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Volumn 38, Issue 6, 2001, Pages 1337-1384

A European community regulatory framework for electronic commerce

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EID: 0035567026     PISSN: 01650750     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1013969812396     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (11)

References (192)
  • 1
    • 0346803933 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Presidency Conclusions
    • See Presidency Conclusions. Available at http://ue.eu.int/Info/eurocouncil/index.htm
  • 2
    • 0346173431 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Commission Communication "eEurope - An Information Society for All". COM (1999)687 final
    • Commission Communication "eEurope - An Information Society for All". COM (1999)687 final. Available at http://europa.eu.int/comm/information_society/eeurope /documentation/index_en.htm
  • 3
    • 0348064894 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Commission and Council Action Plan "eEurope 2002"
    • Commission and Council Action Plan "eEurope 2002". Available at http:// europa.eu.int/comm/information_society/eeurope/documentation/index_en.htm
  • 4
    • 0346803911 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Presidency Conclusions at 22
    • See Presidency Conclusions at 22. Available at http://ue.eu.int/Info/eurocouncil /index.htm
  • 5
    • 0346173432 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For that purpose measures shall be taken in order to achieve: a) cheaper and faster Internet access, b) faster Internet for researchers and students, c) secure networks and smart cards.
  • 6
    • 0348064911 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • A key-target that implies: a) introduction of European youth to the digital age; b) working in the knowledge-based economy; c) participation for all in the knowledge-based economy.
  • 7
    • 0347434627 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For this purpose, the following should also be promoted: a) government online: electronic access to public services; b) health online; c) European digital content for global networks; d) intelligent transport systems.
  • 8
    • 0346803908 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A European Initiative for Electronic Commerce
    • COM 157 final, "Any form of business transaction in which the parties interact electronically rather than by physical exchanges or direct physical contact"
    • See the Commission Communication "A European Initiative for Electronic Commerce" (COM(1997) 157 final), at 5 and Electronic Commerce - An Introduction: "Any form of business transaction in which the parties interact electronically rather than by physical exchanges or direct physical contact". Available at http://europa.eu.int/ISPO/ecommerce /answers/introduction.html.
    • (1997) Electronic Commerce - An Introduction , pp. 5
  • 9
    • 58049157193 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cavendish, London
    • The so-called business-to-business sector of electronic commerce. An example in this category would be a company that uses a network for ordering from its suppliers, receiving invoices and making payments. This category of electronic commerce has been well established for several years, particularly using Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) over private or value-added networks. See Rowland and McDonald, Information Technology Law (Cavendish, London, 1997), pp. 225-242 and Julia Barceló, Comercio electrónico entre empresarios (Tirant lo Blanch, Valencia, 2000). The use of EDI was also the object of Commission Recommendation 94/820 of 19 Oct. 1994 relating to the legal aspects of electronic data interchange, O.J. 1994, L 338/98.
    • (1997) Information Technology Law , pp. 225-242
    • Rowland1    McDonald2
  • 10
    • 0347434585 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Tirant lo Blanch, Valencia, The use of EDI was also the object of Commission Recommendation 94/820 of 19 Oct. 1994 relating to the legal aspects of electronic data interchange, O.J. 1994, L 338/98
    • The so-called business-to-business sector of electronic commerce. An example in this category would be a company that uses a network for ordering from its suppliers, receiving invoices and making payments. This category of electronic commerce has been well established for several years, particularly using Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) over private or value-added networks. See Rowland and McDonald, Information Technology Law (Cavendish, London, 1997), pp. 225-242 and Julia Barceló, Comercio electrónico entre empresarios (Tirant lo Blanch, Valencia, 2000). The use of EDI was also the object of Commission Recommendation 94/820 of 19 Oct. 1994 relating to the legal aspects of electronic data interchange, O.J. 1994, L 338/98.
    • (2000) Comercio Electrónico Entre Empresarios
    • Barceló, J.1
  • 11
    • 0348064891 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Réseaux contre marchés
    • Unlike tangible goods, intangible goods such as digitalized contents accessible over Internet, can be reproduced. You can only distribute a tangible good once, but you can distribute as many copies of intangible goods as you want. This circumstance is said to involve changes in the conception of the economic markets, see Rifkin, "Réseaux contre marchés", Le Monde Diplomatique, No. 568, 22-23.
    • Le Monde Diplomatique , vol.568 , pp. 22-23
    • Rifkin1
  • 12
    • 0033411126 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 36 CML Rev.
    • Information to be digitalized for its subsequent storing, processing and electronic delivery includes text, audio and video files. The coalescing of the broadcasting, electronic communications and information technology sector has been addressed in the European Commission "Green Paper on the Convergence of the Telecommunications, Media and Information Technology Sectors" (COM(1997)632 final). See also Grewlich, "Cyberspace: Sector-specified regulation and competition rules in European telecommunications", 36 CML Rev. (1999), 937-938.
    • (1999) Cyberspace: Sector-specified Regulation and Competition Rules in European Telecommunications , pp. 937-938
    • Grewlich1
  • 13
    • 77649252523 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • La Directive sur le commerce électronique. Le projet 'Méditerranée'
    • "L'Internet et le Marché intérieur ont pour point commun de supprimer les frontières, physiques pour le premier, juridiques pour le second": see Crabit, "La Directive sur le commerce électronique. Le projet 'Méditerranée'", (2000) Revue du Droit de l'Union européenne, 753.
    • (2000) Revue du Droit de l'Union Européenne , pp. 753
    • Crabit1
  • 14
  • 15
    • 0346803813 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Directive 2000/31 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2000 on certain legal aspects of Information Society services, in particular electronic commerce, in the Internal Market (Directive on electronic commerce, O.J. 2000, L 178/1). Documents issued through the long procedure of adoption can be accessed in the University of Alicante Intellectual Property and Information Technologies Internet Portal
    • Directive 2000/31 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2000 on certain legal aspects of Information Society services, in particular electronic commerce, in the Internal Market (Directive on electronic commerce, O.J. 2000, L 178/1). Documents issued through the long procedure of adoption can be accessed in the University of Alicante Intellectual Property and Information Technologies Internet Portal: http://www.uaipit.com
  • 16
    • 0346173429 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 22
    • Art. 22.
  • 17
    • 0347434522 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • O.J. 2001, L 167/10
    • O.J. 2001, L 167/10.
  • 18
    • 0346173373 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • O.J. 2000, L 13/12
    • O.J. 2000, L 13/12.
  • 19
    • 0346173339 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • La Directiva sobre el Comercio Electrónico. Mercado interior y servicios de la Sociedad de la Informacion
    • Mateu de Ros and Cendoya Mendez de Vigo (Eds.), Aranzadi, Pamplona
    • Desantes Real: "La Directiva sobre el Comercio Electrónico. Mercado interior y servicios de la Sociedad de la Informacion" in Mateu de Ros and Cendoya Mendez de Vigo (Eds.), Derecho de Internet. Contratación Electrónica y Firma Digital (Aranzadi, Pamplona, 2000), p. 323-338.
    • (2000) Derecho de Internet. Contratación Electrónica Y Firma Digital , pp. 323-338
    • Real, D.1
  • 20
    • 0347434517 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Commission Proposal for a Directive on certain legal aspects of electronic commerce in the internal market (COM(1998)586 final), p. 15
    • See Commission Proposal for a Directive on certain legal aspects of electronic commerce in the internal market (COM(1998)586 final), p. 15.
  • 21
    • 0346803856 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 1
    • Art. 1.
  • 22
    • 0347434591 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Recital 10
    • Recital 10.
  • 23
    • 0348064835 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 1(5)
    • Art. 1(5).
  • 24
    • 0346173425 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Governed by Directive 95/46 of 24 Oct. 1995 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data (O.J. 1995, L 281/31) and Directive 97/66 of 15 Dec. 1997 concerning the processing of personal data and the protection of privacy in the telecommunications sector (O.J. 1998, L 24/1)
    • Governed by Directive 95/46 of 24 Oct. 1995 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data (O.J. 1995, L 281/31) and Directive 97/66 of 15 Dec. 1997 concerning the processing of personal data and the protection of privacy in the telecommunications sector (O.J. 1998, L 24/1).
  • 25
    • 0346803900 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Proposal for a Council Directive amending Directive 77/388/EEC as regards the value added tax arrangements applicable to certain services supplied by electronic means and Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Regulation 218/92 on administrative co-operation in the field of indirect taxation (VAT) (Doc COM(2000)349 final, O.J. 2000, C 337 E/65.)
    • Proposal for a Council Directive amending Directive 77/388/EEC as regards the value added tax arrangements applicable to certain services supplied by electronic means and Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Regulation 218/92 on administrative co-operation in the field of indirect taxation (VAT) (Doc COM(2000)349 final, O.J. 2000, C 337 E/65.)
  • 26
    • 0346173416 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Commission Proposal for a Directive on a common regulatory framework for electronic communication networks and services (COM(2000)393 final, O.J. 2000, C 365 E/1). Recently, a public consultation has been opened by the Commission pursuant to a Draft Commission Directive on competition in the markets for electronic communication services, O.J. 2001, C 96/2
    • Commission Proposal for a Directive on a common regulatory framework for electronic communication networks and services (COM(2000)393 final, O.J. 2000, C 365 E/1). Recently, a public consultation has been opened by the Commission pursuant to a Draft Commission Directive on competition in the markets for electronic communication services, O.J. 2001, C 96/2.
  • 27
    • 0347434594 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Recital 12. Those areas are: a) activities of notaries or other professions involving a direct and specific connection with the exercise of public authority, b) representation and defence of a client before a court, and c) gambling activities.
  • 28
    • 0346173413 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In the Television Broadcasting sector, Council Directive 89/552/EEC of 3 Oct. 1989 on the co-ordination of certain provisions laid down by Law, Regulation or Administrative Action in Member States concerning the pursuit of television broadcasting activities (O.J. 1989, L 298/23), modified by Directive 97/36 of 30 June 1997 (O.J. 1998, L 6/43); in the field of digital signature service providers, Directive 99/93, cited supra note 16; in the field of services of conditional access, Directive 98/84, cited supra note 28; or in the field of protection of personal data, Directive 95/46, cited supra note 22
    • In the Television Broadcasting sector, Council Directive 89/552/EEC of 3 Oct. 1989 on the co-ordination of certain provisions laid down by Law, Regulation or Administrative Action in Member States concerning the pursuit of television broadcasting activities (O.J. 1989, L 298/23), modified by Directive 97/36 of 30 June 1997 (O.J. 1998, L 6/43); in the field of digital signature service providers, Directive 99/93, cited supra note 16; in the field of services of conditional access, Directive 98/84, cited supra note 28; or in the field of protection of personal data, Directive 95/46, cited supra note 22.
  • 29
    • 0348064883 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Directive 98/34 laying down a procedure for the provision of information in the field of technical standards and regulations and of rules on Information Society services (O.J. 1998, L 204/37), amended by Directive 98/48/EC (O.J. 1998, L 217/18)
    • Directive 98/34 laying down a procedure for the provision of information in the field of technical standards and regulations and of rules on Information Society services (O.J. 1998, L 204/37), amended by Directive 98/48/EC (O.J. 1998, L 217/18).
  • 30
    • 0348064885 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Directive 98/84 on the legal protection of services based on, or consisting of, conditional access, O.J. 1998, L 320/54
    • Directive 98/84 on the legal protection of services based on, or consisting of, conditional access, O.J. 1998, L 320/54.
  • 31
    • 0346173419 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Recital 17
    • Recital 17.
  • 32
    • 0347434583 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • E.g. think of the convergence between the Internet and mobile phone thanks to the WAP (wireless application protocol) technology.
  • 33
    • 0348064887 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Art. 2(b) and (c)
    • See Art. 2(b) and (c).
  • 34
    • 0346803910 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For instance, a person who has a website where he exhibits his drawings and poems is a "service provider" in the sense of letter b), the owner of the server where the website of that person is hosted is an "established service provider".
  • 35
    • 0346803906 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Recital 18
    • See Recital 18.
  • 36
    • 0347434593 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Case C-221/89 [1991] ECR1-3905, at 20
    • Case C-221/89 [1991] ECR1-3905, at 20.
  • 37
    • 0346803904 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • As such, services provided by European companies through an access provider located in Israel are subject to the provisions of the Directive. An American company providing its services in Europe through a provider located in Spain, might be subject to different requirements from those of the Directive.
  • 38
    • 0346173430 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Case C-56/96, [1997] ECR I-3134
    • Case C-56/96, [1997] ECR I-3134.
  • 39
    • 0348064884 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See e.g. Art. 2 of the Brussels Convention of 1968 on jurisdiction and the enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial matters (O.J. 1998, L 27/1.) or Art. 4(2) of the Rome Convention on the law applicable to contractual obligations (O.J. 1998, C 27/34)
    • See e.g. Art. 2 of the Brussels Convention of 1968 on jurisdiction and the enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial matters (O.J. 1998, L 27/1.) or Art. 4(2) of the Rome Convention on the law applicable to contractual obligations (O.J. 1998, C 27/34).
  • 40
    • 0348064895 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Crabit, op. cit. supra note 12, 766
    • See Crabit, op. cit. supra note 12, 766.
  • 42
    • 0346803902 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See infra, remainder of this subsection
    • See infra, remainder of this subsection.
  • 43
    • 0346803901 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Case 205/84, Commission v. Germany, [1986] ECR 3793; Case C-76/90, Dennemeyer, [1990] ECR I-4239; Case C-154/89, Commission v. France, [1991] ECR 682; Case C-180/89, Commission v. Italy, [1991], I-718; Case C-198/89, Commission v. Greece, [1991] 735; Case C-384/93, Alpine Investments, [1995] ECR I-1167; Case C-3/95, Reiseburo Broede, [1996] ECR I-6511; Case C-272/94, Guiot, [1994] ECR I-1915
    • Case 205/84, Commission v. Germany, [1986] ECR 3793; Case C-76/90, Dennemeyer, [1990] ECR I-4239; Case C-154/89, Commission v. France, [1991] ECR 682; Case C-180/89, Commission v. Italy, [1991], I-718; Case C-198/89, Commission v. Greece, [1991] 735; Case C-384/93, Alpine Investments, [1995] ECR I-1167; Case C-3/95, Reiseburo Broede, [1996] ECR I-6511; Case C-272/94, Guiot, [1994] ECR I-1915.
  • 44
    • 0346173427 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Crabit, op. cit. supra note 12, 767-768
    • See Crabit, op. cit. supra note 12, 767-768.
  • 45
  • 46
    • 0348064889 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Joined Cases C-267/91 and 268/91, Keck and Mithouard, [1993] ECR I-6097, para 16
    • Joined Cases C-267/91 and 268/91, Keck and Mithouard, [1993] ECR I-6097, para 16.
  • 47
    • 0347434590 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Para 38. See also Cases C-34-36/95, Konsumentombudsmannen v. De Agostini and others, [1997] ECR I-3843, paras. 41-44
    • Para 38. See also Cases C-34-36/95, Konsumentombudsmannen v. De Agostini and others, [1997] ECR I-3843, paras. 41-44.
  • 49
    • 0346803905 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • According to Crabit, the Directive provides "une approche transversale en trois dimensions". Those dimensions are: the horizontal nature of the Directive, the omni-comprehensive co-ordinated field, and the regulation of all the different steps of the economic activity of the Information Society service. See Crabit, op. cit. supra note 12, 764 and following
    • According to Crabit, the Directive provides "une approche transversale en trois dimensions". Those dimensions are: the horizontal nature of the Directive, the omni-comprehensive co-ordinated field, and the regulation of all the different steps of the economic activity of the Information Society service. See Crabit, op. cit. supra note 12, 764 and following.
  • 51
    • 0346173420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In the case of copyright and related rights, adaptation of the existing framework to the Information society has been attained in Directive 2001/29, cited supra note 15. It provides a harmonized solution for the adaptation and supplementation of Member States legislations so as to respond adequately to the new forms of exploitation of works of art (see Recital 5)
    • In the case of copyright and related rights, adaptation of the existing framework to the Information society has been attained in Directive 2001/29, cited supra note 15. It provides a harmonized solution for the adaptation and supplementation of Member States legislations so as to respond adequately to the new forms of exploitation of works of art (see Recital 5).
  • 52
    • 0346803907 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Directive 2000/46 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 Sept. 2000 on the taking up, pursuit and prudential supervision of the business of electronic money institutions. (O.J. 2000, L 275/39) in respect of Member States which have applied the exemptions established in Art. 8(1) of this Directive
    • Directive 2000/46 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 Sept. 2000 on the taking up, pursuit and prudential supervision of the business of electronic money institutions. (O.J. 2000, L 275/39) in respect of Member States which have applied the exemptions established in Art. 8(1) of this Directive.
  • 53
    • 0346173418 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 30 and Title IV of Directive 92/49/EEC (O.J. 1992, L 228/1. Last amended by Directive 95/26/EC), Title IV of Directive 92/96/EEC (O.J. 1992, L 360/1. Last amended by Directive 95/26/EC), Arts. 7 and 8 of Directive 88/357/EEC (O.J. 1988, L 172/1. Last amended by Directive 92/49/EC), and Art. 4 of Directive 90/619/EEC (O.J. 1990, L 330/50. Last amended by Directive 92/96/EC)
    • Art. 30 and Title IV of Directive 92/49/EEC (O.J. 1992, L 228/1. Last amended by Directive 95/26/EC), Title IV of Directive 92/96/EEC (O.J. 1992, L 360/1. Last amended by Directive 95/26/EC), Arts. 7 and 8 of Directive 88/357/EEC (O.J. 1988, L 172/1. Last amended by Directive 92/49/EC), and Art. 4 of Directive 90/619/EEC (O.J. 1990, L 330/50. Last amended by Directive 92/96/EC).
  • 54
    • 0347434589 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • They are listed in Recital 11
    • They are listed in Recital 11.
  • 55
    • 0346803909 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Art. 6 Directive 93/13, Art. 12 Directive 97/7 and Art. 8 of Directive 99/44
    • See Art. 6 Directive 93/13, Art. 12 Directive 97/7 and Art. 8 of Directive 99/44.
  • 56
    • 0346173422 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • E.g.: freedom of the parties to choose the applicable law to their contract - in our opinion, unnecessary insofar as the Directive does not aim to modify existing rules of Private International Law (Art. 1 (4)); formal validity of contracts in real estate; the permissibility of unsolicited commercial communications by e-mail - this should have been mentioned in the precise provision dealing with these communications
    • E.g.: freedom of the parties to choose the applicable law to their contract - in our opinion, unnecessary insofar as the Directive does not aim to modify existing rules of Private International Law (Art. 1 (4)); formal validity of contracts in real estate; the permissibility of unsolicited commercial communications by e-mail - this should have been mentioned in the precise provision dealing with these communications.
  • 57
    • 0348064888 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Case 33/74, Van Binsbergen, [1974] ECR 1299 and Joined Cases 110 & 111/78, Ministère Public and ASBL v. Van Wesemael, [1979] ECR 35
    • Case 33/74, Van Binsbergen, [1974] ECR 1299 and Joined Cases 110 & 111/78, Ministère Public and ASBL v. Van Wesemael, [1979] ECR 35.
  • 58
    • 0346173428 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Recital 25
    • Recital 25.
  • 59
    • 0348064892 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Case 41/74, van Duyn, [1974] ECR 1337, para 18
    • Case 41/74, van Duyn, [1974] ECR 1337, para 18.
  • 60
    • 0347434588 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cases 115, 116/81, Adoui and Cornuaille, [1982] ECR 1665, at 8
    • Cases 115, 116/81, Adoui and Cornuaille, [1982] ECR 1665, at 8.
  • 61
    • 0346803903 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Case 36/75, Rutili, [1975] ECR 1219, para 28, Case 30/77, Bouchereau, [1977] ECR 2013, para 35
    • Case 36/75, Rutili, [1975] ECR 1219, para 28, Case 30/77, Bouchereau, [1977] ECR 2013, para 35.
  • 62
    • 0347434587 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Case 352/85, Bond van Adverteerders, [1985] ECR 2124, para 36, Case C-260/89, ERT, [1989] ECR 2951, para 24
    • Case 352/85, Bond van Adverteerders, [1985] ECR 2124, para 36, Case C-260/89, ERT, [1989] ECR 2951, para 24.
  • 63
    • 0348064886 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Case 260/89, ERT, [1991] ECR 2951; Case C-159/90, The Society for the Protection of Unborn Children Ireland Ltd v. Stephen Grogan, [1990] ECR 4733, para 31, and Case C-177/94, Perfili, [1994] ECR I-161, para 20
    • Case 260/89, ERT, [1991] ECR 2951; Case C-159/90, The Society for the Protection of Unborn Children Ireland Ltd v. Stephen Grogan, [1990] ECR 4733, para 31, and Case C-177/94, Perfili, [1994] ECR I-161, para 20.
  • 64
    • 0346173424 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Case 815/79, Cremonini v. Vrankovic, [1979] ECR 3607, para 6
    • Case 815/79, Cremonini v. Vrankovic, [1979] ECR 3607, para 6.
  • 65
  • 66
    • 25744469929 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • El derecho de establecimiento
    • Lopez Escudero and Martín y Perez (Eds.), MacGrawHill, Madrid
    • Case C-55/94, Gebhard, [1995] ECR I-4165, para 38. Meaning that the State of destination must verify that the general interest the measure tries to safeguard is not already safeguarded by a measure taken in the country of origin. See Martín y Pérez de Nanclares, "El derecho de establecimiento", in Lopez Escudero and Martín y Perez (Eds.), Derecho Comunitario material (MacGrawHill, Madrid, 2000), p. 117.
    • (2000) Derecho Comunitario Material , pp. 117
    • Y Pérez De Nanclares, M.1
  • 67
    • 0346173372 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ordonnances de référé du Tribunal de Grande Instance de Paris de 22 mai 2000, 11 Aug. 2000 and 20 Nov. 2000, UEJF et Licra c/ Yahoo! Inc.
    • See Ordonnances de référé du Tribunal de Grande Instance de Paris de 22 mai 2000, 11 Aug. 2000 and 20 Nov. 2000, UEJF et Licra c/ Yahoo! Inc. Available at http: //www.juriscom.net/txt/jurisfr/cti/tgiparis20001120.htm
  • 68
    • 84908368717 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Madrid, Civitas
    • See e.g. Fernandez Rozas and Sanchez Lorenzo, Derecho internacional privado (Madrid, Civitas, 1999), pp. 43-46; Audit, Droit international privé, 3rd ed. (Economica, Paris, 2000), pp. 4-15. Also, in the Common Law literature, North and Fawcett, Chesire and North's Private international law, 13th. ed. (Butterworth, London, 1999), pp. 7-8.
    • (1999) Derecho Internacional Privado , pp. 43-46
    • Rozas, F.1    Lorenzo, S.2
  • 69
    • 0348064879 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Economica, Paris
    • See e.g. Fernandez Rozas and Sanchez Lorenzo, Derecho internacional privado (Madrid, Civitas, 1999), pp. 43-46; Audit, Droit international privé, 3rd ed. (Economica, Paris, 2000), pp. 4-15. Also, in the Common Law literature, North and Fawcett, Chesire and North's Private international law, 13th. ed. (Butterworth, London, 1999), pp. 7-8.
    • (2000) Droit International Privé, 3rd Ed. , pp. 4-15
    • Audit1
  • 70
    • 0346803894 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Common Law literature, Butterworth, London
    • See e.g. Fernandez Rozas and Sanchez Lorenzo, Derecho internacional privado (Madrid, Civitas, 1999), pp. 43-46; Audit, Droit international privé, 3rd ed. (Economica, Paris, 2000), pp. 4-15. Also, in the Common Law literature, North and Fawcett, Chesire and North's Private international law, 13th. ed. (Butterworth, London, 1999), pp. 7-8.
    • (1999) Chesire and North's Private International Law, 13th. Ed. , pp. 7-8
    • North1    Fawcett2
  • 71
    • 0347434495 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • La Proposition de Directive Europeénne sur le commerce electronique: Questions choisies
    • Bruylant, Bruxelles
    • See e.g. Julia Barcelo et al., "La Proposition de Directive Europeénne sur le commerce electronique: questions choisies", in Commerce Electronique: les temps des certitudes (Bruylant, Bruxelles, 2000), p. 29, or Palacio Vallelerdundi, "Le commerce électronique, le juge, le consommateur, l'entreprise et le Marché intérieur: nouvelle équation pour le droit communautaire", (2001) Revue du Droit de l'Union Européenne, p. 8; also Crabit, op. cit. supra note 12, 759-762, 798-807.
    • (2000) Commerce Electronique: Les Temps des Certitudes , pp. 29
    • Barcelo, J.1
  • 72
    • 0347434578 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Le commerce électronique, le juge, le consommateur, l'entreprise et le Marché intérieur: Nouvelle équation pour le droit communautaire
    • also Crabit, op. cit. supra note 12, 759-762, 798-807
    • See e.g. Julia Barcelo et al., "La Proposition de Directive Europeénne sur le commerce electronique: questions choisies", in Commerce Electronique: les temps des certitudes (Bruylant, Bruxelles, 2000), p. 29, or Palacio Vallelerdundi, "Le commerce électronique, le juge, le consommateur, l'entreprise et le Marché intérieur: nouvelle équation pour le droit communautaire", (2001) Revue du Droit de l'Union Européenne, p. 8; also Crabit, op. cit. supra note 12, 759-762, 798-807.
    • (2001) Revue du Droit de l'Union Européenne , pp. 8
    • Vallelerdundi, P.1
  • 73
    • 0347434491 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jurisdiction and E-Commerce Disputes
    • See consolidated version in O.J. 1998, C 27/1. The Convention will be substituted from March 2002 by the already adopted Regulation 44/2001 on jurisdiction, recognition and enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial matters (O.J. 2001, L 12/1). Art. 1 in both texts states: "This Convention/Regulation shall apply in civil and commercial matters whatever the nature of the court or tribunal. It shall not extend, in particular, to revenue, customs or administrative matters. The Convention shall not apply to: 1. the status or legal capacity of natural persons, rights in property arising out of a matrimonial relationship, wills and succession; 2. bankruptcy, proceedings relating to the winding-up of insolvent companies or other legal persons, judicial arrangements, compositions and analogous proceedings; 3. social security; 4. arbitration". For a general overview of the application of these instruments to Internet see Katz, "Jurisdiction and E-Commerce Disputes", 3 Journal of World Intellectual Property (2000), 289-307.
    • (2000) Journal of World Intellectual Property , vol.3 , pp. 289-307
    • Katz1
  • 74
    • 0006001989 scopus 로고
    • Le nouveau droit international privé des contrats après l'entrée en vigueur de la Convention de Rome du 19 juin 1980
    • (hereafter: Rev. crit. d.i.p.)
    • Rome Convention of 1980 on the law applicable to contractual obligations, O.J. 1998, C 27/34. For further information on the Rome Convention see Lagarde, "Le nouveau droit international privé des contrats après l'entrée en vigueur de la Convention de Rome du 19 juin 1980", (1991) Revue Critique de Droit international privé (hereafter: Rev. crit. d.i.p.), 287-340 and Giuliano and Lagarde, Report on the Convention on the Law Applicable to Contractual Obligations in O.J. 1980, C 282/1-50.
    • (1991) Revue Critique de Droit International Privé , pp. 287-340
    • Lagarde1
  • 75
    • 0346173377 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • O.J. 1980, C 282/1-50
    • Rome Convention of 1980 on the law applicable to contractual obligations, O.J. 1998, C 27/34. For further information on the Rome Convention see Lagarde, "Le nouveau droit international privé des contrats après l'entrée en vigueur de la Convention de Rome du 19 juin 1980", (1991) Revue Critique de Droit international privé (hereafter: Rev. crit. d.i.p.), 287-340 and Giuliano and Lagarde, Report on the Convention on the Law Applicable to Contractual Obligations in O.J. 1980, C 282/1-50.
    • Report on the Convention on the Law Applicable to Contractual Obligations
    • Giuliano1    Lagarde2
  • 76
    • 0348064831 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 3
    • Art. 3.
  • 77
    • 0347434526 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 4 (1)
    • Art. 4 (1).
  • 78
    • 0346173379 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 4 (2)
    • Art. 4 (2).
  • 79
    • 0347434525 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 7(2)
    • Art. 7(2).
  • 80
    • 0346803850 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 5(2)
    • Art. 5(2).
  • 81
    • 0348064882 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Globalización, regionalización y nuevas tecnologías en el DIP de los contratos de consumo (mercado interior y Convenio de Roma)
    • (last visited, October 2001)
    • Art. 5(3). There is a Proposal of the European Working Group of Private International Law recommending the amendment of Arts. 5 and 7 of the Convention to promote a proper functioning of the Internal market to the detriment of other public policy interests. See the text of the Proposal at (2000) Rev. crit. d.i.p., 929-933; also Quiñones Escamez, "Globalización, regionalización y nuevas tecnologías en el DIP de los contratos de consumo (mercado interior y Convenio de Roma)", XIX Jornadas de la Asociación Española de Profesores de Derecho internacional, available at www.jornadas-aepdiri.com (last visited, October 2001).
    • XIX Jornadas de la Asociación Española de Profesores de Derecho Internacional
    • Escamez, Q.1
  • 82
    • 0348064880 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In this sense, Desantes Real, op cit. supra note 18, 335-336 and also Crabit, op. cit. supra note 12, 801, although the latter reaches a different conclusion. We accept that he makes an excellent argument to defend his point of view, though we understand the Community mandatory rule of the country of origin principle in a different way
    • In this sense, Desantes Real, op cit. supra note 18, 335-336 and also Crabit, op. cit. supra note 12, 801, although the latter reaches a different conclusion. We accept that he makes an excellent argument to defend his point of view, though we understand the Community mandatory rule of the country of origin principle in a different way.
  • 83
    • 0346803899 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Art. 10 of the Rome Convention establishes as the scope of the applicable law: "(1) The law applicable to a contract by virtue of Articles 3 to 6 and 12 of this Convention shall govern in particular: (a) interpretation; (b) performance; (c) within the limits of the powers conferred on the court by its procedural law, the consequences of breach, including the assessment of damages in so far as it is governed by rules of law; (d) the various ways of extinguishing obligations, and prescription and limitation of actions; (e) the consequences of nullity of the contract. (2) In relation to the manner of performance and the steps to be taken in the event of defective performance regard shall be had to the law of the country in which performance takes place."
  • 84
    • 0346803864 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The scope of the norm depends on the particular non-contractual obligation at stake: existence of the harm, type of liability, limits, legitimate persons to receive compensation, etc., see Fernandez Rozas and Sanchez Lorenzo, op. cit. supra note 67, p. 567
    • The scope of the norm depends on the particular non-contractual obligation at stake: existence of the harm, type of liability, limits, legitimate persons to receive compensation, etc., see Fernandez Rozas and Sanchez Lorenzo, op. cit. supra note 67, p. 567.
  • 85
    • 0347434534 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Case C-126/1991, Yves Rocher, [1991] ECR I-2361
    • Case C-126/1991, Yves Rocher, [1991] ECR I-2361.
  • 86
    • 0348064828 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Joined Cases C-396/96 and C-397/96, Arblade, [1999] ECR 8498. The Court held that "the fact that national rules are categorised as public-order legislation does not mean that they are exempt from compliance with the provisions of the Treaty; if it did, the primacy and uniform application of Community law would be undermined". See paras. 31-39. See also note by Fallon in (2000) Rev. crit. d.i.p., 728-737
    • Joined Cases C-396/96 and C-397/96, Arblade, [1999] ECR 8498. The Court held that "the fact that national rules are categorised as public-order legislation does not mean that they are exempt from compliance with the provisions of the Treaty; if it did, the primacy and uniform application of Community law would be undermined". See paras. 31-39. See also note by Fallon in (2000) Rev. crit. d.i.p., 728-737.
  • 88
    • 0346803888 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Chapter V
    • See Chapter V.
  • 89
    • 1842689830 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Kluwer Law International, The Hague
    • For further explanation, see Boele-Woelki and Kessedjian (Eds.), Internet. Which court decides? Which law applies? Quel tribunal décide? Quel droit s'applique? (Kluwer Law International, The Hague, 1998); Carrascosa Gonzalez and Calvo Caravaca, Conflictos de leyes y conflictos de jurisdicción en Internet (Colex, Madrid, 2001); de Miguel Asensio, Derecho privado de Internet, 2nd ed. (Civitas, Madrid, 2001), pp. 171-177, 278-283, 505-513.
    • (1998) Internet. Which Court Decides? Which Law Applies? Quel Tribunal Décide? Quel Droit S'applique?
    • Boele-Woelki1    Kessedjian2
  • 90
    • 0346173384 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Colex, Madrid
    • For further explanation, see Boele-Woelki and Kessedjian (Eds.), Internet. Which court decides? Which law applies? Quel tribunal décide? Quel droit s'applique? (Kluwer Law International, The Hague, 1998); Carrascosa Gonzalez and Calvo Caravaca, Conflictos de leyes y conflictos de jurisdicción en Internet (Colex, Madrid, 2001); de Miguel Asensio, Derecho privado de Internet, 2nd ed. (Civitas, Madrid, 2001), pp. 171-177, 278-283, 505-513.
    • (2001) Conflictos de Leyes Y Conflictos de Jurisdicción en Internet
    • Gonzalez, C.1    Caravaca, C.2
  • 91
    • 0347434579 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Civitas, Madrid
    • For further explanation, see Boele-Woelki and Kessedjian (Eds.), Internet. Which court decides? Which law applies? Quel tribunal décide? Quel droit s'applique? (Kluwer Law International, The Hague, 1998); Carrascosa Gonzalez and Calvo Caravaca, Conflictos de leyes y conflictos de jurisdicción en Internet (Colex, Madrid, 2001); de Miguel Asensio, Derecho privado de Internet, 2nd ed. (Civitas, Madrid, 2001), pp. 171-177, 278-283, 505-513.
    • (2001) Derecho Privado de Internet, 2nd Ed. , pp. 171-177
    • De Asensio, M.1
  • 92
    • 0346173387 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Case 21/76, Mines de Potasse d'Alsace, [1976] ECR 1735, and Case C-68/93, Fiona Shevill v. Press Alliance, [1995] ECR I-415
    • Case 21/76, Mines de Potasse d'Alsace, [1976] ECR 1735, and Case C-68/93, Fiona Shevill v. Press Alliance, [1995] ECR I-415.
  • 93
    • 0347434571 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • P. 22
    • P. 22.
  • 94
    • 0347434538 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • That is the case of Art. 10 of the Proposal for a Law on electronic commerce in Spain, see latest text of 30 April 2001
    • That is the case of Art. 10 of the Proposal for a Law on electronic commerce in Spain, see latest text of 30 April 2001. Available at http://www.sgc.mfom.es/.
  • 96
    • 0346803889 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Real Decreto 1133/1997, de 11 Julio implementing Art. 38.2 de la Ley 7/1996 sobre el comercio minorista, BOE no 117, de 25 de julio de 1997
    • See Real Decreto 1133/1997, de 11 Julio implementing Art. 38.2 de la Ley 7/1996 sobre el comercio minorista, BOE no 117, de 25 de julio de 1997.
  • 97
    • 0346173417 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • O.J. 1997, L 117/15
    • O.J. 1997, L 117/15.
  • 98
    • 0347434537 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • An important package of Directives has been proposed by the Commission in order to modify the complete regulatory framework of the newly called "electronic communications". See Doc COM(2000) 384 final, 385 final, 385 final, 392 final, 393 final, 394 final of 12 July 2000, O.J. 2000, C 365 E
    • An important package of Directives has been proposed by the Commission in order to modify the complete regulatory framework of the newly called "electronic communications". See Doc COM(2000) 384 final, 385 final, 385 final, 392 final, 393 final, 394 final of 12 July 2000, O.J. 2000, C 365 E.
  • 99
    • 0346173403 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Julia Barcelo et al., op. cit. supra note 68, p. 6
    • Julia Barcelo et al., op. cit. supra note 68, p. 6.
  • 100
    • 0348064845 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Doc. COM(1999) 385 final
    • Doc. COM(1999) 385 final.
  • 101
    • 0347434531 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Art. 2(1) both in Directive 97/7 and the Amended Proposal
    • See Art. 2(1) both in Directive 97/7 and the Amended Proposal.
  • 102
    • 0346803893 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For the purpose of the Directive 97/7 and the Amended Proposal of Directive, "consumer ... means any natural person who, in contracts covered by this Directive, is acting for purposes which are outside his trade, business or profession" (Art. 2(2))
    • For the purpose of the Directive 97/7 and the Amended Proposal of Directive, "consumer ... means any natural person who, in contracts covered by this Directive, is acting for purposes which are outside his trade, business or profession" (Art. 2(2)).
  • 103
    • 0347434575 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Examples of these new marketing techniques are: hyperlinks, frames, metatags, deep-linking, etc.
  • 104
    • 0346803895 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Anyone with experience of Internet knows how annoying it is when you "surf" in search of a product and several windows - so-called pop-ups - are opened on the screen when you click on a hyperlink.
  • 105
    • 0348064875 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • However, there has been extensive work on the matter by the Commission. Two Green Papers have been adopted: "Commercial communications in the Internal Market" (COM(96) 192 final) and "The follow-up to the Green Paper on Commercial Communications in the Internal Market" (COM(98) 121 final). Recently the Commission has issued a Proposal for a Regulation concerning sales promotions in the Internal Market (Doc COM(2001)546 final) aiming at uniform rules on the use of commercial communications and sale promotions at a Community level and to apply the principle of mutual recognition.
  • 106
    • 0348064881 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • In France, it has already been sustained that websites constitute "advertising". See Cour d'appel de Rennes, lere Ch. B., Arrêt du 31 mars 2000, Compagnie Financière du Credit Mutuel de Bretagne c. Federation logement consommation et environnement d'Ille-et-Vilaine: "Un site internet est susceptible de constituer un support publicitaire: il permet la communication au public de textes et d'images, destinée éventuellement à présenter au public le consultant des marques des services et des marchandises et à inciter à la conclusion de contrats avec les consommateurs potentiels. Le fait que le site ne puisse être consulté qu'après abonnement, et au choix du site par l'usager d'internet, ne change en rien le caractère publicitaire des annonces qui peuvent y être faites. La situation est exactement identique à celle de l'acheteur d'un journal contenant des publicités. . ."
  • 107
    • 0348064869 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Council Directive 84/450/EEC of 10 Sept. 1984 relating to the approximation of the laws, regulations and administrative provisions of the Member States concerning misleading advertising (O.J. 1984, L 250/17), Directive 97/55/EC of European Parliament and of the Council of 6 Oct. 1997 amending Directive 84/450/EEC concerning misleading advertising so as to include comparative advertising (O.J. 1997, L 290/18) and Directive 98/6/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 Feb. 1998 on consumer protection in the indication of the prices of products offered to consumers (O.J. 1998, L 80/27)
    • Council Directive 84/450/EEC of 10 Sept. 1984 relating to the approximation of the laws, regulations and administrative provisions of the Member States concerning misleading advertising (O.J. 1984, L 250/17), Directive 97/55/EC of European Parliament and of the Council of 6 Oct. 1997 amending Directive 84/450/EEC concerning misleading advertising so as to include comparative advertising (O.J. 1997, L 290/18) and Directive 98/6/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 Feb. 1998 on consumer protection in the indication of the prices of products offered to consumers (O.J. 1998, L 80/27).
  • 108
    • 0346173414 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 2(1) of Dir. 450/85 states: " 'advertising' means the making of a representation in any form in connection with a trade, business, craft or profession in order to promote the supply of goods or services, including immovable property, rights and obligations."
    • Art. 2(1) of Dir. 450/85 states: " 'advertising' means the making of a representation in any form in connection with a trade, business, craft or profession in order to promote the supply of goods or services, including immovable property, rights and obligations."
  • 109
    • 0347434573 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • "information allowing direct access to the activity of the company, organization or person, in particular, a domain name or an e-mail address; or communications relating to the goods, services or image of the company, organization or person that are compiled in an independent manner, particularly when this is without financial consideration".
  • 110
    • 0347434580 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Julia Barcelo et al., op. cit. supra note 68, p. 8
    • Julia Barcelo et al., op. cit. supra note 68, p. 8.
  • 111
    • 0347434574 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Case C-220/98, Estée Lauder v. Lancaster Group, [2000] ECR I-117
    • See Case C-220/98, Estée Lauder v. Lancaster Group, [2000] ECR I-117.
  • 112
    • 0348064876 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Julia Barcelo et al., op. cit. supra note 68, p. 9
    • Julia Barcelo et al., op. cit. supra note 68, p. 9.
  • 113
    • 0348064878 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • De Agostini, supra note 46. The case refers to the freedom to provide broadcasting services in the framework of the TV without Frontiers Directive. However, we consider that the same principles are applicable to Information Society services
    • De Agostini, supra note 46. The case refers to the freedom to provide broadcasting services in the framework of the TV without Frontiers Directive. However, we consider that the same principles are applicable to Information Society services.
  • 114
    • 0347434576 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 7: "This Directive shall not preclude Member States from retaining or adopting provisions with a view to ensuring more extensive protection for consumers, persons carrying on a trade, business, craft or profession, and the general public"
    • Art. 7: "This Directive shall not preclude Member States from retaining or adopting provisions with a view to ensuring more extensive protection for consumers, persons carrying on a trade, business, craft or profession, and the general public".
  • 116
    • 0346173409 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Commission Communication "The follow-up to the Green Paper. . .", cited supra note 93, p. 12 et seq. Also, the recent Commission Proposal for a Regulation on sales promotions states this in Recitals 5 and 12 and Art. 3
    • See Commission Communication "The follow-up to the Green Paper. . .", cited supra note 93, p. 12 et seq. Also, the recent Commission Proposal for a Regulation on sales promotions states this in Recitals 5 and 12 and Art. 3.
  • 117
    • 0348064870 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Universities of Utrecht and Tilburg for the European Commission, 17 Aug. Project number: 487986.01, Report number: 00.019
    • In this sense, see Final Report Study on Consumer Law and the Information Society written by Pricewaterhouse Coopers, Universities of Utrecht and Tilburg for the European Commission, 17 Aug. 2001. Project number: 487986.01, Report number: 00.019.
    • (2001) Final Report Study on Consumer Law and the Information Society
    • Coopers, P.1
  • 118
    • 0346803898 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See footnote 137 infra
    • See footnote 137 infra.
  • 119
    • 0346173415 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Communication "Creating a Safer Information Society by Improving the Security of Information Infrastructures and Combating Computer-related Crime" (COM(2000)890 final),", p. 6
    • Communication "Creating a Safer Information Society by Improving the Security of Information Infrastructures and Combating Computer-related Crime" (COM(2000)890 final),", p. 6.
  • 120
    • 0346173411 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Chapters V and VI. See also, "General principles for generic codes of practice for the sale of goods and services to consumers on the Internet" p. 5, available at the European Commission's supported E-confidence forum website
    • See Chapters V and VI. See also, "General principles for generic codes of practice for the sale of goods and services to consumers on the Internet" p. 5, available at the European Commission's supported E-confidence forum website: http://econfidence.jrc.it/
  • 121
    • 0347434529 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The U.S. is the best known example. Art. 25(1) of Directive 95/46 prohibits transferring of personal data from the Member States to third countries not providing an adequate level of protection. Pursuant to Art. 25(6), the Commission has signed with the U.S. Department of Commerce the so-called Safe Habour Principles Decision Commission Decisions 2000/518, 2000/519 and 2000/520 of 26 July 2000 pursuant to Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the adequate protection of personal data provided in USA, Switzerland and Hungary (O.J. 2000, L 215/1). The Decision states that transfer of personal data from the Community to U.S. companies will be admitted as far as companies comply with the principles stated by the DoC - the Safe Harbour Principles - and which have been approved by the Commission. US DoC is in charge of monitoring the implementing of those principles. US companies are very slowly adhering to the Principles
    • The U.S. is the best known example. Art. 25(1) of Directive 95/46 prohibits transferring of personal data from the Member States to third countries not providing an adequate level of protection. Pursuant to Art. 25(6), the Commission has signed with the U.S. Department of Commerce the so-called Safe Habour Principles Decision (Commission Decisions 2000/518, 2000/519 and 2000/520 of 26 July 2000 pursuant to Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the adequate protection of personal data provided in USA, Switzerland and Hungary (O.J. 2000, L 215/1). The Decision states that transfer of personal data from the Community to U.S. companies will be admitted as far as companies comply with the principles stated by the DoC - the Safe Harbour Principles - and which have been approved by the Commission. US DoC is in charge of monitoring the implementing of those principles. US companies are very slowly adhering to the Principles.
  • 122
    • 0346173410 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • "Member States shall take appropriate measures to ensure that, free of charge, unsolicited calls for purposes of direct marketing, by means other than those referred to in paragraph 1, are not allowed either without the consent of the subscribers concerned or in respect of subscribers who do not wish to receive these calls, the choice between these options to be determined by national legislation."
  • 123
    • 0346173386 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Art. 13 of the Proposal for a Directive concerning the processing of personal data and the protection of privacy in the electronic communication sector (O.J. 2000, C 365 E/1)
    • See Art. 13 of the Proposal for a Directive concerning the processing of personal data and the protection of privacy in the electronic communication sector (O.J. 2000, C 365 E/1).
  • 124
    • 0347434577 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Julia Barcelo et al., op. cit. supra note 68, p. 13
    • Julia Barcelo et al., op. cit. supra note 68, p. 13.
  • 125
    • 0347434572 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • That is the case of Spain, see Art. 21(1) of the Last Draft Proposal of the Law on Information Society Services (31 April 2001). On the other hand, France has chosen the "opt-out" system, see Art. 22 of Projet de loi sur le commerce electronique, No. 3143 déposé à l'Assemblée nationale le 14 juin 2001. (last visited, Sept. 2001)
    • That is the case of Spain, see Art. 21(1) of the Last Draft Proposal of the Law on Information Society Services (31 April 2001). On the other hand, France has chosen the "opt-out" system, see Art. 22 of Projet de loi sur le commerce electronique, No. 3143 déposé à l'Assemblée nationale le 14 juin 2001. Available at http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/html/actualite/actualite_legisl ative/prepa/pli.htm (last visited, Sept. 2001)
  • 126
    • 0346803896 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Art. 13 states: "Unsolicited communications (1) The use of automated calling systems without human intervention (automatic calling machines), facsimile machines (fax) or electronic mail for the purposes of direct marketing may only be allowed in respect of subscribers who have given their prior consent. (2) Member States shall take appropriate measures to ensure that, free of charge, unsolicited communications for purposes of direct marketing, by means other than those referred to in paragraph 1, are not allowed either without the consent of the subscribers concerned or in respect of subscribers who do not wish to receive these communications, the choice between these options to be determined by national legislation. (3) Paragraphs 1 and 2 shall apply to subscribers who are natural persons. Member States shall also ensure, in the framework of Community law and applicable national legislation, that the legitimate interests of subscribers other than natural persons with regard to unsolicited communications are sufficiently protected."
  • 127
    • 0346803897 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 8(4)
    • Art. 8(4)
  • 128
    • 84901533583 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • London, Sweet and Maxwell
    • The example is taken from Kelleher and Murray, IT Law in the European Union (London, Sweet and Maxwell, 1999), pp. 114-115.
    • (1999) IT Law in the European Union , pp. 114-115
    • Kelleher1    Murray2
  • 129
    • 0348064877 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 8(2)
    • Art. 8(2)
  • 130
    • 0346173412 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 8(3)
    • Art. 8(3)
  • 131
    • 0346803887 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A distinction is made between indirect e-commerce (the electronic ordering of tangible goods, which still must be physically delivered using traditional channels such as postal services or commercial couriers) and direct e-commerce (the online ordering, payment and delivery of intangible goods and services such as computer software, entertainment content, or information services on a global scale). See Kelleher and Murray, op. cit. supra note 121
    • A distinction is made between indirect e-commerce (the electronic ordering of tangible goods, which still must be physically delivered using traditional channels such as postal services or commercial couriers) and direct e-commerce (the online ordering, payment and delivery of intangible goods and services such as computer software, entertainment content, or information services on a global scale). See Kelleher and Murray, op. cit. supra note 121.
  • 132
    • 0348064874 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Electronic Commerce: A Challenge to Private Law?
    • Centro di studi e ricerche di diritto comparato e straniero, Rome
    • Time and place of formation of the contract, formal requirements, remedies to defective performance of the obligation etc. For a good explanation see Bryde Andersen, "Electronic Commerce: A Challenge to Private Law?" in Centro di studi e ricerche di diritto comparato e straniero, Saggi, conferenze e seminari (Rome, 1998) and De Miguel Asensio, op. cit. supra note 84, pp. 303-385.
    • (1998) Saggi, Conferenze e Seminari
    • Andersen, B.1
  • 133
    • 0348064844 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rome, supra note 84
    • Time and place of formation of the contract, formal requirements, remedies to defective performance of the obligation etc. For a good explanation see Bryde Andersen, "Electronic Commerce: A Challenge to Private Law?" in Centro di studi e ricerche di diritto comparato e straniero, Saggi, conferenze e seminari (Rome, 1998) and De Miguel Asensio, op. cit. supra note 84, pp. 303-385.
    • Saggi, Conferenze e Seminari , pp. 303-385
    • De Asensio, M.1
  • 135
    • 0346173408 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Directive 1999/93 of 13 Dec. 1999 on a Community framework for electronic signatures, O.J. 2000, L 13/12
    • Directive 1999/93 of 13 Dec. 1999 on a Community framework for electronic signatures, O.J. 2000, L 13/12.
  • 136
    • 0346173404 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • La reglementation du commerce electronique dans l'Union Européenne
    • Art. 5: "Legal effects of electronic signatures. (1) Member States shall ensure that advanced electronic signatures which are based on a qualified certificate and which are created by a secure-signature-creation device: satisfy the legal requirements of a signature in relation to data in electronic form in the same manner as a handwritten signature satisfies those requirements in relation to paper-based data; and are admissible as evidence in legal proceedings. (2) Member States shall ensure that an electronic signature is not denied legal effectiveness and admissibility as evidence in legal proceedings solely on the grounds that it is: in electronic form, or-not based upon a qualified certificate, or not based upon a qualified certificate issued by an accredited certification-service-provider, or not created by a secure signature-creation device." A distinction is made between "advanced electronic signature" - also called digital signatures - and "electronic signature". Legal equivalence to hand-written signature is attributed to the first category insofar as they fulfil certain requirements established in Directive 99/93 guaranteeing authenticity: it is uniquely linked to the signatory; it is capable of identifying the signatory; it is created using means that the signatory can maintain under his sole control; and it is linked to the data to which it relates in such a manner that any subsequent change of the data is detectable. The second category do not fulfil those requirements, but the legal validity cannot be denied on the sole basis of its electronic nature. For further details, see Sanchez Felipe, "La reglementation du commerce electronique dans l'Union Européenne", (2000) Uniform Law Review, 665-682, Martinez Nadal, Comercio electrónico, firma digital y autoridades de certificación (Madrid, Civitas, 1998); Font, Seguridad y certificación en el Comercio electrónico (Madrid, Biblioteca Fundación Retevisión, 2000); Caprioli, "Sécurité et confiance dans le commerce electronique (Signature numérique et autorité de certification)", (1998) La Semaine Juridique (I 123), 583-59.
    • (2000) Uniform Law Review , pp. 665-682
    • Felipe, S.1
  • 137
    • 0346803857 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Madrid, Civitas
    • Art. 5: "Legal effects of electronic signatures. (1) Member States shall ensure that advanced electronic signatures which are based on a qualified certificate and which are created by a secure-signature-creation device: satisfy the legal requirements of a signature in relation to data in electronic form in the same manner as a handwritten signature satisfies those requirements in relation to paper-based data; and are admissible as evidence in legal proceedings. (2) Member States shall ensure that an electronic signature is not denied legal effectiveness and admissibility as evidence in legal proceedings solely on the grounds that it is: in electronic form, or-not based upon a qualified certificate, or not based upon a qualified certificate issued by an accredited certification-service-provider, or not created by a secure signature-creation device." A distinction is made between "advanced electronic signature" - also called digital signatures - and "electronic signature". Legal equivalence to hand-written signature is attributed to the first category insofar as they fulfil certain requirements established in Directive 99/93 guaranteeing authenticity: it is uniquely linked to the signatory; it is capable of identifying the signatory; it is created using means that the signatory can maintain under his sole control; and it is linked to the data to which it relates in such a manner that any subsequent change of the data is detectable. The second category do not fulfil those requirements, but the legal validity cannot be denied on the sole basis of its electronic nature. For further details, see Sanchez Felipe, "La reglementation du commerce electronique dans l'Union Européenne", (2000) Uniform Law Review, 665-682, Martinez Nadal, Comercio electrónico, firma digital y autoridades de certificación (Madrid, Civitas, 1998); Font, Seguridad y certificación en el Comercio electrónico (Madrid, Biblioteca Fundación Retevisión, 2000); Caprioli, "Sécurité et confiance dans le commerce electronique (Signature numérique et autorité de certification)", (1998) La Semaine Juridique (I 123), 583-59.
    • (1998) Comercio Electrónico, Firma Digital Y Autoridades de Certificación
    • Nadal, M.1
  • 138
    • 0347434519 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Madrid, Biblioteca Fundación Retevisión
    • Art. 5: "Legal effects of electronic signatures. (1) Member States shall ensure that advanced electronic signatures which are based on a qualified certificate and which are created by a secure-signature-creation device: satisfy the legal requirements of a signature in relation to data in electronic form in the same manner as a handwritten signature satisfies those requirements in relation to paper-based data; and are admissible as evidence in legal proceedings. (2) Member States shall ensure that an electronic signature is not denied legal effectiveness and admissibility as evidence in legal proceedings solely on the grounds that it is: in electronic form, or-not based upon a qualified certificate, or not based upon a qualified certificate issued by an accredited certification-service-provider, or not created by a secure signature-creation device." A distinction is made between "advanced electronic signature" - also called digital signatures - and "electronic signature". Legal equivalence to hand-written signature is attributed to the first category insofar as they fulfil certain requirements established in Directive 99/93 guaranteeing authenticity: it is uniquely linked to the signatory; it is capable of identifying the signatory; it is created using means that the signatory can maintain under his sole control; and it is linked to the data to which it relates in such a manner that any subsequent change of the data is detectable. The second category do not fulfil those requirements, but the legal validity cannot be denied on the sole basis of its electronic nature. For further details, see Sanchez Felipe, "La reglementation du commerce electronique dans l'Union Européenne", (2000) Uniform Law Review, 665-682, Martinez Nadal, Comercio electrónico, firma digital y autoridades de certificación (Madrid, Civitas, 1998); Font, Seguridad y certificación en el Comercio electrónico (Madrid, Biblioteca Fundación Retevisión, 2000); Caprioli, "Sécurité et confiance dans le commerce electronique (Signature numérique et autorité de certification)", (1998) La Semaine Juridique (I 123), 583-59.
    • (2000) Seguridad Y Certificación en El Comercio Electrónico
    • Font1
  • 139
    • 0348064833 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sécurité et confiance dans le commerce electronique (Signature numérique et autorité de certification)
    • Art. 5: "Legal effects of electronic signatures. (1) Member States shall ensure that advanced electronic signatures which are based on a qualified certificate and which are created by a secure-signature-creation device: satisfy the legal requirements of a signature in relation to data in electronic form in the same manner as a handwritten signature satisfies those requirements in relation to paper-based data; and are admissible as evidence in legal proceedings. (2) Member States shall ensure that an electronic signature is not denied legal effectiveness and admissibility as evidence in legal proceedings solely on the grounds that it is: in electronic form, or-not based upon a qualified certificate, or not based upon a qualified certificate issued by an accredited certification-service-provider, or not created by a secure signature-creation device." A distinction is made between "advanced electronic signature" - also called digital signatures - and "electronic signature". Legal equivalence to hand-written signature is attributed to the first category insofar as they fulfil certain requirements established in Directive 99/93 guaranteeing authenticity: it is uniquely linked to the signatory; it is capable of identifying the signatory; it is created using means that the signatory can maintain under his sole control; and it is linked to the data to which it relates in such a manner that any subsequent change of the data is detectable. The second category do not fulfil those requirements, but the legal validity cannot be denied on the sole basis of its electronic nature. For further details, see Sanchez Felipe, "La reglementation du commerce electronique dans l'Union Européenne", (2000) Uniform Law Review, 665-682, Martinez Nadal, Comercio electrónico, firma digital y autoridades de certificación (Madrid, Civitas, 1998); Font, Seguridad y certificación en el Comercio electrónico (Madrid, Biblioteca Fundación Retevisión, 2000); Caprioli, "Sécurité et confiance dans le commerce electronique (Signature numérique et autorité de certification)", (1998) La Semaine Juridique (I 123), 583-59.
    • (1998) La Semaine Juridique (I 123) , pp. 583-659
    • Caprioli1
  • 141
    • 0348064838 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 10 (1)
    • Art. 10 (1).
  • 142
    • 0346803860 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 10(2)
    • Art. 10(2).
  • 143
    • 84857417959 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Contract Formation in the Internet: Shattering a Few Myths
    • Edwards and Waelde (Eds.), Hart Publishing, Oxford
    • Davies, "Contract Formation in the Internet: Shattering a Few Myths", in Edwards and Waelde (Eds.), Law and the Internet, Regulating Cyberspace (Hart Publishing, Oxford, 1997), pp. 97-119.
    • (1997) Law and the Internet, Regulating Cyberspace , pp. 97-119
    • Davies1
  • 144
    • 0347434528 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Doc. COM(1998) 586 final, p. 27
    • Doc. COM(1998) 586 final, p. 27.
  • 145
    • 0346803862 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Thus four steps where needed for the formation of the electronic contract: offer, acceptance, acknowledgement of receipt of acceptance, confirmation of receipt of acknowledgement of acceptance.
  • 146
    • 0348064841 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Recital 34
    • Recital 34.
  • 147
    • 0346803865 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • It is recalled that the institutions are working on the adoption of the effective measures to regulate the legality of the contents provided in the Internet (See section 3.2 supra). Those measures focus on both substantive and procedural aspects. They include Council Recommendation 98/560 of 24 Sept. 1998 on the development of the competitiveness of the European audiovisual and information services industry by promoting national frameworks aimed at achieving a comparable and effective level of protection of minors and human dignity (OJ. 1998, L 270/48); Decision 276/1999 of Jan. 1999 adopting an Action Plan against illegal and harmful content on the Internet (O.J. 1999, L 33/1) which co-finances awareness actions, experiments in rating and filtering of content and hot-lines; the Green Paper on the protection of minors and human dignity in audiovisual and information services (COM(96)483 final); the Communication on the illegal and harmful content on the Internet (COM(96) 487 final); the Communication "Creating a Safer Information Society . . .", cited supra note 112; and Council Decision of 29 May 2000 to combat child pornography on the Internet (O.J. 2000, L 138/1).
  • 148
    • 0348064800 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Liability for on-line intermediaries: A European perspective
    • Depending on the functional role they play, there are: network operators (providing the facilities for the transmission of data); access providers (providing access to the Internet for their clients); host service providers (providing a server computer upon which to rent space to users to host content); bulletin board operators, news groups and chat room operators (services providing space for users to read information sent by other users and to post their own messages). They can be moderated or unmoderated. Chat rooms allow direct communication in real time; information location tool providers (providing tools to Internet users for finding websites where information they seek is located). See Julià Barceló: "Liability for on-line intermediaries: a European perspective", 20 European Intellectual Property Review (1998), 453-463.
    • (1998) European Intellectual Property Review , vol.20 , pp. 453-463
    • Barceló, J.1
  • 149
    • 0347434533 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Infringing acts may occur when certain websites include files containing copyright material and they can be downloaded.
  • 150
    • 0346173382 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Pictures, personal data or writings of a defamatory nature posted to bulletin boards or chat rooms.
  • 151
    • 0347434532 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • These categories include cases of liability for illegal and harmful content and misrepresentation.
  • 152
    • 0348064843 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Arts. 12(1), 13(1) and 14(1)
    • See Arts. 12(1), 13(1) and 14(1).
  • 153
    • 0348064842 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Information on Internet travels from one computer to another until it reaches its destination. Every computer along the way makes a temporal copy - a transient storage - in order to transmit the information to the following computer.
  • 154
    • 0348064839 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 12 (2)
    • Art. 12 (2).
  • 155
    • 0347434530 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • E.g. if a recipient of the service provider visits a website, the service provider would automatically make a copy of that website in his computers to make subsequent access to that website easier for that recipient and other clients.
  • 156
    • 0346173385 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 14(1)
    • Art. 14(1).
  • 157
    • 0347434536 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 14(3) and Recital 40
    • Art. 14(3) and Recital 40.
  • 160
    • 0347434521 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Assuming a person uploads a pirate software on his website, if it is not quickly removed once another recipient downloads it, he may offer it to other user so that the copies of the pirate software multiply and it becomes impossible to stop the infringing activities.
  • 161
    • 0346173370 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Communication on the out-of-court settlement of consumer disputes (Doc. COM(1998) 198 final of 30 March 1998)
    • See Communication on the out-of-court settlement of consumer disputes (Doc. COM(1998) 198 final of 30 March 1998).
  • 162
    • 0346803849 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Arts. 13-15 of the Brussels Convention and 15-17 of Regulation 44/2001 state that consumers can sue and can only be sued in their domicile in disputes arising from contractual relations provided that the business was directing his activities, by any means, to the consumer's residence State
    • Arts. 13-15 of the Brussels Convention and 15-17 of Regulation 44/2001 state that consumers can sue and can only be sued in their domicile in disputes arising from contractual relations provided that the business was directing his activities, by any means, to the consumer's residence State.
  • 163
    • 0346803816 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Arts. 5 and 7(2) of the Rome Convention oblige national judges to apply the mandatory rules of the consumer's residence legislation or that of the national court. It shall also be recalled that consumer obligations are exempted from the application of the country of origin principle of Directive 2000/31
    • Arts. 5 and 7(2) of the Rome Convention oblige national judges to apply the mandatory rules of the consumer's residence legislation or that of the national court. It shall also be recalled that consumer obligations are exempted from the application of the country of origin principle of Directive 2000/31.
  • 165
    • 0346803846 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Art. 16 (1) (c)
    • See Art. 16 (1) (c)
  • 166
    • 0346173367 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See "General principles for generic codes of practices. . .", supra note 113
    • See "General principles for generic codes of practices. . .", supra note 113.
  • 167
    • 0348064827 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See e.g. the labels of WebTrader, Trustee, BBBonline, and many other at
    • See e.g. the labels of WebTrader, Trustee, BBBonline, and many other at http:// consumerconfidence.gbde.org/t_invent ory.html
  • 168
    • 0347434518 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See De Miguel Asensio, op. cit. supra note 79, pp. 70-75
    • See De Miguel Asensio, op. cit. supra note 79, pp. 70-75.
  • 169
    • 0346173369 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • This problem has been addressed in the recent Green Paper on European Union Consumer Protection (Doc COM(2001)531 final). Despite the number of harmonizing Directives in the field, differences between consumer contracts regulation in the Member States hamper the consolidation of cross-border business-to-consumer transactions. This affects electronic commerce in particular. A public consultation is opened to decide on a future legal approach to be taken in order to remove these obstacles. There are two options: the specific approach, consisting in enacting several instruments on those legal matters which are still to be harmonized; or the mixed approach consisting in the adoption of a framework Directive establishing some core principles and enabling Member States and self-regulatory schemes to develop those principles. If the second option is preferred (and that seems to be the Commission's choice), co-regulation may provide an effective instrument for the regulation of on-line consumer contracts.
  • 170
    • 0348064799 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ADR existed before electronic commerce. Their utility has already been assessed in the framework of the access to justice policy of the European Community in the Communication on out-of-court dispute settlement systems. In order to inform the general public about their existence and their competences, the Commission has listed them in a database accessible at the Health and Consumer Protection Directorate General's website
    • ADR existed before electronic commerce. Their utility has already been assessed in the framework of the access to justice policy of the European Community in the Communication on out-of-court dispute settlement systems. In order to inform the general public about their existence and their competences, the Commission has listed them in a database accessible at the Health and Consumer Protection Directorate General's website: http://europa.eu.int/comm/consumers/policy/developments/acce_just/acce_just04. en.html
  • 171
    • 0348064793 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Arbitrage et nouvelle technologies: Alternative cyberdispute resolution
    • For information on the different ADR systems in electronic commerce see Tilman, "Arbitrage et nouvelle technologies: alternative cyberdispute resolution", (1999) Revue Ubiquité, 47-64; and Kessedjian and Cahn, "Dispute Resolution On-Line", 32 The International Lawyer (1998), 977-990.
    • (1999) Revue Ubiquité , pp. 47-64
    • Tilman1
  • 172
    • 0347434490 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dispute Resolution On-Line
    • For information on the different ADR systems in electronic commerce see Tilman, "Arbitrage et nouvelle technologies: alternative cyberdispute resolution", (1999) Revue Ubiquité, 47-64; and Kessedjian and Cahn, "Dispute Resolution On-Line", 32 The International Lawyer (1998), 977-990.
    • (1998) The International Lawyer , vol.32 , pp. 977-990
    • Kessedjian1    Cahn2
  • 173
    • 0346173368 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The WIPO Arbitration Centre and the E-Resolution Arbitration Centre deliver decisions on the legality of a title over a generic domain name within 45 days. Visit
    • The WIPO Arbitration Centre and the E-Resolution Arbitration Centre deliver decisions on the legality of a title over a generic domain name within 45 days. Visit http://arbiter.wipo.int/center/index.html and http://www.eresolution.org/.
  • 175
    • 0347434520 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • O.J. 1998, L 115/31
    • O.J. 1998, L 115/31.
  • 176
    • 0348064794 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In Recommendation 98/257 on the principles applicable to the bodies responsible for out-of-court settlement of consumer disputes, the Commission stated ADR must comply with seven principles so that it can be considered that they provide guaranties equivalent to a judicial procedure: independence, efficiency, transparency, liberty, legality and the adversarial principle. At present, Art. 17(2) only obliges Member States to encourage ADR to provide adequate procedural guarantees and the recent Commission Recommendation of 4 April 2001 on the principles for out-of-court bodies involved in the consensual resolution of consumer disputes (O.J. 2001, L 109/56) exclusively talks about impartiality, transparency, efficiency and fairness
    • In Recommendation 98/257 on the principles applicable to the bodies responsible for out-of-court settlement of consumer disputes, the Commission stated ADR must comply with seven principles so that it can be considered that they provide guaranties equivalent to a judicial procedure: independence, efficiency, transparency, liberty, legality and the adversarial principle. At present, Art. 17(2) only obliges Member States to encourage ADR to provide adequate procedural guarantees and the recent Commission Recommendation of 4 April 2001 on the principles for out-of-court bodies involved in the consensual resolution of consumer disputes (O.J. 2001, L 109/56) exclusively talks about impartiality, transparency, efficiency and fairness.
  • 177
    • 0348064791 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 6 of the European Convention of Human Rights provides that "in the determination of his civil rights and obligations everyone is entitled to a fair hearing within a reasonable time by an independent and impartial tribunal established by law". According to this access to judicial courts is a fundamental right of individuals that knows no exception. Consumers can never be deprived of this right
    • Art. 6 of the European Convention of Human Rights provides that "in the determination of his civil rights and obligations everyone is entitled to a fair hearing within a reasonable time by an independent and impartial tribunal established by law". According to this access to judicial courts is a fundamental right of individuals that knows no exception. Consumers can never be deprived of this right.
  • 178
    • 0348064823 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Directive 98/27/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 May 1998 on injunctions for the protection of consumers' interests (O.J. 1998, L 166/51)
    • Directive 98/27/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 May 1998 on injunctions for the protection of consumers' interests (O.J. 1998, L 166/51)
  • 179
    • 0347434512 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Recital 53
    • See Recital 53.
  • 180
    • 0347434514 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 18 (1)
    • Art. 18 (1).
  • 181
    • 0346173335 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See e.g. the example of the pirate software in note 150 supra. 171. See Commission Proposal, p. 16
    • See e.g. the example of the pirate software in note 150 supra. 171. See Commission Proposal, p. 16.
  • 182
    • 0346803815 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Recital 58
    • Recital 58.
  • 183
    • 0346173366 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Available at http://wwvv.wipo.int/clea/en/index.html
  • 184
    • 0346173363 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Both texts are available at http://www.uncitral.org/en-index.htm
  • 185
    • 0346173362 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Information is available at http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/ecom_e/ecom_e.htm
  • 186
    • 0348064825 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See the Final Draft at http://www.coe.int/
  • 187
    • 0347434513 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • As has already been mentioned, the Convention will be replaced by Council Regulation 44/2001 in March 2002.
  • 188
    • 0346803840 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The different versions can be accessed at http://www.hcch.net/e/workprog/jdgm.html
  • 189
    • 0346173337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on the Organization and Management of the Internet. International and European Policy Issues 1998-2000. Doc COM(2000)202 final of 7 May 2000
    • Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on the Organization and Management of the Internet. International and European Policy Issues 1998-2000. Doc COM(2000)202 final of 7 May 2000.
  • 190
    • 0346173359 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Commission Proposal for a Regulation for the implementation of the Internet top level domain name .EU, COM(2000)827 final
    • See Commission Proposal for a Regulation for the implementation of the Internet top level domain name .EU, COM(2000)827 final.
  • 192
    • 0347434516 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Crabit, supra note 12
    • Crabit, supra note 12.


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.