"The door opens and the tiger leaps": Theories and reflexivities of comparative education for a global millennium

Comparative Education Review

Volumn 45, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 581-615

  Marginson, Simon ^a   Mollis, Marcela ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0035563630     PISSN: 00104086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/447693     Document Type: Article

References (120)

1. P. Bourdieu, Campo de Poder y Campo Intelectual (Buenos Aires; Folios, 1983), and Cosas Dichas (Barcelona: Gedisa, 1988); M. Mollis and S. Marginson, "The Assessment of Universities in Argentina and Australia: Between Autonomy and Heteronomy," Higher Education, in press.
2. P. Bourdieu, Campo de Poder y Campo Intelectual (Buenos Aires; Folios, 1983), and Cosas Dichas (Barcelona: Gedisa, 1988); M. Mollis and S. Marginson, "The Assessment of Universities in Argentina and Australia: Between Autonomy and Heteronomy," Higher Education, in press.
3. P. Bourdieu, Campo de Poder y Campo Intelectual (Buenos Aires; Folios, 1983), and Cosas Dichas (Barcelona: Gedisa, 1988); M. Mollis and S. Marginson, "The Assessment of Universities in Argentina and Australia: Between Autonomy and Heteronomy," Higher Education, in press.
4. M. Foucault, The Archeology of Knowledge (London: Tavistock, 1972), Discipline and Punish (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977) , and Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. C. Gordon (New York: Pantheon, 1980).
5. M. Foucault, The Archeology of Knowledge (London: Tavistock, 1972), Discipline and Punish (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977) , and Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. C. Gordon (New York: Pantheon, 1980).
6. M. Foucault, The Archeology of Knowledge (London: Tavistock, 1972), Discipline and Punish (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977) , and Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. C. Gordon (New York: Pantheon, 1980).
7. The growing salience of American, and to a lesser extent British, policy norms in the education work of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) can be read from OECD education publications from the mid-1980s onward, and this salience was attested by longstanding OECD official George Papadopoulos during a symposium on the OECD role in national education policies in Brisbane, Australia in 1998. That conference was attended by one of the authors.
8. B. Barber, "Science, Salience, and Comparative Education: Some Reflections on Social Scientific Inquiry," Comparative Education Review 16, no. 3 (1972): 424-36, quote on 428.
9. We understand hegemony as the exercise of primary influence, tending toward control, through a broad range of institutions, practices, and mechanisms: political, economic, and cultural (linguistic, customary, discursive, etc.). The concept has its roots with A. Gramsci, but we do not share Gramsci's assumption that political economy and class are necessarily primary in relation to the other aspects of hegemony (A. Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks, ed. and trans. Q. Hoare and G. Nowell-Smith [New York: International Publishers, 1971]).
10. Three examples, among many, are M. Carnoy, Education as Cultural Imperialism (New York: MacKay, 1974); R. Arnove and C. Torres, Comparative Education (Boulder, Colo.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999); and N. Stromquist and K. Monkman, eds., Globalization and Education: Integration and Contestation across Cultures (Boulder, Colo.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000).
11. Three examples, among many, are M. Carnoy, Education as Cultural Imperialism (New York: MacKay, 1974); R. Arnove and C. Torres, Comparative Education (Boulder, Colo.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999); and N. Stromquist and K. Monkman, eds., Globalization and Education: Integration and Contestation across Cultures (Boulder, Colo.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000).
12. Three examples, among many, are M. Carnoy, Education as Cultural Imperialism (New York: MacKay, 1974); R. Arnove and C. Torres, Comparative Education (Boulder, Colo.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999); and N. Stromquist and K. Monkman, eds., Globalization and Education: Integration and Contestation across Cultures (Boulder, Colo.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000).
13. M. Mollis, Estado nacional y universidad: Argentina y Japón, 1885-1930 (Buenos Aires: Biblos, 1991).
14. Ibid. See also M. Mollis, "La cultura escolar del Japón: Un escenario de rituales para el disciplinamiento moral," Propuesta Educativa, FLACSO, año II (1991): 3-4.
15. Ibid. See also M. Mollis, "La cultura escolar del Japón: Un escenario de rituales para el disciplinamiento moral," Propuesta Educativa, FLACSO, año II (1991): 3-4.
16. Mollis, Estado national y universidad. The two kinds of education are in tension, yet they share a common division of labor. Their contradictions and commonalities are formative of Japanese social relations.
17. E. H. Epstein, "The Problematic Meaning of 'Comparison' in Comparative Education," in Comparative Education, ed. K. Kempner, M. Mollis, and W. Tierney (Needham Heights, Mass.: Simon & Schuster, 1998), pp. 31-40.
18. For example, see Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education at a Glance (Paris: OECD, 2000).
19. K. Kempner, M. Mollis, and W. Tierney, "Introduction," in Kempner, Mollis, and Tierney, eds. (n. 10 above), pp. xiii-xvii.
20. B. Young, "Comparative Methodology and Postmodern Relativism," International Review of Education 43, nos. 5-6 (1997): 497-99, quote on 499.
21. M. Mollis, "La educación comparada de los '80s: Memoria y balance," Revista de Educación 293 (September/December 1990): 311-23; Mollis provides a detailed historical description of the periods and trends in the building of the field of comparative education.
22. M. A. Eckstein, "Concepts and Theories in Comparative Education," in The Encyclopedia of Comparative Education and National Systems of Education, ed. T. Postlewaite (Oxford: Pergamon, 1988). p. 7.
23. G. Bereday, "Some Discussion of Methods," Comparative Education Review 1, no. 3 (1957): 15-32; A. Anderson, "The Utility of Societal Typologies in Comparative Education," Comparative Education Review 3, no. 3 (1959): 20-22.
24. G. Bereday, "Some Discussion of Methods," Comparative Education Review 1, no. 3 (1957): 15-32; A. Anderson, "The Utility of Societal Typologies in Comparative Education," Comparative Education Review 3, no. 3 (1959): 20-22.
25. Mollis, "La educación comparada," p. 229.
26. M. B. Hesse, Revolutions and Reconstructions in the Philosophy of Science (London: Harvester, 1980).
27. R. Morrow and C. Torres, Social Theory and Education: A Critique of Theories of Social and Cultural Reproduction (Albany, N.Y.: SUNYPress, 1995).
28. P. Altbach, "Tendencias en la educación comparada," Revista de Educación 293 (1990): 295-311.
29. I. Wallerstein, "The National and the Universal: Can There Be Such a Thing as World Culture?" in Culture, Globalization, and the World-System, ed. A. D. King (Binghamton: State University of New York, 1991); R. Morrow and D. Brown, Critical Theory and Methodology (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1994).
30. I. Wallerstein, "The National and the Universal: Can There Be Such a Thing as World Culture?" in Culture, Globalization, and the World-System, ed. A. D. King (Binghamton: State University of New York, 1991); R. Morrow and D. Brown, Critical Theory and Methodology (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1994).
31. For a revealing account of the positivist method in neoclassical economics, see the famous essay by Milton Friedman, "The Methodology of Positive Economics," in M. Friedman, Essays in Positive Economics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953), pp. 3-43. For Friedman, the more universal are the postulates of economics, the less troubled by locality and difference, the more powerful and desirable they become.
32. S. Marginson, Markets in Education (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1997), pp. 92-118.
33. Epstein (n. 10 above), p. 32.
34. R. Feito, "Escuelay hegemonía," Revista de Educación 293 (1990): 281-293, quote on 285.
35. H. J. Noah, "Methods in Comparative Education," in Postlewaite, ed. (n. 15 above); H. J. Noah and M. A. Eckstein, Toward a Science of Comparative Education (New York: Macmillan, 1969), p. 114. Note that universal laws and lawlike models of explanations are distinct from merely empirical generalizations that address the issue of how to move from empirical observations to definitions of causality.
36. H. J. Noah, "Methods in Comparative Education," in Postlewaite, ed. (n. 15 above); H. J. Noah and M. A. Eckstein, Toward a Science of Comparative Education (New York: Macmillan, 1969), p. 114. Note that universal laws and lawlike models of explanations are distinct from merely empirical generalizations that address the issue of how to move from empirical observations to definitions of causality.
37. H. J. Noah, "Methods," p. 12.
38. Ibid.
39. Sheila Dow develops a brilliant argument along these lines in relation to political economy, drawing out the implications for theory and method: see "Beyond Dualism," Cambridge Journal of Economics 14 (1990): 143-57.
40. These probabilistic models invoke a new set of problems and fallacies. Space does not permit a full discussion here, but see J. M. Keynes, Treatise on Probability (London: Macmillan, 1921); and the various contributions to S. Dow and J. Hillard, eds., Keynes, Knowledge, and Uncertainly (Aldershot: Edward Elgar, 1995).
41. These probabilistic models invoke a new set of problems and fallacies. Space does not permit a full discussion here, but see J. M. Keynes, Treatise on Probability (London: Macmillan, 1921); and the various contributions to S. Dow and J. Hillard, eds., Keynes, Knowledge, and Uncertainly (Aldershot: Edward Elgar, 1995).
42. To refer to a simple example, to say that in Spain public education makes up 60 percent of the elementary and secondary enrollment is ambiguous at best, given that, in certain autonomous communities such as Catalonia, the private sector represents more than 50 percent of enrollments: F. Raventos Santamaria, Metodología Comparativa y Pedagogía Comparada (Barcelona: Editorial Boixareu Universitaria, 1990).
43. G. Busino, "Pour un autre théorie de la comparaison," Revue Européenne des Sciences Sociales 24, no. 72 (1986): 211-14, quote on 211.
44. J. Samoff, "More, Less, None? Human Resource Development: Responses to Economic Constraint" (paper presented at the meeting of the Interagency Task Force on Austerity, Adjustment, and Human Resources of the International Labor Office and the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, May 1990).
45. M. Mollis, "Evaluación de la calidad universitaria: Elementos para su discusión," Revista del Instituto de Ciencias de la Educación 2, no. 3 (1993): 26.
46. Mollis and Marginson (n. 1 above).
47. T. Becher, "Las disciplinas y la identidad de los académicos," Pensamiento Universitario 1, no. 1 (1993): 56-78; G. Diker, "Acerca de la diversidad del trabajo académico," Revista del Instituto de Ciencias de la Educación (IICE) 2, no. 3 (1993): 39-48.
48. T. Becher, "Las disciplinas y la identidad de los académicos," Pensamiento Universitario 1, no. 1 (1993): 56-78; G. Diker, "Acerca de la diversidad del trabajo académico," Revista del Instituto de Ciencias de la Educación (IICE) 2, no. 3 (1993): 39-48.
49. V. Woolf, The Waves (1931; reprint, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1951), p. 111.
50. A. Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996).
51. M. Crossley is another who makes this point: "Reconceptualizing Comparative and International Education," Compared, no. 3 (1999): 249-67.
52. N. Burbules and N. Torres, eds., Globalization and Education: Critical Perspectives (Social Theory, Education and Cultural Change) (New York: Routledge, 2000); Stromquist and Monkman (n. 6 above).
53. The problems created by the economistic and homogenizing usage of globalization in Anglo-American neoliberal discourse are discussed in F. Clyne, S. Marginson, and R. Woock, "International Education in Australian Universities: Concepts and Definitions" (paper presented to the Comparative and International Education Society conference, San Antonio, March 7-12, 2000). See also Marginson (n. 23 above).
54. P. Hirst and G. Thomson, Globalization in Question (Cambridge: Polity, 1996).
55. Among the theorizations of 'globalization' across the political economy/culture divide are those of D. Harvey (The Condition of Postmodernity [Oxford: Blackwell, 1990]); M. Castells (The Rise of the Network Society [Oxford: Blackwell, 1996]); Appadurai; E. Fuat Keyman (Globalization, State, Identity/Difference: Toward a Critical Social Theory of International Relations [Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1997]); and D. Held, A. McGrew, D. Goldblatt, and J. Peraton (Global Transformations [Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999]).
56. Among the theorizations of 'globalization' across the political economy/culture divide are those of D. Harvey (The Condition of Postmodernity [Oxford: Blackwell, 1990]); M. Castells (The Rise of the Network Society [Oxford: Blackwell, 1996]); Appadurai; E. Fuat Keyman (Globalization, State, Identity/Difference: Toward a Critical Social Theory of International Relations [Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1997]); and D. Held, A. McGrew, D. Goldblatt, and J. Peraton (Global Transformations [Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999]).
57. Among the theorizations of 'globalization' across the political economy/culture divide are those of D. Harvey (The Condition of Postmodernity [Oxford: Blackwell, 1990]); M. Castells (The Rise of the Network Society [Oxford: Blackwell, 1996]); Appadurai; E. Fuat Keyman (Globalization, State, Identity/Difference: Toward a Critical Social Theory of International Relations [Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1997]); and D. Held, A. McGrew, D. Goldblatt, and J. Peraton (Global Transformations [Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999]).
58. Among the theorizations of 'globalization' across the political economy/culture divide are those of D. Harvey (The Condition of Postmodernity [Oxford: Blackwell, 1990]); M. Castells (The Rise of the Network Society [Oxford: Blackwell, 1996]); Appadurai; E. Fuat Keyman (Globalization, State, Identity/Difference: Toward a Critical Social Theory of International Relations [Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1997]); and D. Held, A. McGrew, D. Goldblatt, and J. Peraton (Global Transformations [Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999]).
59. Appadurai; H. Bhabha, Nation and Narration (London: Routledge, 1990).
60. R. Rorty, "Post-Modernist Bourgeois Liberalism," Journal of Philosophy 80, no. 1 (1983): 583-89.
61. Held et al., p. 326.
62. Keyman provides a useful account of these combined tendencies.
63. Held et al., p. 346.
64. V. Rust and L. Lauman, "The Democratic Politics of Theory in Comparative Education," in Democratizing Education and Educating Democratic Citizens: International and Historical Perspectives, ed. L. Limage (New York: Routledge Palmer, 2001 ), p. 38.
65. N. Stromquist, "Romancing the State: Gender and Power in Education," Comparative Education Review 39, no. 4 (1995): 423-54.
66. N. Stromquist, "Reframing Citizenship: Women as Full Actors in the Nation State," in Limage, ed., pp. 3-24, esp. pp. 10, 14, and 19. See also N. Stromquist, "Educating Women: The Political Economy of Patriarchal States," International Studies in the Sociology of Education 1, nos. 1/2 (1991): 110-28, quote on 112.
67. N. Stromquist, "Reframing Citizenship: Women as Full Actors in the Nation State," in Limage, ed., pp. 3-24, esp. pp. 10, 14, and 19. See also N. Stromquist, "Educating Women: The Political Economy of Patriarchal States," International Studies in the Sociology of Education 1, nos. 1/2 (1991): 110-28, quote on 112.
68. N. Stromquist, "Reframing Citizenship," p. 10.
69. E. Oyen, "The Imperfection of Comparisons," in Comparative Methodology: Theory and Practice in International Social Research (London: Sage, 1990), p. 1.
70. J. Chubb and T. Moe, Politics, Markets, and America's Schools (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1990).
71. World Bank, Higher Education: The Lessons of Experience (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1994).
72. World Bank, Argentina: From Insolvency to Growth, a World Bank Country Study (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1993), p. 78. See also World Bank, Staff Appraisal Report: Argentina, Higher Education Reform Project (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1995).
73. World Bank, Argentina: From Insolvency to Growth, a World Bank Country Study (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1993), p. 78. See also World Bank, Staff Appraisal Report: Argentina, Higher Education Reform Project (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1995).
74. For more discussion of reforms and counter-reforms in Argentina, see Mollis and Marginson (n. 1 above).
75. In relation to this point about the expansion of space for independent research, an anonymous reviewer asked, "Who is going to fund it?" It has always been possible for some faculty to sustain their own research programs, financed by ongoing university resources as distinct from specific project grants; some granting sources such as foundations encourage independent scholarly work; and those accepting project grams should not consider themselves immune from the responsibility to act independently.
76. J. C. Tedesco and H. Blumenthal, "Desafios y problemas de la educación superior en América Latina," in La Juventud Universitaria en América Latina, ed. J. C. Tedesco, H. Blumethal, and O. Albornoz (Caracas: Centro Regional para la Educacíon Superior en América Latina y el Caribe and Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales, 1986), pp. 9-28.
77. Young (n. 13 above), p. 504.
78. Ibid, p. 499.
79. Ibid, p. 503.
80. The word "prism" refers to the metaphor of the Object-prism from A. Matute of UNESCO, in which "by selecting an Object-prism one is selecting an universe which one expects to enter by means of the critical reading of the former, where each universe has a different quality and any amount of roads to travel" (A. Matute, "El método de acercamiento critico: Otro punto de vista sobre calidad de la educación," Revista Latinoamericana de Estudios Educativos 21, no. 2 [1991]: 89-108, quote on 102).
81. Here we emphasize the value of the scholarship of class, race, and gender as an integrated set of theories facing the challenge of postmodernism but also moving beyond the political immobilism of many postmodernist positions.
82. Dow (n. 29 above), pp. 146-47.
83. Excellent examples of the value of constructing interdisciplinary knowledge are found in UNESCO, Las Culturas y el Tiempo (Paris: UNESCO, 1979), and El Tiempo y Las Filosofías (Paris: UNESCO, 1979).
84. Excellent examples of the value of constructing interdisciplinary knowledge are found in UNESCO, Las Culturas y el Tiempo (Paris: UNESCO, 1979), and El Tiempo y Las Filosofías (Paris: UNESCO, 1979).
85. C. Tilly, Big Structures, Large Processes, Huge Comparisons (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1984), pp. 7-13; I. Wallerstein, Unthinking Social Science: The Limits of Nineteenth Century Paradigms (Cambridge: Polity, 1991).
86. C. Tilly, Big Structures, Large Processes, Huge Comparisons (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1984), pp. 7-13; I. Wallerstein, Unthinking Social Science: The Limits of Nineteenth Century Paradigms (Cambridge: Polity, 1991).
87. M. Pereyra "La comparación, una empresa razonada de Análisis: Por otros usos de la comparación," Revista de Education: Los Usos de la Comparación en Ciencias Sociales y en Educación, número extraordinario (1990): 31.
88. P. Abramhs, Historical Sociology (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1989).
89. M. Bloch, Introduction a la Historia (Mexico City, Madrid, and Buenos Aires: Fondo de Cultura Econornica, 1982), p. 24.
90. See, e.g., F. Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (London: Harper-Collins, 1972).
91. An analysis of the theoretical-methodological tendencies of the past 30 years can be found in Abramhs.
92. T. Skocpol and M. Somers, "The Uses of Comparative History in Macrosocial Inquiry," Comparative Studies in Society and History 22, no. 2 (1980): 174-97; T. Skocpol. Los Estados y Revoluciones Sociales (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1984).
93. T. Skocpol and M. Somers, "The Uses of Comparative History in Macrosocial Inquiry," Comparative Studies in Society and History 22, no. 2 (1980): 174-97; T. Skocpol. Los Estados y Revoluciones Sociales (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1984).
94. Skocpol, p. 2. 56.
95. K. Watson, "Comparative Education Research: The Need for Reconceptualization and Fresh Insights," Compare 29, no. 3 (1999): 233-48, quote on 235.
96. Some critics of the hegemonic history nf education who argue from the neomarxist or critical theory standpoint themselves use a totalizing, generalizing narrative that searches for uniformity and hegemonic ideology. Examples include those who argue that social class is a simple determinant of school achievement, without space for alternative determinations. J. Schriewer, professor of comparative education of the University of Frankfurt and member of the European Society of Compared Education, is clarifying. He notes that general accounts of change in metascientific discourse have moved from "the methodological normativitx to the sociohistorical description." The diverging types of theories (some scientific, others of reflection) are related to the functional orientations and the concomitant definition of problems present in the different subsystems of society. He argues that, in accordance with these theoretical styles, the different ways of tackling experiences related to "cultural alterity" end in the "method of comparison" and the "exteriorisation facing world situations respectively" (J. Schriewer, "La dualidad de la educación comparada: Comparación intercultural y exteriorización a escala mundial," Perspectivas de la UNESCO 19 [1989]: 3).
97. M.J. Maynes, Schooling in Western Europe: A Social History (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1985). Respect for children, understood as a human right, is a relatively new value and is not universal. See I. Epstein, "Educating Street Children: Some Cross-Cultural Perspectives," Comparative Education 32, no. 3 (1996): 289-302.
98. M.J. Maynes, Schooling in Western Europe: A Social History (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1985). Respect for children, understood as a human right, is a relatively new value and is not universal. See I. Epstein, "Educating Street Children: Some Cross-Cultural Perspectives," Comparative Education 32, no. 3 (1996): 289-302.
99. Samoff (n. 33 above); Morrow and Torres (n. 19 above).
100. Morrow and Torres; M. Liebman and R. Paulston, "Social Cartography: A New Methodology for Comparative Studies," Compare 24, no. 3 (1994): 233-45;
101. R. Paulston and M. Liebman, "An Invitation to Postmodern Social Cartography," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 215-32.
102. Carnoy (n. 6 above); R. Arnove, "Comparative Education and World Systems Analysis," Comparative Education Review 24, no. 1 (1980): 48-62.
103. K. Mundy, "Educational Multilateralism and World (Dis)order," Comparative Education Review 42, no. 4 (1998): 448-78;
104. P. Jones. World Bank Financing of Education: Lending, Learning and Development (London: Routledge, 1992)
105. . and "On World Bank Education Financing Policies and Strategies for Development: A World Bank Review," Comparative Education 33, no. 1 (1997): 17-29;
106. M. Henry, B. Lingard, F. Rizvi, and S. Taylor, "Working with/against Globalization in Education," Journal of Education Policy 14, no. 1 (1999): 85-97;
107. M. Mollis. "The Americanization of the Reformed University in Argentina," Australian Universities Review 42/43 (1999/2000): 45-52.
108. G. Harman and V. L. Meek, Quality Assurance and Accreditation in Higher Education: A Report for the Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs (Armidale: Center for Higher Education Management and Policy, University of New England, 1999); D. Van Damme, "Internationalization and Quality Assurance: Towards Worldwide Accreditation?" (paper commissioned for the International Association of University Presidents [IAUP] Twelfth Triennial Conference, Brussels, July 11-14, 1999).
109. G. Harman and V. L. Meek, Quality Assurance and Accreditation in Higher Education: A Report for the Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs (Armidale: Center for Higher Education Management and Policy, University of New England, 1999); D. Van Damme, "Internationalization and Quality Assurance: Towards Worldwide Accreditation?" (paper commissioned for the International Association of University Presidents [IAUP] Twelfth Triennial Conference, Brussels, July 11-14, 1999).
110. A. B. Shamsul, "Colonial Knowledge and the Shaping of Europe-Asia Relations: A Critical Evaluation," (paper presented at the conference Asia-Europe on the Eve of the Twenty-First Century, Centre for European Studies, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand, August 19-20, 1999);
111. G. Fry and K. Kempner, "A Subnational Perspective for Comparative Research: Education for Development in Northeast Brazil and Northeast Thailand," in Kempner, Mollis, and Tierney, eds. (n. 12 above), pp. 384-408;
112. E. A. Parrado, "Expansion of Schooling, Economic Growth, and Regional Inequalities in Argentina," Comparative Education Review 42, no. 3 (1998): 338-64;
113. S. Marginson, "Nation-Building Universities in a Global Environment: The Case of Australia," Higher Education (in press).
114. World Bank, Higher Education: Lessons of Experience (n. 55 above).
115. OECD (n. 11 above).
116. S. Marginson and M. Considine, The Enterprise University: Power, Governance, and Reinvention in Australia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
117. One exception is the collection of readings presented by Kempner, Mollis, and Tierney in Comparative Education (n. 12 above), but the editors note the difficulty in finding contributions to the literature that reflect subaltern interests.
118. J. Garcia Garrido, Educación Comparada: Fundamentos y Problemas (Madrid: Dykinson, 1982).
119. P. Altbach, "Trends in Comparative Education," Comparative Education Review 35, no. 3 (1991): 491-507.
120. Held et al. (n. 43 above), p. 346.