Audience and Message: Assessing Terrorist WMD Potential

Terrorism and Political Violence

Volumn 13, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 83-106

  Gressang IV, Daniel S ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0035565286     PISSN: 09546553     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09546550109609691     Document Type: Review

References (78)

1. For the purposes of this article, 'weapons of mass destraction' (WMD) and 'mass-casualty weapons' are used to denote the same class of weapons. In each, the terms are taken to mean chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapons which are intended to create hundreds or thousands of casualties in a single event or application. They are weapons of immediacy, with death and destruction at or shortly following weapon use.
2. See, for example, Jessica Stern, The Ultimate Terrorists (Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1999) pp.1-2; Walter Laqueur, The New Terrorist: Fanaticism and the Arms of Mass Destruction (New York: Oxford University Press 1999) pp.49-53, where he outlines several published fictional scenarios; and Joseph W. Foxell, Jr., 'The Debate on the Potential for Mass-Casualty Terrorism: The Challenge to US Security', Terrorism and Political Violence 11/1 (Spring 1999) pp.100-104. '
3. See, for example, Jessica Stern, The Ultimate Terrorists (Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1999) pp.1-2; Walter Laqueur, The New Terrorist: Fanaticism and the Arms of Mass Destruction (New York: Oxford University Press 1999) pp.49-53, where he outlines several published fictional scenarios; and Joseph W. Foxell, Jr., 'The Debate on the Potential for Mass-Casualty Terrorism: The Challenge to US Security', Terrorism and Political Violence 11/1 (Spring 1999) pp.100-104. '
4. See, for example, Jessica Stern, The Ultimate Terrorists (Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1999) pp.1-2; Walter Laqueur, The New Terrorist: Fanaticism and the Arms of Mass Destruction (New York: Oxford University Press 1999) pp.49-53, where he outlines several published fictional scenarios; and Joseph W. Foxell, Jr., 'The Debate on the Potential for Mass-Casualty Terrorism: The Challenge to US Security', Terrorism and Political Violence 11/1 (Spring 1999) pp.100-104. '
5. Excellent compendia can be found in Jonathan B. Tucker (ed.). Toxic Terror: Assessing Terrorist Use of Chemical and Biological Weapons (Cambridge: MIT Press 2000) and Lt.Col. George W. Christopher (USAF) et al., 'Biological Warfare: A Historical Perspective', JAMA 278/5 (6 Aug. 1997) pp.412-17.
6. Excellent compendia can be found in Jonathan B. Tucker (ed.). Toxic Terror: Assessing Terrorist Use of Chemical and Biological Weapons (Cambridge: MIT Press 2000) and Lt.Col. George W. Christopher (USAF) et al., 'Biological Warfare: A Historical Perspective', JAMA 278/5 (6 Aug. 1997) pp.412-17.
7. Examples available on the Internet include John M. Deutch, 'Speech Presented at the Conference on Nuclear, Biological, Chemical Weapons Proliferation and Terrorism, 23 May 1996', ; Deutch, 'Fighting Foreign Terrorism', ; John A. Lauder, 'Statement by Special Assistant to the DCI for Non-Proliferation John Lauder on the Worldwide Biological Warfare Threat to the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence as prepared for delivery on 3 March 1999', ; and Lauder, 'Unclassified statement for the record on Worldwide WMD Threat to the Commission to Assess the Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction as prepared for delivery on 29 April 1999', .
8. Examples available on the Internet include John M. Deutch, 'Speech Presented at the Conference on Nuclear, Biological, Chemical Weapons Proliferation and Terrorism, 23 May 1996', ; Deutch, 'Fighting Foreign Terrorism', ; John A. Lauder, 'Statement by Special Assistant to the DCI for Non-Proliferation John Lauder on the Worldwide Biological Warfare Threat to the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence as prepared for delivery on 3 March 1999', ; and Lauder, 'Unclassified statement for the record on Worldwide WMD Threat to the Commission to Assess the Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction as prepared for delivery on 29 April 1999', .
9. Examples available on the Internet include John M. Deutch, 'Speech Presented at the Conference on Nuclear, Biological, Chemical Weapons Proliferation and Terrorism, 23 May 1996', ; Deutch, 'Fighting Foreign Terrorism', ; John A. Lauder, 'Statement by Special Assistant to the DCI for Non-Proliferation John Lauder on the Worldwide Biological Warfare Threat to the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence as prepared for delivery on 3 March 1999', ; and Lauder, 'Unclassified statement for the record on Worldwide WMD Threat to the Commission to Assess the Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction as prepared for delivery on 29 April 1999', .
10. Examples available on the Internet include John M. Deutch, 'Speech Presented at the Conference on Nuclear, Biological, Chemical Weapons Proliferation and Terrorism, 23 May 1996', ; Deutch, 'Fighting Foreign Terrorism', ; John A. Lauder, 'Statement by Special Assistant to the DCI for Non-Proliferation John Lauder on the Worldwide Biological Warfare Threat to the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence as prepared for delivery on 3 March 1999', ; and Lauder, 'Unclassified statement for the record on Worldwide WMD Threat to the Commission to Assess the Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction as prepared for delivery on 29 April 1999', .
11. An overview of US government initiative can be found in Government Accounting Office (GAO) publications Combating Terrorism: Federal Agencies' Efforts to Implement National Policy and Strategy, report GAO/NSIAD-97-254 (1997); Combating Terrorism: Threat and Risk Assessments can Help Prioritize and Target Program Investments, report GAO/NSIAD-98-74 (1998); Combating Terrorism: Observations on Crosscutting Issues, report GAO/TNSIAD-98-164 (1998); and Combating Terrorism: Issues to Resolve to Improve Counterterrorism Operations, report GAO/NSIAD-99-135 (1998); and Deputy Chief, DCI Counterterrorism Center, 'International Terrorism: Challenge and Response', http://www.ia.gov/cia/di/speeches/ intlterr.html. Non-government contributions include Gavin Cameron, 'The Likelihood of Nuclear Terrorism', Journal of Conflict Studies 18/2 (Fall 1998) pp.5-28; Foxell (note 2); and Ian Lesser et al., Countering the New Terrorism (Santa Monica: RAND 1999) pp.34-35, 74-80, and 85-144.
12. An overview of US government initiative can be found in Government Accounting Office (GAO) publications Combating Terrorism: Federal Agencies' Efforts to Implement National Policy and Strategy, report GAO/NSIAD-97-254 (1997); Combating Terrorism: Threat and Risk Assessments can Help Prioritize and Target Program Investments, report GAO/NSIAD-98-74 (1998); Combating Terrorism: Observations on Crosscutting Issues, report GAO/TNSIAD-98-164 (1998); and Combating Terrorism: Issues to Resolve to Improve Counterterrorism Operations, report GAO/NSIAD-99-135 (1998); and Deputy Chief, DCI Counterterrorism Center, 'International Terrorism: Challenge and Response', http://www.ia.gov/cia/di/speeches/ intlterr.html. Non-government contributions include Gavin Cameron, 'The Likelihood of Nuclear Terrorism', Journal of Conflict Studies 18/2 (Fall 1998) pp.5-28; Foxell (note 2); and Ian Lesser et al., Countering the New Terrorism (Santa Monica: RAND 1999) pp.34-35, 74-80, and 85-144.
13. An overview of US government initiative can be found in Government Accounting Office (GAO) publications Combating Terrorism: Federal Agencies' Efforts to Implement National Policy and Strategy, report GAO/NSIAD-97-254 (1997); Combating Terrorism: Threat and Risk Assessments can Help Prioritize and Target Program Investments, report GAO/NSIAD-98-74 (1998); Combating Terrorism: Observations on Crosscutting Issues, report GAO/TNSIAD-98-164 (1998); and Combating Terrorism: Issues to Resolve to Improve Counterterrorism Operations, report GAO/NSIAD-99-135 (1998); and Deputy Chief, DCI Counterterrorism Center, 'International Terrorism: Challenge and Response', http://www.ia.gov/cia/di/speeches/ intlterr.html. Non-government contributions include Gavin Cameron, 'The Likelihood of Nuclear Terrorism', Journal of Conflict Studies 18/2 (Fall 1998) pp.5-28; Foxell (note 2); and Ian Lesser et al., Countering the New Terrorism (Santa Monica: RAND 1999) pp.34-35, 74-80, and 85-144.
14. An overview of US government initiative can be found in Government Accounting Office (GAO) publications Combating Terrorism: Federal Agencies' Efforts to Implement National Policy and Strategy, report GAO/NSIAD-97-254 (1997); Combating Terrorism: Threat and Risk Assessments can Help Prioritize and Target Program Investments, report GAO/NSIAD-98-74 (1998); Combating Terrorism: Observations on Crosscutting Issues, report GAO/TNSIAD-98-164 (1998); and Combating Terrorism: Issues to Resolve to Improve Counterterrorism Operations, report GAO/NSIAD-99-135 (1998); and Deputy Chief, DCI Counterterrorism Center, 'International Terrorism: Challenge and Response', http://www.ia.gov/cia/di/speeches/ intlterr.html. Non-government contributions include Gavin Cameron, 'The Likelihood of Nuclear Terrorism', Journal of Conflict Studies 18/2 (Fall 1998) pp.5-28; Foxell (note 2); and Ian Lesser et al., Countering the New Terrorism (Santa Monica: RAND 1999) pp.34-35, 74-80, and 85-144.
15. An overview of US government initiative can be found in Government Accounting Office (GAO) publications Combating Terrorism: Federal Agencies' Efforts to Implement National Policy and Strategy, report GAO/NSIAD-97-254 (1997); Combating Terrorism: Threat and Risk Assessments can Help Prioritize and Target Program Investments, report GAO/NSIAD-98-74 (1998); Combating Terrorism: Observations on Crosscutting Issues, report GAO/TNSIAD-98-164 (1998); and Combating Terrorism: Issues to Resolve to Improve Counterterrorism Operations, report GAO/NSIAD-99-135 (1998); and Deputy Chief, DCI Counterterrorism Center, 'International Terrorism: Challenge and Response', http://www.ia.gov/cia/di/speeches/ intlterr.html. Non-government contributions include Gavin Cameron, 'The Likelihood of Nuclear Terrorism', Journal of Conflict Studies 18/2 (Fall 1998) pp.5-28; Foxell (note 2); and Ian Lesser et al., Countering the New Terrorism (Santa Monica: RAND 1999) pp.34-35, 74-80, and 85-144.
16. An overview of US government initiative can be found in Government Accounting Office (GAO) publications Combating Terrorism: Federal Agencies' Efforts to Implement National Policy and Strategy, report GAO/NSIAD-97-254 (1997); Combating Terrorism: Threat and Risk Assessments can Help Prioritize and Target Program Investments, report GAO/NSIAD-98-74 (1998); Combating Terrorism: Observations on Crosscutting Issues, report GAO/TNSIAD-98-164 (1998); and Combating Terrorism: Issues to Resolve to Improve Counterterrorism Operations, report GAO/NSIAD-99-135 (1998); and Deputy Chief, DCI Counterterrorism Center, 'International Terrorism: Challenge and Response', http://www.ia.gov/cia/di/speeches/ intlterr.html. Non-government contributions include Gavin Cameron, 'The Likelihood of Nuclear Terrorism', Journal of Conflict Studies 18/2 (Fall 1998) pp.5-28; Foxell (note 2); and Ian Lesser et al., Countering the New Terrorism (Santa Monica: RAND 1999) pp.34-35, 74-80, and 85-144.
17. An overview of US government initiative can be found in Government Accounting Office (GAO) publications Combating Terrorism: Federal Agencies' Efforts to Implement National Policy and Strategy, report GAO/NSIAD-97-254 (1997); Combating Terrorism: Threat and Risk Assessments can Help Prioritize and Target Program Investments, report GAO/NSIAD-98-74 (1998); Combating Terrorism: Observations on Crosscutting Issues, report GAO/TNSIAD-98-164 (1998); and Combating Terrorism: Issues to Resolve to Improve Counterterrorism Operations, report GAO/NSIAD-99-135 (1998); and Deputy Chief, DCI Counterterrorism Center, 'International Terrorism: Challenge and Response', http://www.ia.gov/cia/di/speeches/ intlterr.html. Non-government contributions include Gavin Cameron, 'The Likelihood of Nuclear Terrorism', Journal of Conflict Studies 18/2 (Fall 1998) pp.5-28; Foxell (note 2); and Ian Lesser et al., Countering the New Terrorism (Santa Monica: RAND 1999) pp.34-35, 74-80, and 85-144.
18. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 3rd ed., (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1996) pp.148-52.
19. David C. Rapoport, 'Terrorism and Weapons of the Apocalypse', National Security Studies Quarterly 5/3 (Summer 1999) pp.49-67 and Ehud Sprinzak, 'The Great Superterrorism Scare', Foreign Policy 112 (Fall 1998) pp.110-24.
20. David C. Rapoport, 'Terrorism and Weapons of the Apocalypse', National Security Studies Quarterly 5/3 (Summer 1999) pp.49-67 and Ehud Sprinzak, 'The Great Superterrorism Scare', Foreign Policy 112 (Fall 1998) pp.110-24.
21. Bruce Huffman's argument in '"Holy Terror": The Implications of Terror Motivated by a Religious Imperative', Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 18/4 (Oct.-Dec. 1995) pp.273, is one of the most widely cited references. Examples which incorporate Hoffman's argument include Cameron (note 5) pp. 19,23; Joel Dyer, Harvest of Rage: Why Oklahoma City is Only the Beginning (Boulder: Westview Press 1998) pp.75-106; Hoffman, 'Enter the New Terrorist, Mute and Bloodthirsty', The Baltimore Sun (18 Aug. 1998) pp.9A; and Foxell (note 2) p.97.
22. Bruce Huffman's argument in '"Holy Terror": The Implications of Terror Motivated by a Religious Imperative', Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 18/4 (Oct.-Dec. 1995) pp.273, is one of the most widely cited references. Examples which incorporate Hoffman's argument include Cameron (note 5) pp. 19,23; Joel Dyer, Harvest of Rage: Why Oklahoma City is Only the Beginning (Boulder: Westview Press 1998) pp.75-106; Hoffman, 'Enter the New Terrorist, Mute and Bloodthirsty', The Baltimore Sun (18 Aug. 1998) pp.9A; and Foxell (note 2) p.97.
23. Bruce Huffman's argument in '"Holy Terror": The Implications of Terror Motivated by a Religious Imperative', Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 18/4 (Oct.-Dec. 1995) pp.273, is one of the most widely cited references. Examples which incorporate Hoffman's argument include Cameron (note 5) pp. 19,23; Joel Dyer, Harvest of Rage: Why Oklahoma City is Only the Beginning (Boulder: Westview Press 1998) pp.75-106; Hoffman, 'Enter the New Terrorist, Mute and Bloodthirsty', The Baltimore Sun (18 Aug. 1998) pp.9A; and Foxell (note 2) p.97.
24. See, for example, Stern (note 2) pp. 138-9, 151-4; Lauder, March and April 1999 speeches (note 4).
25. Deutch, May and September 1996 speeches (note 4).
26. Dyer (note 8) pp.27-71, provides an extensive argument on this point.
27. Richard K. Belts, 'The New Threat of Mass Destruction', Foreign Affairs 17/1 (Jan.-Feb. 1998) pp.27-9 and Ashton Carter, John Deutch, and Philip Zelikow, 'Catastrophic Terrorism: Tackling the New Danger', Foreign Affairs 77/6 (Nov.-Dec. 1998) pp.81-94.
28. Richard K. Belts, 'The New Threat of Mass Destruction', Foreign Affairs 17/1 (Jan.-Feb. 1998) pp.27-9 and Ashton Carter, John Deutch, and Philip Zelikow, 'Catastrophic Terrorism: Tackling the New Danger', Foreign Affairs 77/6 (Nov.-Dec. 1998) pp.81-94.
29. Brian Jenkins, 'Will Terrorists Go Nuclear?', Orbis 29/3 (Fall 1985) p.511.
30. Rapoport, 'Weapons of the Apocalypse' (note 7).
31. See C.J.M. Drake, 'The Role of Ideology in Terrorists' Target Selection', Terrorism and Political Violence 10/2 (Summer 1998) pp.53-85 and Drake, Terrorists' Target Selection (London: MacMillan 1998).
32. See C.J.M. Drake, 'The Role of Ideology in Terrorists' Target Selection', Terrorism and Political Violence 10/2 (Summer 1998) pp.53-85 and Drake, Terrorists' Target Selection (London: MacMillan 1998).
33. See, for example, David C. Rapoport, 'The Politics of Atrocity', in Yonah Alexander and Seymour Maxwell Finger (eds.), Terrorism: Interdisciplinary Perspectives (New York: John Jay Press 1977) pp.46-61, especially pp.51-3 and Joanne Wright, Terrorist Propaganda: The Red Army Faction and the Provisional IRA, 1968-86 (New York: St Martin's Press 1991) pp.4-7, 35-7.
34. See, for example, David C. Rapoport, 'The Politics of Atrocity', in Yonah Alexander and Seymour Maxwell Finger (eds.), Terrorism: Interdisciplinary Perspectives (New York: John Jay Press 1977) pp.46-61, especially pp.51-3 and Joanne Wright, Terrorist Propaganda: The Red Army Faction and the Provisional IRA, 1968-86 (New York: St Martin's Press 1991) pp.4-7, 35-7.
35. Message effect on multiple audiences parallels the terrorist's effort to solve his collective action problem. For a detailed discussion of efforts and efficacy in addressing those audiences, see Mark I. Lichbach, The Rebel's Dilemma (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press 1995) especially pp.111-27.
36. Osama bin Laden, 'Expel the Mushrikeen from the Arabian Peninsula' (1996), and as 'MSANEWS: The Lebanese Epistle: Declaration of War, parts I through III', .
37. Osama bin Laden, 'Expel the Mushrikeen from the Arabian Peninsula' (1996), and as 'MSANEWS: The Lebanese Epistle: Declaration of War, parts I through III', .
38. David C. Rapoport, 'Fear and Trembling: Terrorism in Three Religious Traditions', American Political Science Review 78/3 (Sept. 1984) p.674.
39. Bonnie Cordes, 'When Terrorists do the Talking: Reflections on Terrorist Literature', The Journal of Strategic Studies 10/4 (Dec. 1987) pp. 150-51.
40. Drake (note 15).
41. bin Laden (note 18).
42. Hoffman, 'Holy Terror' (note 8); Bruce Hoffman, 'Terrorism and WMD: Some Preliminary potheses', The Nonproliferation Review 4/3 (Spring-Summer 1997) p.48; Huffman, Inside Terrorism (note 8) pp.94-5, 201; Huffman, 'Enter the New Terrorist' (note 8); James K, Campbell, Weapons of Mass Destruction Terrorism (Seminole: Interpact Press 1997) pp.5, 143-4; and Foxell (note 2) p.97 are noteworthy examples in which religious imperative is linked to propensity for violence.
43. Hoffman, 'Holy Terror' (note 8); Bruce Hoffman, 'Terrorism and WMD: Some Preliminary potheses', The Nonproliferation Review 4/3 (Spring-Summer 1997) p.48; Huffman, Inside Terrorism (note 8) pp.94-5, 201; Huffman, 'Enter the New Terrorist' (note 8); James K, Campbell, Weapons of Mass Destruction Terrorism (Seminole: Interpact Press 1997) pp.5, 143-4; and Foxell (note 2) p.97 are noteworthy examples in which religious imperative is linked to propensity for violence.
44. Hoffman, 'Holy Terror' (note 8); Bruce Hoffman, 'Terrorism and WMD: Some Preliminary potheses', The Nonproliferation Review 4/3 (Spring-Summer 1997) p.48; Huffman, Inside Terrorism (note 8) pp.94-5, 201; Huffman, 'Enter the New Terrorist' (note 8); James K, Campbell, Weapons of Mass Destruction Terrorism (Seminole: Interpact Press 1997) pp.5, 143-4; and Foxell (note 2) p.97 are noteworthy examples in which religious imperative is linked to propensity for violence.
45. Hoffman, 'Holy Terror' (note 8); Bruce Hoffman, 'Terrorism and WMD: Some Preliminary potheses', The Nonproliferation Review 4/3 (Spring-Summer 1997) p.48; Huffman, Inside Terrorism (note 8) pp.94-5, 201; Huffman, 'Enter the New Terrorist' (note 8); James K, Campbell, Weapons of Mass Destruction Terrorism (Seminole: Interpact Press 1997) pp.5, 143-4; and Foxell (note 2) p.97 are noteworthy examples in which religious imperative is linked to propensity for violence.
46. Hoffman, 'Holy Terror' (note 8); Bruce Hoffman, 'Terrorism and WMD: Some Preliminary potheses', The Nonproliferation Review 4/3 (Spring-Summer 1997) p.48; Huffman, Inside Terrorism (note 8) pp.94-5, 201; Huffman, 'Enter the New Terrorist' (note 8); James K, Campbell, Weapons of Mass Destruction Terrorism (Seminole: Interpact Press 1997) pp.5, 143-4; and Foxell (note 2) p.97 are noteworthy examples in which religious imperative is linked to propensity for violence.
47. See, for example, National Council of Resistance of Iran web pages, .
48. Cordes (note 20).
49. Drake (note 15).
50. Palestinian Liberation Organization, 'The Palestinian National Charter', Resolution of the Palestine National Council (July 1-17, 1968). Those portions of the charter specifically calling for Israel's destruction have since been amended.
51. Michael Baumann, Terror or Love? Bommi Baumann's Own Story of his Life as a West German Urban Guerrilla (New York: Grove Press 1977) pp.86, 106-10; Julian Becker, Hitler's Children: The Story of the Baader-Meinhof Terrorist Gang (Philadelphia: Lippincott Co. 1977) pp.12, 260-61, 268-71; and RAF, 'The Urban Guerrilla is History⋯ Final Communiqué of the Red Army Faction' (March 1998).
52. Michael Baumann, Terror or Love? Bommi Baumann's Own Story of his Life as a West German Urban Guerrilla (New York: Grove Press 1977) pp.86, 106-10; Julian Becker, Hitler's Children: The Story of the Baader-Meinhof Terrorist Gang (Philadelphia: Lippincott Co. 1977) pp.12, 260-61, 268-71; and RAF, 'The Urban Guerrilla is History⋯ Final Communiqué of the Red Army Faction' (March 1998).
53. Michael Baumann, Terror or Love? Bommi Baumann's Own Story of his Life as a West German Urban Guerrilla (New York: Grove Press 1977) pp.86, 106-10; Julian Becker, Hitler's Children: The Story of the Baader-Meinhof Terrorist Gang (Philadelphia: Lippincott Co. 1977) pp.12, 260-61, 268-71; and RAF, 'The Urban Guerrilla is History⋯ Final Communiqué of the Red Army Faction' (March 1998).
54. See, for example, John D. Stempel, Inside the Iranian Revolution (Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1981) pp.300, 320; Gary Sick, All Fall Down: America's Tragic Encounter with Iran (New York: Penguin Books 1985) pp.232-8; and Ervand Abrahamian, The Iranian Mojahedin (New Haven: Yale University Press 1989) pp. 187-9, 198, 206-23.
55. See, for example, John D. Stempel, Inside the Iranian Revolution (Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1981) pp.300, 320; Gary Sick, All Fall Down: America's Tragic Encounter with Iran (New York: Penguin Books 1985) pp.232-8; and Ervand Abrahamian, The Iranian Mojahedin (New Haven: Yale University Press 1989) pp. 187-9, 198, 206-23.
56. See, for example, John D. Stempel, Inside the Iranian Revolution (Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1981) pp.300, 320; Gary Sick, All Fall Down: America's Tragic Encounter with Iran (New York: Penguin Books 1985) pp.232-8; and Ervand Abrahamian, The Iranian Mojahedin (New Haven: Yale University Press 1989) pp. 187-9, 198, 206-23.
57. See, among others, Lyman Tower Sargent (ed.). Extremism in America: A Reader (New York: New York University Press 1995) pp.137-59, 176-90; Jeffrey Kaplan, 'Right-Wing Violence in North America', in Tore Bjørgo (ed.), Terror from the Extreme Right (London: Frank Cass 1995) pp.44-95, especially quotes; Rafael S. Ezekiel, The Racist Mind: Portraits of American Neo-Nazis and Klansmen (New York: Viking Books 1995) pp.184, 310-19 for example; Andrew MacDonald [pseud. William Pierce], The Turner Diaries (New York: Barricade Books 1996); and Thomas E. Nelson, Rosalee A. Clawson, and Zoe M. Oxley, 'Media Framing of a Civil Liberties Conflict and its Effects on Tolerance', American Political Science Review 91/3 (Sept. 1997) pp.567-83.
58. See, among others, Lyman Tower Sargent (ed.). Extremism in America: A Reader (New York: New York University Press 1995) pp.137-59, 176-90; Jeffrey Kaplan, 'Right-Wing Violence in North America', in Tore Bjørgo (ed.), Terror from the Extreme Right (London: Frank Cass 1995) pp.44-95, especially quotes; Rafael S. Ezekiel, The Racist Mind: Portraits of American Neo-Nazis and Klansmen (New York: Viking Books 1995) pp.184, 310-19 for example; Andrew MacDonald [pseud. William Pierce], The Turner Diaries (New York: Barricade Books 1996); and Thomas E. Nelson, Rosalee A. Clawson, and Zoe M. Oxley, 'Media Framing of a Civil Liberties Conflict and its Effects on Tolerance', American Political Science Review 91/3 (Sept. 1997) pp.567-83.
59. See, among others, Lyman Tower Sargent (ed.). Extremism in America: A Reader (New York: New York University Press 1995) pp.137-59, 176-90; Jeffrey Kaplan, 'Right-Wing Violence in North America', in Tore Bjørgo (ed.), Terror from the Extreme Right (London: Frank Cass 1995) pp.44-95, especially quotes; Rafael S. Ezekiel, The Racist Mind: Portraits of American Neo-Nazis and Klansmen (New York: Viking Books 1995) pp.184, 310-19 for example; Andrew MacDonald [pseud. William Pierce], The Turner Diaries (New York: Barricade Books 1996); and Thomas E. Nelson, Rosalee A. Clawson, and Zoe M. Oxley, 'Media Framing of a Civil Liberties Conflict and its Effects on Tolerance', American Political Science Review 91/3 (Sept. 1997) pp.567-83.
60. See, among others, Lyman Tower Sargent (ed.). Extremism in America: A Reader (New York: New York University Press 1995) pp.137-59, 176-90; Jeffrey Kaplan, 'Right-Wing Violence in North America', in Tore Bjørgo (ed.), Terror from the Extreme Right (London: Frank Cass 1995) pp.44-95, especially quotes; Rafael S. Ezekiel, The Racist Mind: Portraits of American Neo-Nazis and Klansmen (New York: Viking Books 1995) pp.184, 310-19 for example; Andrew MacDonald [pseud. William Pierce], The Turner Diaries (New York: Barricade Books 1996); and Thomas E. Nelson, Rosalee A. Clawson, and Zoe M. Oxley, 'Media Framing of a Civil Liberties Conflict and its Effects on Tolerance', American Political Science Review 91/3 (Sept. 1997) pp.567-83.
61. See, among others, Lyman Tower Sargent (ed.). Extremism in America: A Reader (New York: New York University Press 1995) pp.137-59, 176-90; Jeffrey Kaplan, 'Right-Wing Violence in North America', in Tore Bjørgo (ed.), Terror from the Extreme Right (London: Frank Cass 1995) pp.44-95, especially quotes; Rafael S. Ezekiel, The Racist Mind: Portraits of American Neo-Nazis and Klansmen (New York: Viking Books 1995) pp.184, 310-19 for example; Andrew MacDonald [pseud. William Pierce], The Turner Diaries (New York: Barricade Books 1996); and Thomas E. Nelson, Rosalee A. Clawson, and Zoe M. Oxley, 'Media Framing of a Civil Liberties Conflict and its Effects on Tolerance', American Political Science Review 91/3 (Sept. 1997) pp.567-83.
62. Betts (note 12) pp.29, 39-41 ; Cameron (note 5) pp. 19-23; and Hoffman 'Holy Terror' (note 8) p.273 are examples.
63. bin Laden, 'Mushrikeen' (note 18).
64. Khalid Mish'al, 'Interview: Occupation should not feel like stability', Palestinian Times (Sept. 1997),
65. Islamic Resistance Movement (Hamas), 'The Covenant of the Islamic Resistance Movement' (1988), article six. Posted to newsgroup 'talk.politics.mideast', 21 Dec. 1992.
66. Shoko Asahara, 'Rebirth in a Higher World', ; Asahara, 'How to Live during the Time of Radical Change', ; and Asahara, 'World War IIIis Coming Soon! The Control of Plasma',
67. Shoko Asahara, 'Rebirth in a Higher World', ; Asahara, 'How to Live during the Time of Radical Change', ; and Asahara, 'World War IIIis Coming Soon! The Control of Plasma',
68. Shoko Asahara, 'Rebirth in a Higher World', ; Asahara, 'How to Live during the Time of Radical Change', ; and Asahara, 'World War IIIis Coming Soon! The Control of Plasma',
69. Shoko Asahara, 'Rebirth in a Higher World', ; Asahara, 'How to Live during the Time of Radical Change', ; and Asahara, 'World War IIIis Coming Soon! The Control of Plasma',
70. Asahara, 'Plasma' (note 35).
71. Jerrold Post, 'Prospects for Nuclear Terrorism: Psychological Motivations and Constraints', in Paul Leventhal and Yonah Alexander (eds.), Preventing Nuclear Terrorism: The Report and Papers of the International Task Force on Prevention of Nuclear Terrorism (Lexington: Lexington Books 1987) p.93.
72. See, for example, Charles B. Strozier, Apocalypse: On the Psychology of Fundamentalism in America (Boston: Beacon Books 1994) pp.89-92; Michael Barkun, 'Millenarians and Violence: The Case of the Christian Identity Movement', in Thomas Robbins and Susan J. Palmer (eds.), Millenium, Messiahs, and Mayhem: Contemporary Apocalyptic Movements (New York: Routledge 1997) pp.247-60; Dick Anthony and Thomas Robbins, 'Religious talism, Exemplary Dualism, and the Waco Tragedy', in Robbins and Palmer (eds.) pp.261-84; John R. Hall and Philip Schuyler, 'The Mystical Apocalypse of the Solar Temple', in Robbins and Palmer (eds.) pp.285-311; Mark R. Mullins, 'Aum Shinrikyo as an Apocalyptic Movement', in Robbins and Palmer (eds.) pp.313-24; and Dyer (note 8) pp.211-13.
73. See, for example, Charles B. Strozier, Apocalypse: On the Psychology of Fundamentalism in America (Boston: Beacon Books 1994) pp.89-92; Michael Barkun, 'Millenarians and Violence: The Case of the Christian Identity Movement', in Thomas Robbins and Susan J. Palmer (eds.), Millenium, Messiahs, and Mayhem: Contemporary Apocalyptic Movements (New York: Routledge 1997) pp.247-60; Dick Anthony and Thomas Robbins, 'Religious talism, Exemplary Dualism, and the Waco Tragedy', in Robbins and Palmer (eds.) pp.261-84; John R. Hall and Philip Schuyler, 'The Mystical Apocalypse of the Solar Temple', in Robbins and Palmer (eds.) pp.285-311; Mark R. Mullins, 'Aum Shinrikyo as an Apocalyptic Movement', in Robbins and Palmer (eds.) pp.313-24; and Dyer (note 8) pp.211-13.
74. See, for example, Charles B. Strozier, Apocalypse: On the Psychology of Fundamentalism in America (Boston: Beacon Books 1994) pp.89-92; Michael Barkun, 'Millenarians and Violence: The Case of the Christian Identity Movement', in Thomas Robbins and Susan J. Palmer (eds.), Millenium, Messiahs, and Mayhem: Contemporary Apocalyptic Movements (New York: Routledge 1997) pp.247-60; Dick Anthony and Thomas Robbins, 'Religious talism, Exemplary Dualism, and the Waco Tragedy', in Robbins and Palmer (eds.) pp.261-84; John R. Hall and Philip Schuyler, 'The Mystical Apocalypse of the Solar Temple', in Robbins and Palmer (eds.) pp.285-311; Mark R. Mullins, 'Aum Shinrikyo as an Apocalyptic Movement', in Robbins and Palmer (eds.) pp.313-24; and Dyer (note 8) pp.211-13.
75. See, for example, Charles B. Strozier, Apocalypse: On the Psychology of Fundamentalism in America (Boston: Beacon Books 1994) pp.89-92; Michael Barkun, 'Millenarians and Violence: The Case of the Christian Identity Movement', in Thomas Robbins and Susan J. Palmer (eds.), Millenium, Messiahs, and Mayhem: Contemporary Apocalyptic Movements (New York: Routledge 1997) pp.247-60; Dick Anthony and Thomas Robbins, 'Religious talism, Exemplary Dualism, and the Waco Tragedy', in Robbins and Palmer (eds.) pp.261-84; John R. Hall and Philip Schuyler, 'The Mystical Apocalypse of the Solar Temple', in Robbins and Palmer (eds.) pp.285-311; Mark R. Mullins, 'Aum Shinrikyo as an Apocalyptic Movement', in Robbins and Palmer (eds.) pp.313-24; and Dyer (note 8) pp.211-13.
76. See, for example, Charles B. Strozier, Apocalypse: On the Psychology of Fundamentalism in America (Boston: Beacon Books 1994) pp.89-92; Michael Barkun, 'Millenarians and Violence: The Case of the Christian Identity Movement', in Thomas Robbins and Susan J. Palmer (eds.), Millenium, Messiahs, and Mayhem: Contemporary Apocalyptic Movements (New York: Routledge 1997) pp.247-60; Dick Anthony and Thomas Robbins, 'Religious talism, Exemplary Dualism, and the Waco Tragedy', in Robbins and Palmer (eds.) pp.261-84; John R. Hall and Philip Schuyler, 'The Mystical Apocalypse of the Solar Temple', in Robbins and Palmer (eds.) pp.285-311; Mark R. Mullins, 'Aum Shinrikyo as an Apocalyptic Movement', in Robbins and Palmer (eds.) pp.313-24; and Dyer (note 8) pp.211-13.
77. David C. Rapoport, 'To Claim or not to Claim: That is the Question - Always!' Terrorism and Political Violence 9/1 (Spring 1997) p.12 and Martha Crenshaw, 'The Psychology of Terrorism: An Agenda for the 21st Century', Political Psychology 21/2 (June 2000) pp.405-20.
78. David C. Rapoport, 'To Claim or not to Claim: That is the Question - Always!' Terrorism and Political Violence 9/1 (Spring 1997) p.12 and Martha Crenshaw, 'The Psychology of Terrorism: An Agenda for the 21st Century', Political Psychology 21/2 (June 2000) pp.405-20.