Unesco, 1998).
140. Interview no. 16a, EFA Forum secretary, July 28, 1999, Paris; Thomas-Fontaine, pp. 12-14. Initiatives in preparation for the EFA end-of-decade review included an independent, NGO-generated assessment of the Education for All decade (led, as it turned out, by organizations involved in the Global Campaign) and a proposal for the development of an NGO-led "Literacy Watch" program.
141. Although WCEFA contributed to a general trend toward expanded funding of basic education among development aid donors, it never neared the $10 billion-$25 billion additional dollars estimated by Colclough as needed to achieve EFA by its original target date of 2000. See Paul Bennell and D. Furlong, "Has Jomtien Made Any Difference? Trends in Donor Funding for Education and Basic Education since the Late 1980s," World Development 26, no. 1, (1998); and Christopher Colclough and Keith Lewin, Educating All the Children (Oxford: Clarendon, 1993).
142. Although WCEFA contributed to a general trend toward expanded funding of basic education among development aid donors, it never neared the $10 billion-$25 billion additional dollars estimated by Colclough as needed to achieve EFA by its original target date of 2000. See Paul Bennell and D. Furlong, "Has Jomtien Made Any Difference? Trends in Donor Funding for Education and Basic Education since the Late 1980s," World Development 26, no. 1, (1998); and Christopher Colclough and Keith Lewin, Educating All the Children (Oxford: Clarendon, 1993).
143. Gordenker and Weiss, "NGO Participation in the International Policy Process" (n. 8 above); Ian Smillie, "Act Globally: The Rise of the Transnational NGO," in The Alms Bazaar: Altruism under Fire - Non-profit Organizations and International Development (London: Intermediate Technology, 1995), pp. 197-213.
144. Gordenker and Weiss, "NGO Participation in the International Policy Process" (n. 8 above); Ian Smillie, "Act Globally: The Rise of the Transnational NGO," in The Alms Bazaar: Altruism under Fire - Non-profit Organizations and International Development (London: Intermediate Technology, 1995), pp. 197-213.
145. Interview no. 3a, representative of Save the Children (United States), June 28, 1999, Westport, Conn.; Interview no. 3b, representative of Save the Children (United States), April 27, 2000, Dakar, Senegal. The Save the Children family of organizations is a good illustration of this trend. Members of the International Save the Children Alliance attend international educational conferences, participate in the international children's rights campaign, and recently developed an International Working Group on Basic Education. For the most part, however, this family of organizations is more focused on establishing a baseline of good educational practices than on international advocacy that links educational needs to issues of globalization or economic injustice. International Save the Children Alliance, "Save the Children Position for the World Education Forum" (International Save the Children Alliance, London, 2000). Also see CARE, "About CARE, Profile," 2000 (http://www.care.org/about/index.html, August 7, 1999).
146. Examples here would include organizations like the Canadian Council for International Cooperation (CCIC), Eurostep, Civicus, and the International Council on Voluntary Action (ICVA), as well as a number of predominantly Southern NGO coalitions, such as the Third World Network and SocialWatch. The CCIC is a coalition of Canadian development NGOs, while Eurostep is a European NGO coalition; ICVA and Civicus are both global NGO coalitions. See their web sites: CCIC (http://www.fly.wet.net/ ccic), Eurostep (http://www.oneworld.org/eurostep/), ICVA (http://www.icva.ch/), Civicus (http:// www.civicus.org), and SocialWatch (http://www.socwatch.org.uy). The term "virtual transnational" is used by Smillie in The Alms Bazaar (n. 56 above).
147. Social Watch, Social Watch, No. 3 (Montevideo: Instituto) del Tercer Mundo-Social Watch, 1999).
148. Gordenker and Weiss; Smillie.
149. Oxfam International, "Oxfam International: Why Oxfams Work Together," n.d. (http://www .oxfam.org/about/why.htm, July 29, 1999).
150. See Maggie Black, Cause for Our Time: Oxfam, the First Fifty Years (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Oxfam America, "Frequently Asked Questions," 1998 (http://www.oxfamamerica.org/ FAQ.html, May 17, 1999); Oxfam International, "Annual Report," 1997 (http://www.oxfam.org/ a_report/03advoc.htm, May 17, 1999). Oxfam also raises funds through gift sales and gets resources from bilateral development agencies. Unlike other super-INGOs, however, Oxfam's operating budget is not primarily derived from the subcontracting of foreign aid projects. Some Oxfam groups, like Oxfam America, do not receive any funding from government sources.
151. See Maggie Black, Cause for Our Time: Oxfam, the First Fifty Years (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Oxfam America, "Frequently Asked Questions," 1998 (http://www.oxfamamerica.org/ FAQ.html, May 17, 1999); Oxfam International, "Annual Report," 1997 (http://www.oxfam.org/ a_report/03advoc.htm, May 17, 1999). Oxfam also raises funds through gift sales and gets resources from bilateral development agencies. Unlike other
152. See Maggie Black, Cause for Our Time: Oxfam, the First Fifty Years (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Oxfam America, "Frequently Asked Questions," 1998 (http://www.oxfamamerica.org/ FAQ.html, May 17, 1999); Oxfam International, "Annual Report," 1997 (http://www.oxfam.org/ a_report/03advoc.htm, May 17, 1999). Oxfam also raises funds through gift sales and gets resources from bilateral development agencies. Unlike other super-INGOs, however, Oxfam's operating budget is not primarily derived from the subcontracting of foreign aid projects. Some Oxfam groups, like Oxfam America, do not receive any funding from government sources.
153. See Community Aid Abroad, "A New Era of International Advocacy-Oxfam International," 1995 (http://www.caa.org.au/horizons/h12/forsyth.html, August 4, 1999). When asked in an interview about the main aims of Oxfam International, its head Justin Forsythe noted, "the primary aim of the office is to achieve changes to the policies of the IMF, the World Bank, and the United Nations. It will do this through building relations with the key institutions we hope to influence, helping develop strategies, lobbying, providing information to the different Oxfams to inform their advocacy work, and facilitating contact for our partners from the south" (ibid.). Also see Oxfam International's preparatory materials for the Social Summit in 1995, where they argued that "any new institutional framework needs to address the fact that the globalization of the economy has shifted the burden of protecting peoples rights away from national governments and towards private actors, such as transnational organizations" (quoted in Lynch [n. 11 above], p. 170).
154. See Community Aid Abroad, "A New Era of International Advocacy-Oxfam International," 1995 (http://www.caa.org.au/horizons/h12/forsyth.html, August 4, 1999). When asked in an interview about the main aims of Oxfam International, its head Justin Forsythe noted, "the primary aim of the office is to achieve changes to the policies of the IMF, the World Bank, and the United Nations. It will do this through building relations with the key institutions we hope to influence, helping develop strategies, lobbying, providing information to the different Oxfams to inform their advocacy work, and facilitating contact for our partners from the south" (ibid.). Also see Oxfam International's preparatory materials for the Social Summit in 1995, where they argued that "any new institutional framework needs to address the fact that the globalization of the economy has shifted the burden of protecting peoples rights away from national governments and towards private actors, such as transnational organizations" (quoted in Lynch [n. 11 above], p. 170).
155. Interview no. 4a, representative of Oxfam International, March 20, 1999, Washington, D.C.; Interview 5a, representative of Oxfam Canada, April 14, 1999, Toronto; Interview 6a, representative of Oxfam America, June 29, 1999, Boston; Interview 8a, representative of Oxfam United Kingdom, June 14, 1999, Oxford; Interview 10a, representative of Oxfam United Kingdom, July 7, 1999, Oxford. As expressed by one Oxfam informant, "with the many radical statements and promises governments have made to provide education, it was seen as a good issue to plan a campaign around, and with the end of the decade, century, and millennium, there is mounting pressure to do something big and important to work towards poverty alleviation" (Interview no. 7a, representative of Oxfam United Kingdom, June 18, 1999, Oxford).
156. See Oxfam International, Oxfam International: Why Oxfams Work Together.
157. Guardian Weekly, "Inside the News: Resources: Education Now! Education Is the Most Important Factor in Development. Ian Hunt Examines Oxfam's New Report" (March, 23, 1999), p. 10.
158. Oxfam International, Education Now (Oxford: Oxfam International, 1999), p. 2.
159. Indeed, the current UN special rapporteur on human rights and education argues that the framing of education in the WCEFA declaration actually derogates on these points from earlier conventions in which education was recognized as a human right. See Katerina Tomasevski, "Economic and Social Rights: Preliminary Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education," Fifty-Fifth Session of the ECOSAC Commission on Human Rights (United Nations Economic and Social Council, E/CN.4/ 1999/4, New York, January 13, 1999).
160. Interview no. 6a, representative of Oxfam America, June 29, 1999, Boston; Interview no. 9a, representative of Oxfam United Kingdom and former member of EFA Steering Committee, June 30, 1999, Oxford. See also EFA Forum, "What's New at the Education for All Forum: Education International's Appeal to the Heads of State and Governments of the G8, June 19-20," 1999 (http://www.unesco.org/ education/efa/newsjune1999/eig8.htm, June 29, 1999).
161. The global action plan was still intended to lay out the financial mechanisms for how EFA goals could be met, but representatives from the World Bank, Unicef, and Unesco became involved in revising the plan. One Unicef official remarked, "the IGOs will continue to build on the GAP but how we see that it will work and by our rules" (Interview no. 13a, representative of Unicef, July 1, 1999, New York). Interview no. 16a, EFA Forum secretary, July 28, 1999, Paris; Interview no. 12c, representative of Unesco-NGO Collective Consultation, July 20, 1999 in Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom; Interview no. 14a, representative of World Bank, July 13, 1999, Washington, D.C. See also the "EFA Bulletin 1999," on the Unesco/ EFA web site at http://www.unesco.org/education/efa/efa_36/analysis.htm.
162. See reference to Jubilee 2000 Coalition (n. 9 above).
163. Group of 8 (G8) Summit, "G8 Communiqué Köln, 1999" (http://www.g8cologne.de, June 23, 1999, Cologne, Germany); Jubilee 2000 Coalition, "Jubilee 2000: Details and Interpretations of the Koln Debt Initiative," June 23, 1999 (http://www.jubilee2000uk.org/news/kolndebt.html, June 29, 1999); Unicef/Oxfam International, "Policy Paper, Debt Relief and Poverty Reduction: Meeting the Challenge," August 1999 (http://www.oxfam.org/advocacy/papers/debtchallenge.htm, August 23, 1999). For a description of the Jubilee 2000 campaign, see n. 9 above.
164. For the Group of 8 summit, Oxfam ran a joint advertisement with Education International (Education Now, no. 3 [London: Actionaid, 1999, available at www.elimu.org]); Interview no. 10a, representative of Oxfam United Kingdom, July 7, 1999, Oxford.
165. Interviews nos. 5a and 5b, representative of Oxfam Canada, interviewed April 4 and May 5, 1999, Toronto; Interview 6a, representative of Oxfam America, June 29, 1999 in Boston; Interview 7a, representative of Oxfam United Kingdom, June 18, 1999, Oxford; Interview 8a, representative of Oxfam United Kingdom, June 24, 1999, Oxford. Most of Oxfam's national chapters did host media and public education events and lobby government officials concerning the need to follow through on their Jomtien commitments to support education for all.
166. Education International, Congress Highlights: Speeches from the Constituent Congress of Education International, ed. Nick Patrice and Vezina Grieswood (Morges, Switzerland: Education International, 1993), p. 35; Thompson (n. 32 above).
167. Indicative of this, the WCOTP, one of Education International's predecessor organizations, is described by Thomas-Fontaine (n. 35 above) as having "never taken part (except very briefly from 1984-85) in the work of the [Unesco Collective NGO] Consultation, owing to internal crisis, on the one hand, and, on the other, the difficulty of broadening the scope of literacy problems beyond teachers concerns" (p. 5).
168. Education International, Congress Highlights, p. 35.
169. These and other quotations, where not cited, are drawn from the Education International web site at http://www.ei-ie.org/main/english/index.html. See also its two periodical publications, Education International Magazine and the Monitor.
170. Regional offices include one in Africa (Lome, Togo); two in Asia/Pacific (Kuala Lumpur, Fiji); and one each in Latin America (Costa Rica), North America (Washington, D.C.), and the Caribbean (St. Lucia). The Brussels secretariat has five departments: education, trade union and human rights, development cooperation, information, and administration. According to its web site, the three main focuses of Education International activities since its formation in 1993 are the (1) right to quality public education for all, (2) the protection of international standards of human and trade union rights, and (3) the improvement of the status of women.
171. For a full history, see Education International, "The Recommendation on the Status of Teachers," at http://www.ei-e.org/educ/english/eed1966rec.htm.
172. Education International, Congress Highlights.
173. Fred Van Leeuwen, quoted in ibid., p. 30.
174. Education International argues that the WTO-sponsored liberalization of trade in educational services will threaten public education, and it also wants to see the WTO create a working group on international labor standards. See Education International, "The WTO and the Millennium Round: What Is at Stake for Public Education?" in Questions for Debate, no. 2 (Brussels: Education International, May 1999, http://www.ei-ie.org/educ/english/eedO.D3_june99.html), and "After Seattle: Vigilance Is Necessary," December 15, 1999 (http://www.ei-ie.org/action/english/Globalisation/etrseattle.htm).
175. Education International argues that the WTO-sponsored liberalization of trade in educational services will threaten public education, and it also wants to see the WTO create a working group on international labor standards. See Education International, "The WTO and the Millennium Round: What Is at Stake for Public Education?" in Questions for Debate, no. 2 (Brussels: Education International, May 1999, http://www.ei-ie.org/educ/english/eedO.D3_june99.html), and "After Seattle: Vigilance Is Necessary," December 15, 1999 (http://www.ei-ie.org/action/english/Globalisation/etrseattle.htm).
176. See, e.g., resolutions on these issues made at the first (1995) and second (1998) Education International World Congresses. These resolutions can be found on the Educational International web site (http://www.ei-ie.org/main/english/index.html), respectively, at http://www.ei-ie.org/edu/english/ eeires95index.html and http://www.ei-ie.org/edu/english/eeires98index.html. See also the annual publication, Education International, Barometer on Trade Union and Human Rights in the Education Sector, 1998 (Brussels, Education International, July 1998). Child Labor is the focus for one of the three campaigns Education International is currently conducting. A 1995 resolution of the World Congress mandates Education International to hold regional meetings among indigenous educators and commits the organization to the promotion of indigenous peoples' rights.
177. See Education International, "Education for All," Questions for Debate, no. 3, (Brussels: Education International, June 1999, available at www.ei-ie.org/main/english/index.html), "Quality Public Education for All," Education International Quarterly Magazine (Brussels: Education International, October 1999). and Defending Teacher Union Rights (Brussels: Education International, 1994).
178. See Education International, "Education for All," Questions for Debate, no. 3, (Brussels: Education International, June 1999, available at www.ei-ie.org/main/english/index.html), "Quality Public Education for All," Education International Quarterly Magazine (Brussels: Education International, October 1999). and Defending Teacher Union Rights (Brussels: Education International, 1994).
179. See Education International, "Education for All," Questions for Debate, no. 3, (Brussels: Education International, June 1999, available at www.ei-ie.org/main/english/index.html), "Quality Public Education for All," Education International Quarterly Magazine (Brussels: Education International, October 1999). and Defending Teacher Union Rights (Brussels: Education International, 1994).
180. Education International ascribes to the general policies of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions and works especially closely with the Public Service International. It also holds category 1, NGO consultative status, with Unesco, the International Labor Organization (ILO). the IBE, the World Bank, the OECD, and the Economic and Social Committee of the United Nations.
181. Interview nos. 17a and 17b, representative of ActionAid, Reality of Aid project, and Global Campaign for Education Steering Committee, respectively, July 28, 1999. and January 31, 2000, London; see also ActionAid's well site at http)://www.actionaid.org.
182. See Archer (n. 3 above). Action Aid is also cross-networked: it was a lead agency in the Reality of Aid project and is a lead agency in Unesco's Collective Consultation.
183. The Elimu campaign documents and statements can be found at http://www.elimu.org/ issue.htm. Some of these coalitions, such as Tanzania, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Mali, Bangladesh, India, Brazil, and Senegal, have already launched an education campaign (Education Now, no. 3 [n. 72 above]; Actionaid, Elimu Update: July 2000 [London: Actionaid United Kingdom, 1999 and 2000]; Interview no. 8a, representative of Oxfam United Kingdom and current cochair of Global Campaign for Education, June 24, 1999, Oxford; Interviews nos. 17a and 17b, representative of ActionAid, Reality of Aid project, and Global Campaign for Education Steering Committee, July 28, 1999, and January 31, 2000, London).
184. The Elimu campaign documents and statements can be found at http://www.elimu.org/ issue.htm. Some of these coalitions, such as Tanzania, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Mali, Bangladesh, India, Brazil, and Senegal, have already launched an education campaign (Education Now, no. 3 [n. 72 above]; Actionaid, Elimu Update: July 2000 [London: Actionaid United Kingdom, 1999 and 2000]; Interview no. 8a, representative of Oxfam United Kingdom and current cochair of Global Campaign for Education, June 24, 1999, Oxford; Interviews nos. 17a and 17b, representative of ActionAid, Reality of Aid project, and Global Campaign for Education Steering Committee, July 28, 1999, and January 31, 2000, London).
185. The mission of the Global March is "to mobilize world-wide efforts to protect and promote the rights of all children, especially the rights to receive a free, meaningful education and to be free from economic exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be damaging to the child's physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social development" (cited from the Global March web site at www.globalmarch.org/about_the_march/index.html). Among its originators were NOVIB (Oxfam in the Netherlands) in conjunction with Anti-slavery International, the International Labor Rights Fund, ChristianAid, Casa Alianza, ECPAT (End Child Prostitution, Pornography, and Trafficking), Fundação Abrinq, Education International, Network against Child Labor, and the South Asia Coalition on Child Servitude. See documentation provided at http://www.globalmarch.org.
186. See Global March web site at http://www.globalmarch.org.
187. See Actionaid, Elimu Update: Winter 1999 (London: Actionaid United Kingdom, 1999). For a complete list of organizations who have joined the campaign, see Global Campaign for Education, "Organizations Active in the Global Campaign for Education, Listed per Country," March 29, 2000 (http:// www.campaignforeducation.org/who_is/who_is.html, May 1, 2000).
188. See Actionaid, Elimu Update: Winter 1999 (London: Actionaid United Kingdom, 1999). For a complete list of organizations who have joined the campaign, see Global Campaign for Education, "Organizations Active in the Global Campaign for Education, Listed per Country," March 29, 2000 (http:// www.campaignforeducation.org/who_is/who_is.html, May 1, 2000).
189. See the mission statement "What Is the Global Campaign?" (http://www.campaignfor education.org/what is/what_is.html, n.d.).
190. Education International, "Quality Education for All-Make It Happen Now! The Global Action Week: A Resounding Success! Press Release," March 2000 (http://www.ei-ie.org/main/english/ index.html, May 1, 2000).
191. Letter from James D. Wolfensohn, president of World Bank, October 20, 1999 (http:// www.ei_ie.org/main/english/index.html, December 15, 1999).
192. Charlotte Denny, "Oxfam Quits Campaign in Protest," The Guardian (February 10, 2000). See also Global Campaign for Education, Speech and Media Brief, April 19, 2000 (Brussels: Global Campaign for Education, 2000); for e-mail distribution list, see: mailing_list_global_edu_campaign@ei-ie.org.
193. Charlotte Denny, "Oxfam Quits Campaign in Protest," The Guardian (February 10, 2000). See also Global Campaign for Education, Speech and Media Brief, April 19, 2000 (Brussels: Global Campaign for Education, 2000); for e-mail distribution list, see: mailing_list_global_edu_campaign@ei-ie.org.
194. See Global Campaign for Education, The Global Action Plan for Education (Brussels: Global Campaign for Education/Education International, 2000), p. 5, The World Education Forum in Dakar, Success or Failure? Our Bottom Line Position (Brussels: Global Campaign for Education/Education International, 2000), p. 6, and "Global Campaign on Education, Mission Statement and Common Purpose," October 1999 (http://www-ei-ie.org/camp/english/efa/GlobalCamp/eed_missionstat.htm., April 1, 2000).
195. See Global Campaign for Education, The Global Action Plan for Education (Brussels: Global Campaign for Education/Education International, 2000), p. 5, The World Education Forum in Dakar, Success or Failure? Our Bottom Line Position (Brussels: Global Campaign for Education/Education International, 2000), p. 6, and "Global Campaign on Education, Mission Statement and Common Purpose," October 1999 (http://www-ei-ie.org/camp/english/efa/GlobalCamp/eed_missionstat.htm., April 1, 2000).
196. See Global Campaign for Education, The Global Action Plan for Education (Brussels: Global Campaign for Education/Education International, 2000), p. 5, The World Education Forum in Dakar, Success or Failure? Our Bottom Line Position (Brussels: Global Campaign for Education/Education International, 2000), p. 6, and "Global Campaign on Education, Mission Statement and Common Purpose," October 1999 (http://www-ei-ie.org/camp/english/efa/GlobalCamp/eed_missionstat.htm., April 1, 2000).
197. Education International/Global Campaign for Education, "Symposium on the Educational Situation in G8 Countries: Tokyo," April 4, 2000 (http://www.ei-ie.org/ressourc/speeches/gce tokoyo_40400.htm, April 20, 2000); Education International/Global Campaign for Education, "Transcript of the Washington Press Conference: Global Campaign to Get Every Child in the World into School," April 3, 2000 (http://www.ei-ie.org/ressourc/speeches/er_spe_gcewash_030400.htm., April 20, 2000).
198. Education International/Global Campaign for Education, "Symposium on the Educational Situation in G8 Countries: Tokyo," April 4, 2000 (http://www.ei-ie.org/ressourc/speeches/gce tokoyo_40400.htm, April 20, 2000); Education International/Global Campaign for Education, "Transcript of the Washington Press Conference: Global Campaign to Get Every Child in the World into School," April 3, 2000 (http://www.ei-ie.org/ressourc/speeches/er_spe_gcewash_030400.htm., April 20, 2000).
199. For example, Oxfam Great Britain, ActionAid, and a host of other British NGOs, including Save the Children Fund/UK, made a (failed) bid to get Tony Blair to come to Dakar and take a stand on EFA similar to that taken by the United Kingdom in the Highly Indebted Poor Country (HIPC) initiative. See Guardian Weekly, "Blair Declines to Lead Fight for Education" (April 3, 2000), p. 2; and Guardian Weekly, "Blair's March on Downing Street" (April 21, 2000), p. 10. See also Global Campaign for Education, "European Union Position," April 18, 2000 (Global Campaign for Education, 2000); e-mail distribution list at: mailing_list_global_edu_campaign@ei-ie.org.
200. For example, Oxfam Great Britain, ActionAid, and a host of other British NGOs, including Save the Children Fund/UK, made a (failed) bid to get Tony Blair to come to Dakar and take a stand on EFA similar to that taken by the United Kingdom in the Highly Indebted Poor Country (HIPC) initiative. See Guardian Weekly, "Blair Declines to Lead Fight for Education" (April 3, 2000), p. 2; and Guardian Weekly, "Blair's March on Downing Street" (April 21, 2000), p. 10. See also Global Campaign for Education, "European Union Position," April 18, 2000 (Global Campaign for Education, 2000); e-mail distribution list at: mailing_list_global_edu_campaign@ei-ie.org.
201. For example, Oxfam Great Britain, ActionAid, and a host of other British NGOs, including Save the Children Fund/UK, made a (failed) bid to get Tony Blair to come to Dakar and take a stand on EFA similar to that taken by the United Kingdom in the Highly Indebted Poor Country (HIPC) initiative. See Guardian Weekly, "Blair Declines to Lead Fight for Education" (April 3, 2000), p. 2; and Guardian Weekly, "Blair's March on Downing Street" (April 21, 2000), p. 10. See also Global Campaign for Education, "European Union Position," April 18, 2000 (Global Campaign for Education, 2000); e-mail distribution list at: mailing_list_global_edu_campaign@ei-ie.org.
202. See, e.g., "More on DFID" on the Global Campaign for Education e-mail distribution list available at: mailing_list_global_edu_campaign@ei-ie.org, April 19, 2000.
203. Clark, Friedman, and Hochstelter, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society" (n. 8 above); Van Rooy "Frontiers of Influence" (n. 8 above); and Gordenker and Weiss, "NGO Participation in the International Policy Process" (n. 8 above). See also Gordenker and Weiss, "Pluralizing Global Governance: Analytical Approaches and Dimensions," Third World Quarterly 16, no. 3 (1995): 357-89; and Anne Marie Clark, Elisabeth Friedman, and Kathryn Hochstetler, "Sovereignty, Global Civil Society, and the Social Conferences: NGOs and States at the UN Conferences on Population, Social Development, and Human Settlements" (paper presented at the International Studies Association, Washington, D.C., February 16- 20, 1999), p. 19.
204. Clark, Friedman, and Hochstelter, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society" (n. 8 above); Van Rooy "Frontiers of Influence" (n. 8 above); and Gordenker and Weiss, "NGO Participation in the International Policy Process" (n. 8 above). See also Gordenker and Weiss, "Pluralizing Global Governance: Analytical Approaches and Dimensions," Third World Quarterly 16, no. 3 (1995): 357-89; and Anne Marie Clark, Elisabeth Friedman, and Kathryn Hochstetler, "Sovereignty, Global Civil Society, and the Social Conferences: NGOs and States at the UN Conferences on Population, Social Development, and Human Settlements" (paper presented at the International Studies Association, Washington, D.C., February 16- 20, 1999), p. 19.
205. Clark, Friedman, and Hochstelter, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society" (n. 8 above); Van Rooy "Frontiers of Influence" (n. 8 above); and Gordenker and Weiss, "NGO Participation in the International Policy Process" (n. 8 above). See also Gordenker and Weiss, "Pluralizing Global Governance: Analytical Approaches and Dimensions," Third World Quarterly 16, no. 3 (1995): 357-89; and Anne Marie Clark, Elisabeth Friedman, and Kathryn Hochstetler, "Sovereignty, Global Civil Society, and the Social Conferences: NGOs and States at the UN Conferences on Population, Social Development, and Human Settlements" (paper presented at the International Studies Association, Washington, D.C., February 16- 20, 1999), p. 19.
206. Clark, Friedman, and Hochstelter, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society" (n. 8 above); Van Rooy "Frontiers of Influence" (n. 8 above); and Gordenker and Weiss, "NGO Participation in the International Policy Process" (n. 8 above). See also Gordenker and Weiss, "Pluralizing Global Governance: Analytical Approaches and Dimensions," Third World Quarterly 16, no. 3 (1995): 357-89; and Anne Marie Clark, Elisabeth Friedman, and Kathryn Hochstetler, "Sovereignty, Global Civil Society, and the Social Conferences: NGOs and States at the UN Conferences on Population, Social Development, and Human Settlements" (paper presented at the International Studies Association, Washington, D.C., February 16- 20, 1999), p. 19.
207. Clark, Friedman, and Hochstelter, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society" (n. 8 above); Van Rooy "Frontiers of Influence" (n. 8 above); and Gordenker and Weiss, "NGO Participation in the International Policy Process" (n. 8 above). See also Gordenker and Weiss, "Pluralizing Global Governance: Analytical Approaches and Dimensions," Third World Quarterly 16, no. 3 (1995): 357-89; and Anne Marie Clark, Elisabeth Friedman, and Kathryn Hochstetler, "Sovereignty, Global Civil Society, and the Social Conferences: NGOs and States at the UN Conferences on Population, Social Development, and Human Settlements" (paper presented at the International Studies Association, Washington, D.C., February 16-20, 1999), p. 19.
208. Private communication, EFA Steering Committee Member, February 5, 2000, and April 30, 2000. Ultimately, an estimated 1,500 persons attended the closed forum. See World Education Forum (WEF), Provisional List of Participants (Dakar: World Education Forum, 2000).
209. Clark, Friedman, and Hochstelter, "Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society." See n. 45 for a list of conference declarations.
210. Clark, Friedman, and Hochstelter ("Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society," p. 8) note that "All UN world conferences share similar goals and format. A central focus of official business at each conference and its preparatory meetings is the creation of a final conference document to be endorsed by state participants. At regional preparatory meetings, governments develop regional positions on specific conference issues. The additional meetings of the Preparatory Commission . . . focus on drafting the conference document. The wording of the final document is invariably the focus of intense politicking among state and between NGOs and states."
211. Ibid.
212. World Education Forum (WEF), "List of NGO Participants" (Paris: International Consultative Forum of NGOs, March 2000), Provisional List of Participants, and "Newsletter of the World Education Forum in Dakar, No. 2" (Dakar: International Consultation Forum on Education, 2000). On the opening day of the conference, Southern NGOs waited most of the day for their registration forms to be processed because the communication that NGOs were invited to register and participate had not reach the registration desk until midday. Meanwhile, several Northern NGOs who were officially invited entered along with the rest of the official delegates. In contrast, the Jomtien conference only had two large development NGOs present, World Vision and the International Save the Children Alliance. See Inter-agency Commission (n. 46 above). At Dakar, these INGOs also attended, but there was a new participation by more radical INGOs, such as Oxfam and ActionAid.
213. World Education Forum (WEF), "List of NGO Participants" (Paris: International Consultative Forum of NGOs, March 2000), Provisional List of Participants, and "Newsletter of the World Education Forum in Dakar, No. 2" (Dakar: International Consultation Forum on Education, 2000). On the opening day of the conference, Southern NGOs waited most of the day for their registration forms to be processed because the communication that NGOs were invited to register and participate had not reach the registration desk until midday. Meanwhile, several Northern NGOs who were officially invited entered along with the rest of the official delegates. In contrast, the Jomtien conference only had two large development NGOs present, World Vision and the International Save the Children Alliance. See Inter-agency Commission (n. 46 above). At Dakar, these INGOs also attended, but there was a new participation by more radical INGOs, such as Oxfam and ActionAid.
214. Interview no. 23a, representative of ActionAid, May 4, 2000, London. Each of these events was also attended and observed by one of the authors. The efforts made by the International Consultation of NGOs and the Unesco Collective Consultation of NGOs to coordinate a nongovernmental platform before and during the NGO preconference were overshadowed throughout the week by the efforts of Oxfam, ActionAid, and Education International. The week's events were also listed on the Global Campaign for Education web site at http://www.campaignforeducation.org, June 5, 2000.
215. See Global Campaign for Education, World Education Forum in Dakar, Success or Failure? (n. 96 above), p. 6. See also Global Campaign for Education, The Global Action Plan for Education (n. 96 above). In our observations we noted that even noncampaigners used the nine points and the Global Action Plan idea in lobbying efforts. Moreover, the NGO declaration prepared for the WEF bore a strong resemblance to the platform of the Global Campaign. See International Consultation of NGOs, NGO Declaration on Education for All (Dakar: International Consultation on Education for All, 2000), p. 4.
216. See Global Campaign for Education, World Education Forum in Dakar, Success or Failure? (n. 96 above), p. 6. See also Global Campaign for Education, The Global Action Plan for Education (n. 96 above). In our observations we noted that even noncampaigners used the nine points and the Global Action Plan idea in lobbying efforts. Moreover, the NGO declaration prepared for the WEF bore a strong resemblance to the platform of the Global Campaign. See International Consultation of NGOs, NGO Declaration on Education for All (Dakar: International Consultation on Education for All, 2000), p. 4.
217. See Global Campaign for Education, World Education Forum in Dakar, Success or Failure? (n. 96 above), p. 6. See also Global Campaign for Education, The Global Action Plan for Education (n. 96 above). In our observations we noted that even noncampaigners used the nine points and the Global Action Plan idea in lobbying efforts. Moreover, the NGO declaration prepared for the WEF bore a strong resemblance to the platform of the Global Campaign. See International Consultation of NGOs, NGO Declaration on Education for All (Dakar: International Consultation on Education for All, 2000), p. 4.
218. The drafting committee had four NGO representatives, which included a representative from the Global March against Child Labor, the Brazilian National Campaign for the Right to Education, Oxfam United Kingdom, and the Council of Non-governmental Organizations in Support of Government (CONGAD), Senegal. All four representatives are members of the Global Campaign, and two serve on its steering committee. The futures group had six NGO representatives, from ActionAid, Acuo Educativa (the parent organization of the Brazilian National Campaign for the Right to Education), Education International, the Arab Resource Collective, the Civil Society Action Committee on EFA, and the Asian-South Pacific Bureau of Adult Education. Of these 10 representatives, eight are members of the Global Campaign for Education. No representative from the Unesco NGO Collective Consultation was elected to either body.
219. It is important to note, however, that some NGOs found the campaigners distinctly "uncivilized." For example, one representative of a larger, Northern-based development organization with a long history of work in education told us: "Here [at Dakar] we're seeing the ugly side of NGOs. They are screaming and pushing their way into things. . . . For us, advocacy comes from our demonstrated experience" (Interview no. 3b, Save the Children [United States] representative, April 27, 2000, Dakar, Senegal).
220. Originally 55 NGOs were invited to send a single delegate each to the World Forum. This was in keeping with the EFA Steering Committee's objective of limiting and keeping tight control over attendance at the conference. About 150 nongovernmental participants ultimately attended the WEF. Our interviews with Southern NGOs and teachers' unions revealed that many others had hoped to attend the WEF but had not done so after being denied an official invitation to the conference (Interview no. 25a, representative of Brazilian Education Network, April 24, 2000, Dakar, Senegal). Like them, we were denied official permission to attend or observe the conference by the Unesco EFA secretariat.
221. Interview no. 23a, representative of ActionAid, May 4, 2000, London; Interview no. 17c, representative of ActionAid, May 5, 2000, London; Interview no. 24a, representative of Oxfam International, May 5, 2000; Interview no. 22a, representative of Citizen's Initiative on Education India, April 30, 2000, Dakar, Senegal.
222. See World Education Forum, WEF, News and Views-Speeches-Carol Bellamy: Plenary Address by Unicef, April 27, 2000 (http://www2.Unesco.org/wef/en-news/coverage_speech_belamy.shtm, May 2; 2000); World Education Forum, "WEF, News and Views, Online Coverage, Speeches: A Time for Action: Placing Education at the Core of Development," by James D. Wolfensohn, president, the World Bank, April 27, 2000 (http://www2.unesco.org/wef/en_news/coverage_speech_wolfen.shtm., May 1, 2000), "UN Secretary General, Address to the World Education Forum: Building a Partnership for Girls' Education," (Dakar: World Education Forum, 2000), and "Address by Mark Malloch Brown, Administrator of the UNDP to the World Education Forum" (Dakar: World Education Forum, 2000). These speeches and other press releases are available at the World Education Forum web site (http://www2.unesco.org/wef/ en-news/latest.shtm), June 5, 2000.
223. See World Education Forum, WEF, News and Views-Speeches-Carol Bellamy: Plenary Address by Unicef, April 27, 2000 (http://www2.Unesco.org/wef/en-news/coverage_speech_belamy.shtm, May 2; 2000); World Education Forum, "WEF, News and Views, Online Coverage, Speeches: A Time for Action: Placing Education at the Core of Development," by James D. Wolfensohn, president, the World Bank, April 27, 2000 (http://www2.unesco.org/wef/en_news/coverage_speech_wolfen.shtm., May 1, 2000), "UN Secretary General, Address to the World Education Forum: Building a Partnership for Girls' Education," (Dakar: World Education Forum, 2000), and "Address by Mark Malloch Brown, Administrator of the UNDP to the World Education Forum" (Dakar: World Education Forum, 2000). These speeches and other press releases are available at the World Education Forum web site (http://www2.unesco.org/wef/ en-news/latest.shtm), June 5, 2000.
224. See World Education Forum, WEF, News and Views-Speeches-Carol Bellamy: Plenary Address by Unicef, April 27, 2000 (http://www2.Unesco.org/wef/en-news/coverage_speech_belamy.shtm, May 2; 2000); World Education Forum, "WEF, News and Views, Online Coverage, Speeches: A Time for Action: Placing Education at the Core of Development," by James D. Wolfensohn, president, the World Bank, April 27, 2000 (http://www2.unesco.org/wef/en_news/coverage_speech_wolfen.shtm., May 1, 2000), "UN Secretary General, Address to the World Education Forum: Building a Partnership for Girls' Education," (Dakar: World Education Forum, 2000), and "Address by Mark Malloch Brown, Administrator of the UNDP to the World Education Forum" (Dakar: World Education Forum, 2000). These speeches and other press releases are available at the World Education Forum web site (http://www2.unesco.org/wef/ en-news/latest.shtm), June 5, 2000.
225. See World Education Forum, WEF, News and Views-Speeches-Carol Bellamy: Plenary Address by Unicef, April 27, 2000 (http://www2.Unesco.org/wef/en-news/coverage_speech_belamy.shtm, May 2; 2000); World Education Forum, "WEF, News and Views, Online Coverage, Speeches: A Time for Action: Placing Education at the Core of Development," by James D. Wolfensohn, president, the World Bank, April 27, 2000 (http://www2.unesco.org/wef/en_news/coverage_speech_wolfen.shtm., May 1, 2000), "UN Secretary General, Address to the World Education Forum: Building a Partnership for Girls' Education," (Dakar: World Education Forum, 2000), and "Address by Mark Malloch Brown, Administrator of the UNDP to the World Education Forum" (Dakar: World Education Forum, 2000). These speeches and other press releases are available at the World Education Forum web site (http://www2.unesco.org/wef/ en-news/latest.shtm), June 5, 2000.
226. Interview no. 17c, representative of ActionAid, May 5, 2000, London; Interview no. 24a, representative of Oxfam International, May 5, 2000, Washington, D.C. Some of these meetings were also attended by one of us.
227. Oxfam has played a leading role in lobbying the World Bank, which has more sustained contact with the campaigners than any other international organization (Interview no. 9b, representative of Oxfam United Kingdom and former member of EFA Steering Committee, April 23, 2000, Washington, D.C.; Interview no. 24a, representative of Oxfam International, May 5, 2000, Washington, D.C.).
228. Camilla Crosa-Silva and Kailash Sathyarti, "What We Achieved at Dakar," Elimu Update (London: July 2000), p. 1.
229. The Global Campaign has its own web site at http://www.campaignforeducation.org on which one can join an active list-serve in which information about campaign plans and events are shared. Oneworld.net, a popular portal for news about the Third World, international development, and new social movements, is sponsored by about 685 organizations, mainly nongovernmental. Its page on education allows readers to send letters to members of the World Education Forum Drafting Committee, join Oxfam's Education Now campaign, and to join the Global Campaign for Education e-mail list-serve. The Oneworld.net page can be found at http://www.oneworld.net/campaigns/education/index.html. 117 Unesco representatives in particular raised this question; some NGO informants interviewed felt that Unesco had kept too tight a control over NGO participation and had tried to demonize the Global Campaign as an attempt by Oxfam to control international funds (Interviews nos. 17b and 17c, representative of ActionAid, January 31, 2000, and May 5, 2000, both in London). Frustrations with the limited invitations to the preconference were aired publicly at the open house the Global Campaign held on the eve of the preconference.
230. This issue was also discussed openly at several of the NGO meetings and in private communication among the authors and the campaign members throughout the week. It is a point of contention between Oxfam and ActionAid, with ActionAid demanding more attention to the development of national networks and regional coalitions in the South. The campaign steering committee addressed these tensions in their last meeting in Dakar, where both Northern and Southern partners expressed the need for the campaign to focus on building Southern coalitions.
231. Global Campaign for Education, "Final Press Release and Speech by Tom Bediako," April 28, 2000, with distribution list (May 8, 2000). In a debriefing meeting held at the end of the week for the NGOs, the achievements throughout the week were discussed. Individuals from Northern NGOs expressed that while they did not achieve all that they had hoped to, they were organized, highly visible, and able to influence parts of the framework. As one Southern NGO representative present at the debriefing expressed, "I am not so quick to pat myself on the back before I go. . . . We are leaving without real commitments from governments and donors to finance basic education."
232. Among the NGOs we identified as not affiliating with the campaign at Dakar are: Save the Children (United States), Save the Children (the Netherlands), the Unesco Collective Consultation and several of its members such as the Summer Institute for Linguistics, the Asia-South Pacific Bureau of Adult Education, and the International Council on Adult Education, CARE, and Plan International.
233. The World Bank's fast-track proposal focuses on offering quick disbursing money for education to governments that have acceptable national education plans. See World Bank, "Draft Proposal World Bank for Consideration for Inclusion in the Framework for Action" (Dakar: World Bank, 2000);
234. World Education Forum, WEF Press Releases: A Time for Action, Placing Education at the Core of Development, April 27, 2000 (http://www2.tinesco.org/wef/en-press/relea_dak_0427_18h.shtm., May 1, 2000).
235. Interview no. 17c, representative of ActionAid, May 5, 2000, London; Interview no. 23a, representative of Actionaid, May 4, 2000, London; Interview no. 24a, representative of Oxfam International, May 5, 2000, Washington, D.C.
236. 123; Interview, no. 20a, prior secretary of Inter-agency Commission, April 27, 2000, Dakar, Senegal; Interview no. 23a, representative of ActionAid, May 4, 2000, London. One NGO representative we interviewed (personal communication, April 25, 2000) explained that the invitation process for him was quite extensive, including a written statement of the desired goals and objectives for the forum and an extensive phone call with one of the conveners.
237. Crosa-Silva and Sathyarti (n. 115 above).
238. For discussion, see Boli and Thomas" (n. 2 above), pp. 3-6.
239. Education International, "Campaigners Say 'Don't Let Dakar Repeat the Decade of Failure,'" April 28, 2000 (http://www.ei-ie.org/main/english/index.html, May 1, 2000); Global Campaign for Education, "Final Press Release and Speech by Tom Bediako" (n. 119 above). Clare Short, the U.K. minister for development cooperation was adamant on this point (see Guardian Weekly, "World Summit Clash on Education of Poor" (April 26, 2000), p. 2
240. Education International, "Campaigners Say 'Don't Let Dakar Repeat the Decade of Failure,'" April 28, 2000 (http://www.ei-ie.org/main/english/index.html, May 1, 2000); Global Campaign for Education, "Final Press Release and Speech by Tom Bediako" (n. 119 above). Clare Short, the U.K. minister for development cooperation was adamant on this point (see Guardian Weekly, "World Summit Clash on Education of Poor" (April 26, 2000), p. 2
241. Education International, "Campaigners Say 'Don't Let Dakar Repeat the Decade of Failure,'" April 28, 2000 (http://www.ei-ie.org/main/english/index.html, May 1, 2000); Global Campaign for Education, "Final Press Release and Speech by Tom Bediako" (n. 119 above). Clare Short, the U.K. minister for development cooperation was adamant on this point (see Guardian Weekly, "World Summit Clash on Education of Poor" (April 26, 2000), p. 2
242. Elie Jouen, of Education International, as quoted in Global Campaign for Education, "Final Press Release."
243. Edwards, Hulme, and Wallace, "NGOs in a Global Future" (n. 14 above), p. 2.
244. Here it seems reasonable to echo Galtung's warning of more than 2 decades ago that a focus on schooling may lead us down the path of narrow, technical solutions to the problem of global inequality, and away from larger questions about structural inequalities and responsibilities; see Galtung, "Literacy, Education, and Schooling - For What?" (n. 38 above), True Worlds (n. 23 above), p. 150,
245. and "Self-Reliance" (n. 23 above);
246. The campaign's hard edge approach revolves around its efforts to have binding sanctions placed on governments who don't make EFA plans and meet EFA targets. Reflecting on this, a member of the steering committee noted that "things get kind of funny when you hear the World Bank talking about a soft touch and Oxfam talking about taking a hard edge" (Interview no. 21a, EFA Steering Committe member, April 27, 2000, Dakar, Senegal).
247. In the world of foreign aid, "tying" refers to the practice of stipulating that donated funds are used to purchase goods or services from the donating country.