“We, the polish nation”: Ethnic and civic visions of nationhood in post-communist constitutional debates

Theory and Society

Volumn 30, Issue 5, 2001, Pages 629-668

  Zubrzycki, Geneviéve ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035471121     PISSN: 03042421     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1013024707150     Document Type: Article

References (199)

1. Following Max Weber, 1 use the term "model" to talk about ideological representations and normative judgements; "model types" of what "ought" to exist (according to nationalist thinkers or engaged social scientists). The terms "model," "conception," "vision," "representation," and "understanding" of the nation are thus used to describe the ideological sphere, the discursive space of nationalism. This is to be distinguished from the ideal type, which is only "ideal," Weber points out, in the strictly logical sense of the term. The civic/ethnic ideal types are categories of analysis, analytical constructs. See Max Weber, "'Objectivity' in Social Science" in Edward Shils, editor, The Methodology of the Social Sciences (New York: Free Press, 1949), 92.
2. The ethnic/civic distinction has most famously been analyzed in Brubaker's subtle comparison of France and Germany. Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992). It is, however, most of the time used in much simpler and more problematic terms, as a stereotypical and normative dichotomy - as in the works of Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background (New York: McMillan Co., 1946); John Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism," in E. Kamenka, editor, Nationalism. The Nature and Evolution of an Idea (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1973), 22-37; Peter Sugar, "External and Domestic Roots of Eastern European Nationalism," in P. Sugar and J. Lederer, editors, Nationalism in Eastern Europe (Seattle/London: University of Washington Press, 1994), 3-54; and to a certain extent in Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Michael Igniatieff, Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the New Nationalism (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1993); and Dominique Schnapper, La communauté des citoyens. Sur l'idée moderne de la nation (Paris: Gallimard, 1994). A substantial critique of that usage can be found in Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the national question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Alain Dieckhoff, "La déconstruction d'une illusion. L'introuvable opposition entre nationalisme politique et nationalisme culturel," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996); Jeffrey Friedman, "Nationalism in Theory and Reality," Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 155-167; Tom Nairn, "Demonising Nationalism," London Review of Books, 25 February 1993; Kai Nielsen, "Cultural Nationalism, Neither Ethnic nor Civic," The Philosophical Forum: A Quarterly, 28/1-2 (1996): 42-52; Nicholas Xenos, "Civic Nationalism: Oxymoron?" Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 213-231; Bernard Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation," Critical Review 10/2, (1996): 193-211; and Paul Zawadzki, "Le nationalisme contre la citoyenneté," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996): 169-185.
3. The ethnic/civic distinction has most famously been analyzed in Brubaker's subtle comparison of France and Germany. Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992). It is, however, most of the time used in much simpler and more problematic terms, as a stereotypical and normative dichotomy - as in the works of Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background (New York: McMillan Co., 1946); John Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism," in E. Kamenka, editor, Nationalism. The Nature and Evolution of an Idea (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1973), 22-37; Peter Sugar, "External and Domestic Roots of Eastern European Nationalism," in P. Sugar and J. Lederer, editors, Nationalism in Eastern Europe (Seattle/London: University of Washington Press, 1994), 3-54; and to a certain extent in Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Michael Igniatieff, Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the New Nationalism (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1993); and Dominique Schnapper, La communauté des citoyens. Sur l'idée moderne de la nation (Paris: Gallimard, 1994). A substantial critique of that usage can be found in Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the national question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Alain Dieckhoff, "La déconstruction d'une illusion. L'introuvable opposition entre nationalisme politique et nationalisme culturel," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996); Jeffrey Friedman, "Nationalism in Theory and Reality," Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 155-167; Tom Nairn, "Demonising Nationalism," London Review of Books, 25 February 1993; Kai Nielsen, "Cultural Nationalism, Neither Ethnic nor Civic," The Philosophical Forum: A Quarterly, 28/1-2 (1996): 42-52; Nicholas Xenos, "Civic Nationalism: Oxymoron?" Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 213-231; Bernard Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation," Critical Review 10/2, (1996): 193-211; and Paul Zawadzki, "Le nationalisme contre la citoyenneté," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996): 169-185.
4. The ethnic/civic distinction has most famously been analyzed in Brubaker's subtle comparison of France and Germany. Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992). It is, however, most of the time used in much simpler and more problematic terms, as a stereotypical and normative dichotomy - as in the works of Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background (New York: McMillan Co., 1946); John Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism," in E. Kamenka, editor, Nationalism. The Nature and Evolution of an Idea (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1973), 22-37; Peter Sugar, "External and Domestic Roots of Eastern European Nationalism," in P. Sugar and J. Lederer, editors, Nationalism in Eastern Europe (Seattle/London: University of Washington Press, 1994), 3-54; and to a certain extent in Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Michael Igniatieff, Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the New Nationalism (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1993); and Dominique Schnapper, La communauté des citoyens. Sur l'idée moderne de la nation (Paris: Gallimard, 1994). A substantial critique of that usage can be found in Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the national question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Alain Dieckhoff, "La déconstruction d'une illusion. L'introuvable opposition entre nationalisme politique et nationalisme culturel," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996); Jeffrey Friedman, "Nationalism in Theory and Reality," Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 155-167; Tom Nairn, "Demonising Nationalism," London Review of Books, 25 February 1993; Kai Nielsen, "Cultural Nationalism, Neither Ethnic nor Civic," The Philosophical Forum: A Quarterly, 28/1-2 (1996): 42-52; Nicholas Xenos, "Civic Nationalism: Oxymoron?" Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 213-231; Bernard Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation," Critical Review 10/2, (1996): 193-211; and Paul Zawadzki, "Le nationalisme contre la citoyenneté," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996): 169-185.
5. The ethnic/civic distinction has most famously been analyzed in Brubaker's subtle comparison of France and Germany. Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992). It is, however, most of the time used in much simpler and more problematic terms, as a stereotypical and normative dichotomy - as in the works of Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background (New York: McMillan Co., 1946); John Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism," in E. Kamenka, editor, Nationalism. The Nature and Evolution of an Idea (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1973), 22-37; Peter Sugar, "External and Domestic Roots of Eastern European Nationalism," in P. Sugar and J. Lederer, editors, Nationalism in Eastern Europe (Seattle/London: University of Washington Press, 1994), 3-54; and to a certain extent in Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Michael Igniatieff, Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the New Nationalism (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1993); and Dominique Schnapper, La communauté des citoyens. Sur l'idée moderne de la nation (Paris: Gallimard, 1994). A substantial critique of that usage can be found in Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the national question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Alain Dieckhoff, "La déconstruction d'une illusion. L'introuvable opposition entre nationalisme politique et nationalisme culturel," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996); Jeffrey Friedman, "Nationalism in Theory and Reality," Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 155-167; Tom Nairn, "Demonising Nationalism," London Review of Books, 25 February 1993; Kai Nielsen, "Cultural Nationalism, Neither Ethnic nor Civic," The Philosophical Forum: A Quarterly, 28/1-2 (1996): 42-52; Nicholas Xenos, "Civic Nationalism: Oxymoron?" Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 213-231; Bernard Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation," Critical Review 10/2, (1996): 193-211; and Paul Zawadzki, "Le nationalisme contre la citoyenneté," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996): 169-185.
6. The ethnic/civic distinction has most famously been analyzed in Brubaker's subtle comparison of France and Germany. Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992). It is, however, most of the time used in much simpler and more problematic terms, as a stereotypical and normative dichotomy - as in the works of Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background (New York: McMillan Co., 1946); John Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism," in E. Kamenka, editor, Nationalism. The Nature and Evolution of an Idea (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1973), 22-37; Peter Sugar, "External and Domestic Roots of Eastern European Nationalism," in P. Sugar and J. Lederer, editors, Nationalism in Eastern Europe (Seattle/London: University of Washington Press, 1994), 3-54; and to a certain extent in Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Michael Igniatieff, Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the New Nationalism (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1993); and Dominique Schnapper, La communauté des citoyens. Sur l'idée moderne de la nation (Paris: Gallimard, 1994). A substantial critique of that usage can be found in Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the national question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Alain Dieckhoff, "La déconstruction d'une illusion. L'introuvable opposition entre nationalisme politique et nationalisme culturel," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996); Jeffrey Friedman, "Nationalism in Theory and Reality," Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 155-167; Tom Nairn, "Demonising Nationalism," London Review of Books, 25 February 1993; Kai Nielsen, "Cultural Nationalism, Neither Ethnic nor Civic," The Philosophical Forum: A Quarterly, 28/1-2 (1996): 42-52; Nicholas Xenos, "Civic Nationalism: Oxymoron?" Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 213-231; Bernard Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation," Critical Review 10/2, (1996): 193-211; and Paul Zawadzki, "Le nationalisme contre la citoyenneté," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996): 169-185.
7. The ethnic/civic distinction has most famously been analyzed in Brubaker's subtle comparison of France and Germany. Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992). It is, however, most of the time used in much simpler and more problematic terms, as a stereotypical and normative dichotomy - as in the works of Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background (New York: McMillan Co., 1946); John Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism," in E. Kamenka, editor, Nationalism. The Nature and Evolution of an Idea (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1973), 22-37; Peter Sugar, "External and Domestic Roots of Eastern European Nationalism," in P. Sugar and J. Lederer, editors, Nationalism in Eastern Europe (Seattle/London: University of Washington Press, 1994), 3-54; and to a certain extent in Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Michael Igniatieff, Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the New Nationalism (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1993); and Dominique Schnapper, La communauté des citoyens. Sur l'idée moderne de la nation (Paris: Gallimard, 1994). A substantial critique of that usage can be found in Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the national question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Alain Dieckhoff, "La déconstruction d'une illusion. L'introuvable opposition entre nationalisme politique et nationalisme culturel," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996); Jeffrey Friedman, "Nationalism in Theory and Reality," Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 155-167; Tom Nairn, "Demonising Nationalism," London Review of Books, 25 February 1993; Kai Nielsen, "Cultural Nationalism, Neither Ethnic nor Civic," The Philosophical Forum: A Quarterly, 28/1-2 (1996): 42-52; Nicholas Xenos, "Civic Nationalism: Oxymoron?" Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 213-231; Bernard Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation," Critical Review 10/2, (1996): 193-211; and Paul Zawadzki, "Le nationalisme contre la citoyenneté," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996): 169-185.
8. The ethnic/civic distinction has most famously been analyzed in Brubaker's subtle comparison of France and Germany. Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992). It is, however, most of the time used in much simpler and more problematic terms, as a stereotypical and normative dichotomy - as in the works of Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background (New York: McMillan Co., 1946); John Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism," in E. Kamenka, editor, Nationalism. The Nature and Evolution of an Idea (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1973), 22-37; Peter Sugar, "External and Domestic Roots of Eastern European Nationalism," in P. Sugar and J. Lederer, editors, Nationalism in Eastern Europe (Seattle/London: University of Washington Press, 1994), 3-54; and to a certain extent in Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Michael Igniatieff, Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the New Nationalism (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1993); and Dominique Schnapper, La communauté des citoyens. Sur l'idée moderne de la nation (Paris: Gallimard, 1994). A substantial critique of that usage can be found in Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the national question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Alain Dieckhoff, "La déconstruction d'une illusion. L'introuvable opposition entre nationalisme politique et nationalisme culturel," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996); Jeffrey Friedman, "Nationalism in Theory and Reality," Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 155-167; Tom Nairn, "Demonising Nationalism," London Review of Books, 25 February 1993; Kai Nielsen, "Cultural Nationalism, Neither Ethnic nor Civic," The Philosophical Forum: A Quarterly, 28/1-2 (1996): 42-52; Nicholas Xenos, "Civic Nationalism: Oxymoron?" Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 213-231; Bernard Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation," Critical Review 10/2, (1996): 193-211; and Paul Zawadzki, "Le nationalisme contre la citoyenneté," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996): 169-185.
9. The ethnic/civic distinction has most famously been analyzed in Brubaker's subtle comparison of France and Germany. Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992). It is, however, most of the time used in much simpler and more problematic terms, as a stereotypical and normative dichotomy - as in the works of Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background (New York: McMillan Co., 1946); John Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism," in E. Kamenka, editor, Nationalism. The Nature and Evolution of an Idea (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1973), 22-37; Peter Sugar, "External and Domestic Roots of Eastern European Nationalism," in P. Sugar and J. Lederer, editors, Nationalism in Eastern Europe (Seattle/London: University of Washington Press, 1994), 3-54; and to a certain extent in Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Michael Igniatieff, Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the New Nationalism (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1993); and Dominique Schnapper, La communauté des citoyens. Sur l'idée moderne de la nation (Paris: Gallimard, 1994). A substantial critique of that usage can be found in Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the national question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Alain Dieckhoff, "La déconstruction d'une illusion. L'introuvable opposition entre nationalisme politique et nationalisme culturel," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996); Jeffrey Friedman, "Nationalism in Theory and Reality," Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 155-167; Tom Nairn, "Demonising Nationalism," London Review of Books, 25 February 1993; Kai Nielsen, "Cultural Nationalism, Neither Ethnic nor Civic," The Philosophical Forum: A Quarterly, 28/1-2 (1996): 42-52; Nicholas Xenos, "Civic Nationalism: Oxymoron?" Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 213-231; Bernard Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation," Critical Review 10/2, (1996): 193-211; and Paul Zawadzki, "Le nationalisme contre la citoyenneté," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996): 169-185.
10. The ethnic/civic distinction has most famously been analyzed in Brubaker's subtle comparison of France and Germany. Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992). It is, however, most of the time used in much simpler and more problematic terms, as a stereotypical and normative dichotomy - as in the works of Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background (New York: McMillan Co., 1946); John Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism," in E. Kamenka, editor, Nationalism. The Nature and Evolution of an Idea (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1973), 22-37; Peter Sugar, "External and Domestic Roots of Eastern European Nationalism," in P. Sugar and J. Lederer, editors, Nationalism in Eastern Europe (Seattle/London: University of Washington Press, 1994), 3-54; and to a certain extent in Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Michael Igniatieff, Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the New Nationalism (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1993); and Dominique Schnapper, La communauté des citoyens. Sur l'idée moderne de la nation (Paris: Gallimard, 1994). A substantial critique of that usage can be found in Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the national question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Alain Dieckhoff, "La déconstruction d'une illusion. L'introuvable opposition entre nationalisme politique et nationalisme culturel," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996); Jeffrey Friedman, "Nationalism in Theory and Reality," Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 155-167; Tom Nairn, "Demonising Nationalism," London Review of Books, 25 February 1993; Kai Nielsen, "Cultural Nationalism, Neither Ethnic nor Civic," The Philosophical Forum: A Quarterly, 28/1-2 (1996): 42-52; Nicholas Xenos, "Civic Nationalism: Oxymoron?" Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 213-231; Bernard Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation," Critical Review 10/2, (1996): 193-211; and Paul Zawadzki, "Le nationalisme contre la citoyenneté," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996): 169-185.
11. The ethnic/civic distinction has most famously been analyzed in Brubaker's subtle comparison of France and Germany. Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992). It is, however, most of the time used in much simpler and more problematic terms, as a stereotypical and normative dichotomy - as in the works of Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background (New York: McMillan Co., 1946); John Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism," in E. Kamenka, editor, Nationalism. The Nature and Evolution of an Idea (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1973), 22-37; Peter Sugar, "External and Domestic Roots of Eastern European Nationalism," in P. Sugar and J. Lederer, editors, Nationalism in Eastern Europe (Seattle/London: University of Washington Press, 1994), 3-54; and to a certain extent in Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Michael Igniatieff, Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the New Nationalism (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1993); and Dominique Schnapper, La communauté des citoyens. Sur l'idée moderne de la nation (Paris: Gallimard, 1994). A substantial critique of that usage can be found in Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the national question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Alain Dieckhoff, "La déconstruction d'une illusion. L'introuvable opposition entre nationalisme politique et nationalisme culturel," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996); Jeffrey Friedman, "Nationalism in Theory and Reality," Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 155-167; Tom Nairn, "Demonising Nationalism," London Review of Books, 25 February 1993; Kai Nielsen, "Cultural Nationalism, Neither Ethnic nor Civic," The Philosophical Forum: A Quarterly, 28/1-2 (1996): 42-52; Nicholas Xenos, "Civic Nationalism: Oxymoron?" Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 213-231; Bernard Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation," Critical Review 10/2, (1996): 193-211; and Paul Zawadzki, "Le nationalisme contre la citoyenneté," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996): 169-185.
12. The ethnic/civic distinction has most famously been analyzed in Brubaker's subtle comparison of France and Germany. Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992). It is, however, most of the time used in much simpler and more problematic terms, as a stereotypical and normative dichotomy - as in the works of Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background (New York: McMillan Co., 1946); John Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism," in E. Kamenka, editor, Nationalism. The Nature and Evolution of an Idea (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1973), 22-37; Peter Sugar, "External and Domestic Roots of Eastern European Nationalism," in P. Sugar and J. Lederer, editors, Nationalism in Eastern Europe (Seattle/London: University of Washington Press, 1994), 3-54; and to a certain extent in Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Michael Igniatieff, Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the New Nationalism (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1993); and Dominique Schnapper, La communauté des citoyens. Sur l'idée moderne de la nation (Paris: Gallimard, 1994). A substantial critique of that usage can be found in Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the national question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Alain Dieckhoff, "La déconstruction d'une illusion. L'introuvable opposition entre nationalisme politique et nationalisme culturel," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996); Jeffrey Friedman, "Nationalism in Theory and Reality," Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 155-167; Tom Nairn, "Demonising Nationalism," London Review of Books, 25 February 1993; Kai Nielsen, "Cultural Nationalism, Neither Ethnic nor Civic," The Philosophical Forum: A Quarterly, 28/1-2 (1996): 42-52; Nicholas Xenos, "Civic Nationalism: Oxymoron?" Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 213-231; Bernard Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation," Critical Review 10/2, (1996): 193-211; and Paul Zawadzki, "Le nationalisme contre la citoyenneté," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996): 169-185.
13. The ethnic/civic distinction has most famously been analyzed in Brubaker's subtle comparison of France and Germany. Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992). It is, however, most of the time used in much simpler and more problematic terms, as a stereotypical and normative dichotomy - as in the works of Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background (New York: McMillan Co., 1946); John Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism," in E. Kamenka, editor, Nationalism. The Nature and Evolution of an Idea (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1973), 22-37; Peter Sugar, "External and Domestic Roots of Eastern European Nationalism," in P. Sugar and J. Lederer, editors, Nationalism in Eastern Europe (Seattle/London: University of Washington Press, 1994), 3-54; and to a certain extent in Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Michael Igniatieff, Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the New Nationalism (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1993); and Dominique Schnapper, La communauté des citoyens. Sur l'idée moderne de la nation (Paris: Gallimard, 1994). A substantial critique of that usage can be found in Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the national question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Alain Dieckhoff, "La déconstruction d'une illusion. L'introuvable opposition entre nationalisme politique et nationalisme culturel," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996); Jeffrey Friedman, "Nationalism in Theory and Reality," Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 155-167; Tom Nairn, "Demonising Nationalism," London Review of Books, 25 February 1993; Kai Nielsen, "Cultural Nationalism, Neither Ethnic nor Civic," The Philosophical Forum: A Quarterly, 28/1-2 (1996): 42-52; Nicholas Xenos, "Civic Nationalism: Oxymoron?" Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 213-231; Bernard Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation," Critical Review 10/2, (1996): 193-211; and Paul Zawadzki, "Le nationalisme contre la citoyenneté," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996): 169-185.
14. The ethnic/civic distinction has most famously been analyzed in Brubaker's subtle comparison of France and Germany. Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992). It is, however, most of the time used in much simpler and more problematic terms, as a stereotypical and normative dichotomy - as in the works of Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background (New York: McMillan Co., 1946); John Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism," in E. Kamenka, editor, Nationalism. The Nature and Evolution of an Idea (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1973), 22-37; Peter Sugar, "External and Domestic Roots of Eastern European Nationalism," in P. Sugar and J. Lederer, editors, Nationalism in Eastern Europe (Seattle/London: University of Washington Press, 1994), 3-54; and to a certain extent in Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Michael Igniatieff, Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the New Nationalism (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1993); and Dominique Schnapper, La communauté des citoyens. Sur l'idée moderne de la nation (Paris: Gallimard, 1994). A substantial critique of that usage can be found in Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the national question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Alain Dieckhoff, "La déconstruction d'une illusion. L'introuvable opposition entre nationalisme politique et nationalisme culturel," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996); Jeffrey Friedman, "Nationalism in Theory and Reality," Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 155-167; Tom Nairn, "Demonising Nationalism," London Review of Books, 25 February 1993; Kai Nielsen, "Cultural Nationalism, Neither Ethnic nor Civic," The Philosophical Forum: A Quarterly, 28/1-2 (1996): 42-52; Nicholas Xenos, "Civic Nationalism: Oxymoron?" Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 213-231; Bernard Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation," Critical Review 10/2, (1996): 193-211; and Paul Zawadzki, "Le nationalisme contre la citoyenneté," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996): 169-185.
15. The ethnic/civic distinction has most famously been analyzed in Brubaker's subtle comparison of France and Germany. Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992). It is, however, most of the time used in much simpler and more problematic terms, as a stereotypical and normative dichotomy - as in the works of Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background (New York: McMillan Co., 1946); John Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism," in E. Kamenka, editor, Nationalism. The Nature and Evolution of an Idea (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1973), 22-37; Peter Sugar, "External and Domestic Roots of Eastern European Nationalism," in P. Sugar and J. Lederer, editors, Nationalism in Eastern Europe (Seattle/London: University of Washington Press, 1994), 3-54; and to a certain extent in Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Michael Igniatieff, Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the New Nationalism (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1993); and Dominique Schnapper, La communauté des citoyens. Sur l'idée moderne de la nation (Paris: Gallimard, 1994). A substantial critique of that usage can be found in Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the national question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Alain Dieckhoff, "La déconstruction d'une illusion. L'introuvable opposition entre nationalisme politique et nationalisme culturel," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996); Jeffrey Friedman, "Nationalism in Theory and Reality," Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 155-167; Tom Nairn, "Demonising Nationalism," London Review of Books, 25 February 1993; Kai Nielsen, "Cultural Nationalism, Neither Ethnic nor Civic," The Philosophical Forum: A Quarterly, 28/1-2 (1996): 42-52; Nicholas Xenos, "Civic Nationalism: Oxymoron?" Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 213-231; Bernard Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation," Critical Review 10/2, (1996): 193-211; and Paul Zawadzki, "Le nationalisme contre la citoyenneté," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996): 169-185.
16. The ethnic/civic distinction has most famously been analyzed in Brubaker's subtle comparison of France and Germany. Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992). It is, however, most of the time used in much simpler and more problematic terms, as a stereotypical and normative dichotomy - as in the works of Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background (New York: McMillan Co., 1946); John Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism," in E. Kamenka, editor, Nationalism. The Nature and Evolution of an Idea (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1973), 22-37; Peter Sugar, "External and Domestic Roots of Eastern European Nationalism," in P. Sugar and J. Lederer, editors, Nationalism in Eastern Europe (Seattle/London: University of Washington Press, 1994), 3-54; and to a certain extent in Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Michael Igniatieff, Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the New Nationalism (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1993); and Dominique Schnapper, La communauté des citoyens. Sur l'idée moderne de la nation (Paris: Gallimard, 1994). A substantial critique of that usage can be found in Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the national question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Alain Dieckhoff, "La déconstruction d'une illusion. L'introuvable opposition entre nationalisme politique et nationalisme culturel," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996); Jeffrey Friedman, "Nationalism in Theory and Reality," Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 155-167; Tom Nairn, "Demonising Nationalism," London Review of Books, 25 February 1993; Kai Nielsen, "Cultural Nationalism, Neither Ethnic nor Civic," The Philosophical Forum: A Quarterly, 28/1-2 (1996): 42-52; Nicholas Xenos, "Civic Nationalism: Oxymoron?" Critical Review, 10/2 (1996): 213-231; Bernard Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation," Critical Review 10/2, (1996): 193-211; and Paul Zawadzki, "Le nationalisme contre la citoyenneté," L'année sociologique, 46/1 (1996): 169-185.
17. Benedict Andersen, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London, New York: Verso, 1991).
18. Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany.
19. Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage Books, 1978).
20. Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation"; Nielsen. "Cultural Nationalism, Neither Ethnic nor Civic."
21. Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation"; Nielsen. "Cultural Nationalism, Neither Ethnic nor Civic."
22. Dieckhoff, "La déconstruction d'une illusion"; Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation"; Rogers Brubaker, "Myths and misconceptions in the study of nationalism," in John A. Hall, editor, The State of the Nation: Ernest Gellner and the Theory of Nationalism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
23. Dieckhoff, "La déconstruction d'une illusion"; Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation"; Rogers Brubaker, "Myths and misconceptions in the study of nationalism," in John A. Hall, editor, The State of the Nation: Ernest Gellner and the Theory of Nationalism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
24. Dieckhoff, "La déconstruction d'une illusion"; Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation"; Rogers Brubaker, "Myths and misconceptions in the study of nationalism," in John A. Hall, editor, The State of the Nation: Ernest Gellner and the Theory of Nationalism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
25. Rogers Brubaker and Frederick Cooper, "Beyond 'Identity,'" Theory and Society, 29/1 (2000): 1-47.
26. William H. Sewell, Jr., "Historical Events as Transformations of Structures: Inventing Revolution at the Bastille," Theory and Society, 25/6 (1996): 841-881.
27. I borrow this formulation from Rogers Brubaker s analysis of nationalizing states in Nationalism Reframed.
28. Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (New York: Cornell University Press, 1983).
29. [Poland Always Faithful]. Polonia semper fidelis is Poland's traditional motto, and most probably originates from King Jan Kazimierz's vows of faithfulness to the Virgin Mary (1653) after Poland's miraculous victory over Sweden. Jan Kazimierz offered Poland to the Virgin Mary and consecrated the icon of the Black Madonna in Czestochowa "Queen of Poland." Late Cardinal Wyszynski reiterated these vows of faithfulness to Catholicism and to the Virgin in 1956 (sluby jasnogorskie, Jasna Gora's vows), and welcomed the Pope with those words at the Pope's first visit in Poland in June 1979. John Paul II also uses this phrase to qualify Poland's "profoundly Christian legacy."
30. So-called transitology studies have mostly focused on structural and institutional transformations in the political and economic spheres. Noted exceptions include the works of Susan Gal, "Bartok's funeral: Representations of Europe in Hungarian Political Rhetoric," American Ethnologist, 18/3 (1991):440-458; Michael Kennedy and Nicolae Harsanyi, "Between Utopia and Dystopia: The Labilities of Nationalism in Eastern Europe," in M.D. Kennedy, editor, Envisioning Eastern Europe: Postcommunist Cultural Studies (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994); Grzegorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society: Popular Protest and Democratic Consolidation in Poland, 1989-1993 (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1999); on the nation as symbol, see Katherine Verdery, "Beyond the Nation in Eastern Europe," Social Text, 38 (1994); Katherine Verdery, "Whither 'Nation' and 'Nationalism?,'" Daedalus, 122/3 (1993); Katherine Verdery, What Was Socialism and What Comes Next? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). Also see Andreas Glaeser, Divided in Unity: Identity, Germany, and the Berlin Police (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000). On the cultural turn in the study of state-formation, see George Steinmetz, State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999) and in the social sciences more generally, see Victoria E. Bonnell and Lynn Hunt, editors, Beyond the Cultural Turn: New Directions in the Study of Society and Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).
31. So-called transitology studies have mostly focused on structural and institutional transformations in the political and economic spheres. Noted exceptions include the works of Susan Gal, "Bartok's funeral: Representations of Europe in Hungarian Political Rhetoric," American Ethnologist, 18/3 (1991):440-458; Michael Kennedy and Nicolae Harsanyi, "Between Utopia and Dystopia: The Labilities of Nationalism in Eastern Europe," in M.D. Kennedy, editor, Envisioning Eastern Europe: Postcommunist Cultural Studies (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994); Grzegorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society: Popular Protest and Democratic Consolidation in Poland, 1989-1993 (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1999); on the nation as symbol, see Katherine Verdery, "Beyond the Nation in Eastern Europe," Social Text, 38 (1994); Katherine Verdery, "Whither 'Nation' and 'Nationalism?,'" Daedalus, 122/3 (1993); Katherine Verdery, What Was Socialism and What Comes Next? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). Also see Andreas Glaeser, Divided in Unity: Identity, Germany, and the Berlin Police (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000). On the cultural turn in the study of state-formation, see George Steinmetz, State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999) and in the social sciences more generally, see Victoria E. Bonnell and Lynn Hunt, editors, Beyond the Cultural Turn: New Directions in the Study of Society and Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).
32. So-called transitology studies have mostly focused on structural and institutional transformations in the political and economic spheres. Noted exceptions include the works of Susan Gal, "Bartok's funeral: Representations of Europe in Hungarian Political Rhetoric," American Ethnologist, 18/3 (1991):440-458; Michael Kennedy and Nicolae Harsanyi, "Between Utopia and Dystopia: The Labilities of Nationalism in Eastern Europe," in M.D. Kennedy, editor, Envisioning Eastern Europe: Postcommunist Cultural Studies (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994); Grzegorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society: Popular Protest and Democratic Consolidation in Poland, 1989-1993 (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1999); on the nation as symbol, see Katherine Verdery, "Beyond the Nation in Eastern Europe," Social Text, 38 (1994); Katherine Verdery, "Whither 'Nation' and 'Nationalism?,'" Daedalus, 122/3 (1993); Katherine Verdery, What Was Socialism and What Comes Next? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). Also see Andreas Glaeser, Divided in Unity: Identity, Germany, and the Berlin Police (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000). On the cultural turn in the study of state-formation, see George Steinmetz, State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999) and in the social sciences more generally, see Victoria E. Bonnell and Lynn Hunt, editors, Beyond the Cultural Turn: New Directions in the Study of Society and Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).
33. So-called transitology studies have mostly focused on structural and institutional transformations in the political and economic spheres. Noted exceptions include the works of Susan Gal, "Bartok's funeral: Representations of Europe in Hungarian Political Rhetoric," American Ethnologist, 18/3 (1991):440-458; Michael Kennedy and Nicolae Harsanyi, "Between Utopia and Dystopia: The Labilities of Nationalism in Eastern Europe," in M.D. Kennedy, editor, Envisioning Eastern Europe: Postcommunist Cultural Studies (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994); Grzegorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society: Popular Protest and Democratic Consolidation in Poland, 1989-1993 (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1999); on the nation as symbol, see Katherine Verdery, "Beyond the Nation in Eastern Europe," Social Text, 38 (1994); Katherine Verdery, "Whither 'Nation' and 'Nationalism?,'" Daedalus, 122/3 (1993); Katherine Verdery, What Was Socialism and What Comes Next? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). Also see Andreas Glaeser, Divided in Unity: Identity, Germany, and the Berlin Police (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000). On the cultural turn in the study of state-formation, see George Steinmetz, State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999) and in the social sciences more generally, see Victoria E. Bonnell and Lynn Hunt, editors, Beyond the Cultural Turn: New Directions in the Study of Society and Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).
34. So-called transitology studies have mostly focused on structural and institutional transformations in the political and economic spheres. Noted exceptions include the works of Susan Gal, "Bartok's funeral: Representations of Europe in Hungarian Political Rhetoric," American Ethnologist, 18/3 (1991):440-458; Michael Kennedy and Nicolae Harsanyi, "Between Utopia and Dystopia: The Labilities of Nationalism in Eastern Europe," in M.D. Kennedy, editor, Envisioning Eastern Europe: Postcommunist Cultural Studies (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994); Grzegorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society: Popular Protest and Democratic Consolidation in Poland, 1989-1993 (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1999); on the nation as symbol, see Katherine Verdery, "Beyond the Nation in Eastern Europe," Social Text, 38 (1994); Katherine Verdery, "Whither 'Nation' and 'Nationalism?,'" Daedalus, 122/3 (1993); Katherine Verdery, What Was Socialism and What Comes Next? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). Also see Andreas Glaeser, Divided in Unity: Identity, Germany, and the Berlin Police (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000). On the cultural turn in the study of state-formation, see George Steinmetz, State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999) and in the social sciences more generally, see Victoria E. Bonnell and Lynn Hunt, editors, Beyond the Cultural Turn: New Directions in the Study of Society and Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).
35. So-called transitology studies have mostly focused on structural and institutional transformations in the political and economic spheres. Noted exceptions include the works of Susan Gal, "Bartok's funeral: Representations of Europe in Hungarian Political Rhetoric," American Ethnologist, 18/3 (1991):440-458; Michael Kennedy and Nicolae Harsanyi, "Between Utopia and Dystopia: The Labilities of Nationalism in Eastern Europe," in M.D. Kennedy, editor, Envisioning Eastern Europe: Postcommunist Cultural Studies (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994); Grzegorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society: Popular Protest and Democratic Consolidation in Poland, 1989-1993 (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1999); on the nation as symbol, see Katherine Verdery, "Beyond the Nation in Eastern Europe," Social Text, 38 (1994); Katherine Verdery, "Whither 'Nation' and 'Nationalism?,'" Daedalus, 122/3 (1993); Katherine Verdery, What Was Socialism and What Comes Next? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). Also see Andreas Glaeser, Divided in Unity: Identity, Germany, and the Berlin Police (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000). On the cultural turn in the study of state-formation, see George Steinmetz, State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999) and in the social sciences more generally, see Victoria E. Bonnell and Lynn Hunt, editors, Beyond the Cultural Turn: New Directions in the Study of Society and Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).
36. So-called transitology studies have mostly focused on structural and institutional transformations in the political and economic spheres. Noted exceptions include the works of Susan Gal, "Bartok's funeral: Representations of Europe in Hungarian Political Rhetoric," American Ethnologist, 18/3 (1991):440-458; Michael Kennedy and Nicolae Harsanyi, "Between Utopia and Dystopia: The Labilities of Nationalism in Eastern Europe," in M.D. Kennedy, editor, Envisioning Eastern Europe: Postcommunist Cultural Studies (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994); Grzegorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society: Popular Protest and Democratic Consolidation in Poland, 1989-1993 (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1999); on the nation as symbol, see Katherine Verdery, "Beyond the Nation in Eastern Europe," Social Text, 38 (1994); Katherine Verdery, "Whither 'Nation' and 'Nationalism?,'" Daedalus, 122/3 (1993); Katherine Verdery, What Was Socialism and What Comes Next? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). Also see Andreas Glaeser, Divided in Unity: Identity, Germany, and the Berlin Police (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000). On the cultural turn in the study of state-formation, see George Steinmetz, State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999) and in the social sciences more generally, see Victoria E. Bonnell and Lynn Hunt, editors, Beyond the Cultural Turn: New Directions in the Study of Society and Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).
37. So-called transitology studies have mostly focused on structural and institutional transformations in the political and economic spheres. Noted exceptions include the works of Susan Gal, "Bartok's funeral: Representations of Europe in Hungarian Political Rhetoric," American Ethnologist, 18/3 (1991):440-458; Michael Kennedy and Nicolae Harsanyi, "Between Utopia and Dystopia: The Labilities of Nationalism in Eastern Europe," in M.D. Kennedy, editor, Envisioning Eastern Europe: Postcommunist Cultural Studies (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994); Grzegorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society: Popular Protest and Democratic Consolidation in Poland, 1989-1993 (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1999); on the nation as symbol, see Katherine Verdery, "Beyond the Nation in Eastern Europe," Social Text, 38 (1994); Katherine Verdery, "Whither 'Nation' and 'Nationalism?,'" Daedalus, 122/3 (1993); Katherine Verdery, What Was Socialism and What Comes Next? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). Also see Andreas Glaeser, Divided in Unity: Identity, Germany, and the Berlin Police (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000). On the cultural turn in the study of state-formation, see George Steinmetz, State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999) and in the social sciences more generally, see Victoria E. Bonnell and Lynn Hunt, editors, Beyond the Cultural Turn: New Directions in the Study of Society and Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).
38. So-called transitology studies have mostly focused on structural and institutional transformations in the political and economic spheres. Noted exceptions include the works of Susan Gal, "Bartok's funeral: Representations of Europe in Hungarian Political Rhetoric," American Ethnologist, 18/3 (1991):440-458; Michael Kennedy and Nicolae Harsanyi, "Between Utopia and Dystopia: The Labilities of Nationalism in Eastern Europe," in M.D. Kennedy, editor, Envisioning Eastern Europe: Postcommunist Cultural Studies (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994); Grzegorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society: Popular Protest and Democratic Consolidation in Poland, 1989-1993 (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1999); on the nation as symbol, see Katherine Verdery, "Beyond the Nation in Eastern Europe," Social Text, 38 (1994); Katherine Verdery, "Whither 'Nation' and 'Nationalism?,'" Daedalus, 122/3 (1993); Katherine Verdery, What Was Socialism and What Comes Next? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). Also see Andreas Glaeser, Divided in Unity: Identity, Germany, and the Berlin Police (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000). On the cultural turn in the study of state-formation, see George Steinmetz, State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999) and in the social sciences more generally, see Victoria E. Bonnell and Lynn Hunt, editors, Beyond the Cultural Turn: New Directions in the Study of Society and Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).
39. It is unclear here if the content of the preamble would indeed have legal force. Preambles do not generally have legal significance, since they are not part of Constitutions per se. The preamble is an axiologic document of symbolic nature and celebratory tone, placed before the actual articles of law. Some legal scholars, however, argue that preambles can serve an interpretive function: reference to the preamble could be made to clarify an ambiguous article of law by identifying the values on which the Constitution is based. E.g., Mark Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland (New York: St-Martin's Press, 1998).
40. For works specifically devoted to the analysis of preambles as political, legal, and symbolic texts, see on France, Geneviéve Koubi, editor. Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946: Antinomies juridiques et contradictions politiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) and on India, K. C. Markandan, The Preamble: Key to the Mind of the Makers of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi: National, 1984). On constitutionalism and constitution-making in Poland and in East and Central Europe, see Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland; Roman Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski: Tradycje, doswiadczenia, spory (Cracow: Znak, 1997); Constance Grewe and Henri Oberdoff, Les Constitutions des états de l'Union européenne (1999); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, editor, Constitutionalism in East Central Europe: Discussions in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Bratislava (Bratislava: Czecho-Slovak Committee of the European Cultural Foundation, 1994); International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy: 12 Constitutions of Central and Eastern Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1996); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Introduction: When Polish Constitutionalism Began," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 64-76; Ewa Letowska, "A Constitution of Possibilities," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 76-81; Ewa Letowska, "La Constitution, oeuvre de la société?" in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen (Zurich: Publications de l'Institut suisse de droit comparé, 1995), 117-131; Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996); Katarina Mathernova, "Checho? Slovakia: Constitutional Disappointments," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe (Washington: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993), 57-92; Wiktor Osiatynski, "The Referendum, Popular Initiative and the Issue of Legitimacy in Consitution-Making in Poland," in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen, 345-358; Ulrich Preuss, "Constitutionalism - Meaning, Endangerment, Sustainability," in S. Saberwal and H. Sievers, editors, Rules, Laws, Constitutions (London: Sage Publications, 1998), 172-187; Andrzej Rapaczynski, "Constitutional Politics in Poland: A Report on the Constitutional Committee of the Polish Parliament," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe, 93-131; Herman Schwartz, The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000); Wojciech Sokolewicz, "The Relevance of Western Models for Constitution-Building in Poland," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 243-277; Pawel Spiewak, "The Battle for a Constitution," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 89-96; Ulrich K. Preuss, "Patterns of Constitutional Evolution and Change in Eastern Europe," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe, 95-126; Wiktor Osiatynski, Twoja konstytucja (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1997).
41. For works specifically devoted to the analysis of preambles as political, legal, and symbolic texts, see on France, Geneviéve Koubi, editor. Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946: Antinomies juridiques et contradictions politiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) and on India, K. C. Markandan, The Preamble: Key to the Mind of the Makers of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi: National, 1984). On constitutionalism and constitution-making in Poland and in East and Central Europe, see Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland; Roman Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski: Tradycje, doswiadczenia, spory (Cracow: Znak, 1997); Constance Grewe and Henri Oberdoff, Les Constitutions des états de l'Union européenne (1999); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, editor, Constitutionalism in East Central Europe: Discussions in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Bratislava (Bratislava: Czecho-Slovak Committee of the European Cultural Foundation, 1994); International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy: 12 Constitutions of Central and Eastern Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1996); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Introduction: When Polish Constitutionalism Began," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 64-76; Ewa Letowska, "A Constitution of Possibilities," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 76-81; Ewa Letowska, "La Constitution, oeuvre de la société?" in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen (Zurich: Publications de l'Institut suisse de droit comparé, 1995), 117-131; Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996); Katarina Mathernova, "Checho? Slovakia: Constitutional Disappointments," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe (Washington: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993), 57-92; Wiktor Osiatynski, "The Referendum, Popular Initiative and the Issue of Legitimacy in Consitution-Making in Poland," in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen, 345-358; Ulrich Preuss, "Constitutionalism - Meaning, Endangerment, Sustainability," in S. Saberwal and H. Sievers, editors, Rules, Laws, Constitutions (London: Sage Publications, 1998), 172-187; Andrzej Rapaczynski, "Constitutional Politics in Poland: A Report on the Constitutional Committee of the Polish Parliament," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe, 93-131; Herman Schwartz, The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000); Wojciech Sokolewicz, "The Relevance of Western Models for Constitution-Building in Poland," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 243-277; Pawel Spiewak, "The Battle for a Constitution," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 89-96; Ulrich K. Preuss, "Patterns of Constitutional Evolution and Change in Eastern Europe," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe, 95-126; Wiktor Osiatynski, Twoja konstytucja (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1997).
42. For works specifically devoted to the analysis of preambles as political, legal, and symbolic texts, see on France, Geneviéve Koubi, editor. Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946: Antinomies juridiques et contradictions politiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) and on India, K. C. Markandan, The Preamble: Key to the Mind of the Makers of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi: National, 1984). On constitutionalism and constitution-making in Poland and in East and Central Europe, see Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland; Roman Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski: Tradycje, doswiadczenia, spory (Cracow: Znak, 1997); Constance Grewe and Henri Oberdoff, Les Constitutions des états de l'Union européenne (1999); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, editor, Constitutionalism in East Central Europe: Discussions in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Bratislava (Bratislava: Czecho-Slovak Committee of the European Cultural Foundation, 1994); International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy: 12 Constitutions of Central and Eastern Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1996); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Introduction: When Polish Constitutionalism Began," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 64-76; Ewa Letowska, "A Constitution of Possibilities," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 76-81; Ewa Letowska, "La
43. For works specifically devoted to the analysis of preambles as political, legal, and symbolic texts, see on France, Geneviéve Koubi, editor. Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946: Antinomies juridiques et contradictions politiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) and on India, K. C. Markandan, The Preamble: Key to the Mind of the Makers of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi: National, 1984). On constitutionalism and constitution-making in Poland and in East and Central Europe, see Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland; Roman Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski: Tradycje, doswiadczenia, spory (Cracow: Znak, 1997); Constance Grewe and Henri Oberdoff, Les Constitutions des états de l'Union européenne (1999); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, editor, Constitutionalism in East Central Europe: Discussions in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Bratislava (Bratislava: Czecho-Slovak Committee of the European Cultural Foundation, 1994); International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy: 12 Constitutions of Central and Eastern Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1996); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Introduction: When Polish Constitutionalism Began," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 64-76; Ewa Letowska, "A Constitution of Possibilities," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 76-81; Ewa Letowska, "La Constitution, oeuvre de la société?" in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen (Zurich: Publications de l'Institut suisse de droit comparé, 1995), 117-131; Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996); Katarina Mathernova, "Checho? Slovakia: Constitutional Disappointments," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe (Washington: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993), 57-92; Wiktor Osiatynski, "The Referendum, Popular Initiative and the Issue of Legitimacy in Consitution-Making in Poland," in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen, 345-358; Ulrich Preuss, "Constitutionalism - Meaning, Endangerment, Sustainability," in S. Saberwal and H. Sievers, editors, Rules, Laws, Constitutions (London: Sage Publications, 1998), 172-187; Andrzej Rapaczynski, "Constitutional Politics in Poland: A Report on the Constitutional Committee of the Polish Parliament," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe, 93-131; Herman Schwartz, The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000); Wojciech Sokolewicz, "The Relevance of Western Models for Constitution-Building in Poland," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 243-277; Pawel Spiewak, "The Battle for a Constitution," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 89-96; Ulrich K. Preuss, "Patterns of Constitutional Evolution and Change in Eastern Europe," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe, 95-126; Wiktor Osiatynski, Twoja konstytucja (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1997).
44. For works specifically devoted to the analysis of preambles as political, legal, and symbolic texts, see on France, Geneviéve Koubi, editor. Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946: Antinomies juridiques et contradictions politiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) and on India, K. C. Markandan, The Preamble: Key to the Mind of the Makers of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi: National, 1984). On constitutionalism and constitution-making in Poland and in East and Central Europe, see Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland; Roman Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski: Tradycje, doswiadczenia, spory (Cracow: Znak, 1997); Constance Grewe and Henri Oberdoff, Les Constitutions des états de l'Union européenne (1999); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, editor, Constitutionalism in East Central Europe: Discussions in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Bratislava (Bratislava: Czecho-Slovak Committee of the European Cultural Foundation, 1994); International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy: 12 Constitutions of Central and Eastern Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1996); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Introduction: When Polish Constitutionalism Began," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 64-76; Ewa Letowska, "A Constitution of Possibilities," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 76-81; Ewa Letowska, "La Constitution, oeuvre de la société?" in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen (Zurich: Publications de l'Institut suisse de droit comparé, 1995), 117-131; Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996); Katarina Mathernova, "Checho? Slovakia: Constitutional Disappointments," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe (Washington: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993), 57-92; Wiktor Osiatynski, "The Referendum, Popular Initiative and the Issue of Legitimacy in Consitution-Making in Poland," in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen, 345-358; Ulrich Preuss, "Constitutionalism - Meaning, Endangerment, Sustainability," in S. Saberwal and H. Sievers, editors, Rules, Laws, Constitutions (London: Sage Publications, 1998), 172-187; Andrzej Rapaczynski, "Constitutional Politics in Poland: A Report on the Constitutional Committee of the Polish Parliament," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe, 93-131; Herman Schwartz, The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000); Wojciech Sokolewicz, "The Relevance of Western Models for Constitution-Building in Poland," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 243-277; Pawel Spiewak, "The Battle for a Constitution," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 89-96; Ulrich K. Preuss, "Patterns of Constitutional Evolution and Change in Eastern Europe," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe, 95-126; Wiktor Osiatynski, Twoja konstytucja (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1997).
45. For works specifically devoted to the analysis of preambles as political, legal, and symbolic texts, see on France, Geneviéve Koubi, editor. Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946: Antinomies juridiques et contradictions politiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) and on India, K. C. Markandan, The Preamble: Key to the Mind of the Makers of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi: National, 1984). On constitutionalism and constitution-making in Poland and in East and Central Europe, see Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland; Roman Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski: Tradycje, doswiadczenia, spory (Cracow: Znak, 1997); Constance Grewe and Henri Oberdoff, Les Constitutions des états de l'Union européenne (1999); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, editor, Constitutionalism in East Central Europe: Discussions in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Bratislava (Bratislava: Czecho-Slovak Committee of the European Cultural Foundation, 1994); International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy: 12 Constitutions of Central and Eastern Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1996); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Introduction: When Polish Constitutionalism Began," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 64-76; Ewa Letowska, "A Constitution of Possibilities," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 76-81; Ewa Letowska, "La Constitution, oeuvre de la société?" in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen (Zurich: Publications de l'Institut suisse de droit comparé, 1995), 117-131; Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996); Katarina Mathernova, "Checho? Slovakia: Constitutional Disappointments," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe (Washington: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993), 57-92; Wiktor Osiatynski, "The Referendum, Popular Initiative and the Issue of Legitimacy in Consitution-Making in Poland," in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen, 345-358; Ulrich Preuss, "Constitutionalism - Meaning, Endangerment, Sustainability," in S. Saberwal and H. Sievers, editors, Rules, Laws, Constitutions (London: Sage Publications, 1998), 172-187; Andrzej Rapaczynski, "Constitutional Politics in Poland: A Report on the Constitutional Committee of the Polish Parliament," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe, 93-131; Herman Schwartz, The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000); Wojciech Sokolewicz, "The Relevance of Western Models for Constitution-Building in Poland," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 243-277; Pawel Spiewak, "The Battle for a Constitution," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 89-96; Ulrich K. Preuss, "Patterns of Constitutional Evolution and Change in Eastern Europe," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe, 95-126; Wiktor Osiatynski, Twoja konstytucja (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1997).
46. For works specifically devoted to the analysis of preambles as political, legal, and symbolic texts, see on France, Geneviéve Koubi, editor. Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946: Antinomies juridiques et contradictions politiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) and on India, K. C. Markandan, The Preamble: Key to the Mind of the Makers of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi: National, 1984). On constitutionalism and constitution-making in Poland and in East and Central Europe, see Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland; Roman Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski: Tradycje, doswiadczenia, spory (Cracow: Znak, 1997); Constance Grewe and Henri Oberdoff, Les Constitutions des états de l'Union européenne (1999); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, editor, Constitutionalism in East Central Europe: Discussions in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Bratislava (Bratislava: Czecho-Slovak Committee of the European Cultural Foundation, 1994); International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy: 12 Constitutions of Central and Eastern Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1996); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Introduction: When Polish Constitutionalism Began," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 64-76; Ewa Letowska, "A Constitution of Possibilities," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 76-81; Ewa Letowska, "La Constitution, oeuvre de la société?" in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen (Zurich: Publications de l'Institut suisse de droit comparé, 1995), 117-131; Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996); Katarina Mathernova, "Checho? Slovakia: Constitutional Disappointments," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe (Washington: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993), 57-92; Wiktor Osiatynski, "The Referendum, Popular Initiative and the Issue of Legitimacy in Consitution-Making in Poland," in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen, 345-358; Ulrich Preuss, "Constitutionalism - Meaning, Endangerment, Sustainability," in S. Saberwal and H. Sievers, editors, Rules, Laws, Constitutions (London: Sage Publications, 1998), 172-187; Andrzej Rapaczynski, "Constitutional Politics in Poland: A Report on the Constitutional Committee of the Polish Parliament," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe, 93-131; Herman Schwartz, The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000); Wojciech Sokolewicz, "The Relevance of Western Models for Constitution-Building in Poland," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 243-277; Pawel Spiewak, "The Battle for a Constitution," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 89-96; Ulrich K. Preuss, "Patterns of Constitutional Evolution and Change in Eastern Europe," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe, 95-126; Wiktor Osiatynski, Twoja konstytucja (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1997).
47. For works specifically devoted to the analysis of preambles as political, legal, and symbolic texts, see on France, Geneviéve Koubi, editor. Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946: Antinomies juridiques et contradictions politiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) and on India, K. C. Markandan, The Preamble: Key to the Mind of the Makers of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi: National, 1984). On constitutionalism and constitution-making in Poland and in East and Central Europe, see Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland; Roman Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski: Tradycje, doswiadczenia, spory (Cracow: Znak, 1997); Constance Grewe and Henri Oberdoff, Les Constitutions des états de l'Union européenne (1999); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, editor, Constitutionalism in East Central Europe: Discussions in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Bratislava (Bratislava: Czecho-Slovak Committee of the European Cultural Foundation, 1994); International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy: 12 Constitutions of Central and Eastern Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1996); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Introduction: When Polish Constitutionalism Began," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 64-76; Ewa Letowska, "A Constitution of Possibilities," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 76-81; Ewa Letowska, "La Constitution, oeuvre de la société?" in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen (Zurich: Publications de l'Institut suisse de droit comparé, 1995), 117-131; Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996); Katarina Mathernova, "Checho? Slovakia: Constitutional Disappointments," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe (Washington: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993), 57-92; Wiktor Osiatynski, "The Referendum, Popular Initiative and the Issue of Legitimacy in Consitution-Making in Poland," in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen, 345-358; Ulrich Preuss, "Constitutionalism - Meaning, Endangerment, Sustainability," in S. Saberwal and H. Sievers, editors, Rules, Laws, Constitutions (London: Sage Publications, 1998), 172-187; Andrzej Rapaczynski, "Constitutional Politics in Poland: A Report on the Constitutional Committee of the Polish Parliament," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe, 93-131; Herman Schwartz, The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000); Wojciech Sokolewicz, "The Relevance of Western Models for Constitution-Building in Poland," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 243-277; Pawel Spiewak, "The Battle for a Constitution," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 89-96; Ulrich K. Preuss, "Patterns of Constitutional Evolution and Change in Eastern Europe," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe, 95-126; Wiktor Osiatynski, Twoja konstytucja (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1997).
48. For works specifically devoted to the analysis of preambles as political, legal, and symbolic texts, see on France, Geneviéve Koubi, editor. Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946: Antinomies juridiques et contradictions politiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) and on India, K. C. Markandan, The Preamble: Key to the Mind of the Makers of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi: National, 1984). On constitutionalism and constitution-making in Poland and in East and Central Europe, see Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland; Roman Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski: Tradycje, doswiadczenia, spory (Cracow: Znak, 1997); Constance Grewe and Henri Oberdoff, Les Constitutions des états de l'Union européenne (1999); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, editor, Constitutionalism in East Central Europe: Discussions in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Bratislava (Bratislava: Czecho-Slovak Committee of the European Cultural Foundation, 1994); International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy: 12 Constitutions of Central and Eastern Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1996); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Introduction: When Polish Constitutionalism Began," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 64-76; Ewa Letowska, "A Constitution of Possibilities," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 76-81; Ewa Letowska, "La Constitution, oeuvre de la société?" in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen (Zurich: Publications de l'Institut suisse de droit comparé, 1995), 117-131; Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996); Katarina Mathernova, "Checho? Slovakia: Constitutional Disappointments," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe (Washington: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993), 57-92; Wiktor Osiatynski, "The Referendum, Popular Initiative and the Issue of Legitimacy in Consitution-Making in Poland," in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen, 345-358; Ulrich Preuss, "Constitutionalism - Meaning, Endangerment, Sustainability," in S. Saberwal and H. Sievers, editors, Rules, Laws, Constitutions (London: Sage Publications, 1998), 172-187; Andrzej Rapaczynski, "Constitutional Politics in Poland: A Report on the Constitutional Committee of the Polish Parliament," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe, 93-131; Herman Schwartz, The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000); Wojciech Sokolewicz, "The Relevance of Western Models for Constitution-Building in Poland," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 243-277; Pawel Spiewak, "The Battle for a Constitution," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 89-96; Ulrich K. Preuss, "Patterns of Constitutional Evolution and Change in Eastern Europe," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe, 95-126; Wiktor Osiatynski, Twoja konstytucja (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1997).
49. For works specifically devoted to the analysis of preambles as political, legal, and symbolic texts, see on France, Geneviéve Koubi, editor. Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946: Antinomies juridiques et contradictions politiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) and on India, K. C. Markandan, The Preamble: Key to the Mind of the Makers of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi: National, 1984). On constitutionalism and constitution-making in Poland and in East and Central Europe, see Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland; Roman Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski: Tradycje, doswiadczenia, spory (Cracow: Znak, 1997); Constance Grewe and Henri Oberdoff, Les Constitutions des états de l'Union européenne (1999); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, editor, Constitutionalism in East Central Europe: Discussions in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Bratislava (Bratislava: Czecho-Slovak Committee of the European Cultural Foundation, 1994); International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy: 12 Constitutions of Central and Eastern Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1996); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Introduction: When Polish Constitutionalism Began," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 64-76; Ewa Letowska, "A Constitution of Possibilities," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 76-81; Ewa Letowska, "La Constitution, oeuvre de la société?" in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen (Zurich: Publications de l'Institut suisse de droit comparé, 1995), 117-131; Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996); Katarina Mathernova, "Checho? Slovakia: Constitutional Disappointments," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe (Washington: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993), 57-92; Wiktor Osiatynski, "The Referendum, Popular Initiative and the Issue of Legitimacy in Consitution-Making in Poland," in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen, 345-358; Ulrich Preuss, "Constitutionalism - Meaning, Endangerment, Sustainability," in S. Saberwal and H. Sievers, editors, Rules, Laws, Constitutions (London: Sage Publications, 1998), 172-187; Andrzej Rapaczynski, "Constitutional Politics in Poland: A Report on the Constitutional Committee of the Polish Parliament," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe, 93-131; Herman Schwartz, The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000); Wojciech Sokolewicz, "The Relevance of Western Models for Constitution-Building in Poland," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 243-277; Pawel Spiewak, "The Battle for a Constitution," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 89-96; Ulrich K. Preuss, "Patterns of Constitutional Evolution and Change in Eastern Europe," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe, 95-126; Wiktor Osiatynski, Twoja konstytucja (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1997).
50. For works specifically devoted to the analysis of preambles as political, legal, and symbolic texts, see on France, Geneviéve Koubi, editor. Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946: Antinomies juridiques et contradictions politiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) and on India, K. C. Markandan, The Preamble: Key to the Mind of the Makers of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi: National, 1984). On constitutionalism and constitution-making in Poland and in East and Central Europe, see Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland; Roman Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski: Tradycje, doswiadczenia, spory (Cracow: Znak, 1997); Constance Grewe and Henri Oberdoff, Les Constitutions des états de l'Union européenne (1999); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, editor, Constitutionalism in East Central Europe: Discussions in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Bratislava (Bratislava: Czecho-Slovak Committee of the European Cultural Foundation, 1994); International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy: 12 Constitutions of Central and Eastern Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1996); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Introduction: When Polish Constitutionalism Began," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 64-76; Ewa Letowska, "A Constitution of Possibilities," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 76-81; Ewa Letowska, "La Constitution, oeuvre de la société?" in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen (Zurich: Publications de l'Institut suisse de droit comparé, 1995), 117-131; Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996); Katarina Mathernova, "Checho? Slovakia: Constitutional Disappointments," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe (Washington: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993), 57-92; Wiktor Osiatynski, "The Referendum, Popular Initiative and the Issue of Legitimacy in Consitution-Making in Poland," in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen, 345-358; Ulrich Preuss, "Constitutionalism - Meaning, Endangerment, Sustainability," in S. Saberwal and H. Sievers, editors, Rules, Laws, Constitutions (London: Sage Publications, 1998), 172-187; Andrzej Rapaczynski, "Constitutional Politics in Poland: A Report on the Constitutional Committee of the Polish Parliament," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe, 93-131; Herman Schwartz, The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000); Wojciech Sokolewicz, "The Relevance of Western Models for Constitution-Building in Poland," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 243-277; Pawel Spiewak, "The Battle for a Constitution," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 89-96; Ulrich K. Preuss, "Patterns of Constitutional Evolution and Change in Eastern Europe," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe, 95-126; Wiktor Osiatynski, Twoja konstytucja (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1997).
51. For works specifically devoted to the analysis of preambles as political, legal, and symbolic texts, see on France, Geneviéve Koubi, editor. Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946: Antinomies juridiques et contradictions politiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) and on India, K. C. Markandan, The Preamble: Key to the Mind of the Makers of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi: National, 1984). On constitutionalism and constitution-making in Poland and in East and Central Europe, see Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland; Roman Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski: Tradycje, doswiadczenia, spory (Cracow: Znak, 1997); Constance Grewe and Henri Oberdoff, Les Constitutions des états de l'Union européenne (1999); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, editor, Constitutionalism in East Central Europe: Discussions in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Bratislava (Bratislava: Czecho-Slovak Committee of the European Cultural Foundation, 1994); International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy: 12 Constitutions of Central and Eastern Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1996); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Introduction: When Polish Constitutionalism Began," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 64-76; Ewa Letowska, "A Constitution of Possibilities," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 76-81; Ewa Letowska, "La Constitution, oeuvre de la société?" in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen (Zurich: Publications de l'Institut suisse de droit comparé, 1995), 117-131; Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996); Katarina Mathernova, "Checho? Slovakia: Constitutional Disappointments," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe (Washington: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993), 57-92; Wiktor Osiatynski, "The Referendum, Popular Initiative and the Issue of Legitimacy in Consitution-Making in Poland," in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen, 345-358; Ulrich Preuss, "Constitutionalism - Meaning, Endangerment, Sustainability," in S. Saberwal and H. Sievers, editors, Rules, Laws, Constitutions (London: Sage Publications, 1998), 172-187; Andrzej Rapaczynski, "Constitutional Politics in Poland: A Report on the Constitutional Committee of the Polish Parliament," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe, 93-131; Herman Schwartz, The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000); Wojciech Sokolewicz, "The Relevance of Western Models for Constitution-Building in Poland," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 243-277; Pawel Spiewak, "The Battle for a Constitution," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 89-96; Ulrich K. Preuss, "Patterns of Constitutional Evolution and Change in Eastern Europe," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe, 95-126; Wiktor Osiatynski, Twoja konstytucja (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1997).
52. For works specifically devoted to the analysis of preambles as political, legal, and symbolic texts, see on France, Geneviéve Koubi, editor. Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946: Antinomies juridiques et contradictions politiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) and on India, K. C. Markandan, The Preamble: Key to the Mind of the Makers of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi: National, 1984). On constitutionalism and constitution-making in Poland and in East and Central Europe, see Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland; Roman Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski: Tradycje, doswiadczenia, spory (Cracow: Znak, 1997); Constance Grewe and Henri Oberdoff, Les Constitutions des états de l'Union européenne (1999); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, editor, Constitutionalism in East Central Europe: Discussions in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Bratislava (Bratislava: Czecho-Slovak Committee of the European Cultural Foundation, 1994); International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy: 12 Constitutions of Central and Eastern Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1996); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Introduction: When Polish Constitutionalism Began," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 64-76; Ewa Letowska, "A Constitution of Possibilities," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 76-81; Ewa Letowska, "La Constitution, oeuvre de la société?" in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen (Zurich: Publications de l'Institut suisse de droit comparé, 1995), 117-131; Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996); Katarina Mathernova, "Checho? Slovakia: Constitutional Disappointments," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe (Washington: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993), 57-92; Wiktor Osiatynski, "The Referendum, Popular Initiative and the Issue of Legitimacy in Consitution-Making in Poland," in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen, 345-358; Ulrich Preuss, "Constitutionalism - Meaning, Endangerment, Sustainability," in S. Saberwal and H. Sievers, editors, Rules, Laws, Constitutions (London: Sage Publications, 1998), 172-187; Andrzej Rapaczynski, "Constitutional Politics in Poland: A Report on the Constitutional Committee of the Polish Parliament," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe, 93-131; Herman Schwartz, The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000); Wojciech Sokolewicz, "The Relevance of Western Models for Constitution-Building in Poland," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 243-277; Pawel Spiewak, "The Battle for a Constitution," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 89-96; Ulrich K. Preuss, "Patterns of Constitutional Evolution and Change in Eastern Europe," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe, 95-126; Wiktor Osiatynski, Twoja konstytucja (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1997).
53. For works specifically devoted to the analysis of preambles as political, legal, and symbolic texts, see on France, Geneviéve Koubi, editor. Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946: Antinomies juridiques et contradictions politiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) and on India, K. C. Markandan, The Preamble: Key to the Mind of the Makers of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi: National, 1984). On constitutionalism and constitution-making in Poland and in East and Central Europe, see Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland; Roman Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski: Tradycje, doswiadczenia, spory (Cracow: Znak, 1997); Constance Grewe and Henri Oberdoff, Les Constitutions des états de l'Union européenne (1999); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, editor, Constitutionalism in East Central Europe: Discussions in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Bratislava (Bratislava: Czecho-Slovak Committee of the European Cultural Foundation, 1994); International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy: 12 Constitutions of Central and Eastern Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1996); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Introduction: When Polish Constitutionalism Began," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 64-76; Ewa Letowska, "A Constitution of Possibilities," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 76-81; Ewa Letowska, "La Constitution, oeuvre de la société?" in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen (Zurich: Publications de l'Institut suisse de droit comparé, 1995), 117-131; Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996); Katarina Mathernova, "Checho? Slovakia: Constitutional Disappointments," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe (Washington: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993), 57-92; Wiktor Osiatynski, "The Referendum, Popular Initiative and the Issue of Legitimacy in Consitution-Making in Poland," in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen, 345-358; Ulrich Preuss, "Constitutionalism -Meaning, Endangerment, Sustainability," in S. Saberwal and H. Sievers, editors, Rules, Laws, Constitutions (London: Sage Publications, 1998), 172-187; Andrzej Rapaczynski, "Constitutional Politics in Poland: A Report on the Constitutional Committee of the Polish Parliament," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe, 93-131; Herman Schwartz, The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000); Wojciech Sokolewicz, "The Relevance of Western Models for Constitution-Building in Poland," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 243-277; Pawel Spiewak, "The Battle for a Constitution," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 89-96; Ulrich K. Preuss, "Patterns of Constitutional Evolution and Change in Eastern Europe," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe, 95-126; Wiktor Osiatynski, Twoja konstytucja (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1997).
54. For works specifically devoted to the analysis of preambles as political, legal, and symbolic texts, see on France, Geneviéve Koubi, editor. Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946: Antinomies juridiques et contradictions politiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) and on India, K. C. Markandan, The Preamble: Key to the Mind of the Makers of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi: National, 1984). On constitutionalism and constitution-making in Poland and in East and Central Europe, see Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland; Roman Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski: Tradycje, doswiadczenia, spory (Cracow: Znak, 1997); Constance Grewe and Henri Oberdoff, Les Constitutions des états de l'Union européenne (1999); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, editor, Constitutionalism in East Central Europe: Discussions in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Bratislava (Bratislava: Czecho-Slovak Committee of the European Cultural Foundation, 1994); International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy: 12 Constitutions of Central and Eastern Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1996); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Introduction: When Polish Constitutionalism Began," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 64-76; Ewa Letowska, "A Constitution of Possibilities," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 76-81; Ewa Letowska, "La Constitution, oeuvre de la société?" in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen (Zurich: Publications de l'Institut suisse de droit comparé, 1995), 117-131; Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996); Katarina Mathernova, "Checho? Slovakia: Constitutional Disappointments," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe (Washington: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993), 57-92; Wiktor Osiatynski, "The Referendum, Popular Initiative and the Issue of Legitimacy in Consitution-Making in Poland," in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen, 345-358; Ulrich Preuss, "Constitutionalism - Meaning, Endangerment, Sustainability," in S. Saberwal and H. Sievers, editors, Rules, Laws, Constitutions (London: Sage Publications, 1998), 172-187; Andrzej Rapaczynski, "Constitutional Politics in Poland: A Report on the Constitutional Committee of the Polish Parliament," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe, 93-131; Herman Schwartz, The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000); Wojciech Sokolewicz, "The Relevance of Western Models for Constitution-Building in Poland," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 243-277; Pawel Spiewak, "The Battle for a Constitution," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 89-96; Ulrich K. Preuss, "Patterns of Constitutional Evolution and Change in Eastern Europe," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe, 95-126; Wiktor Osiatynski, Twoja konstytucja (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1997).
55. For works specifically devoted to the analysis of preambles as political, legal, and symbolic texts, see on France, Geneviéve Koubi, editor. Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946: Antinomies juridiques et contradictions politiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) and on India, K. C. Markandan, The Preamble: Key to the Mind of the Makers of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi: National, 1984). On constitutionalism and constitution-making in Poland and in East and Central Europe, see Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland; Roman Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski: Tradycje, doswiadczenia, spory (Cracow: Znak, 1997); Constance Grewe and Henri Oberdoff, Les Constitutions des états de l'Union européenne (1999); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, editor, Constitutionalism in East Central Europe: Discussions in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Bratislava (Bratislava: Czecho-Slovak Committee of the European Cultural Foundation, 1994); International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy: 12 Constitutions of Central and Eastern Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1996); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Introduction: When Polish Constitutionalism Began," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 64-76; Ewa Letowska, "A Constitution of Possibilities," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 76-81; Ewa Letowska, "La Constitution, oeuvre de la société?" in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen (Zurich: Publications de l'Institut suisse de droit comparé, 1995), 117-131; Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996); Katarina Mathernova, "Checho? Slovakia: Constitutional Disappointments," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe (Washington: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993), 57-92; Wiktor Osiatynski, "The Referendum, Popular Initiative and the Issue of Legitimacy in Consitution-Making in Poland," in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen, 345-358; Ulrich Preuss, "Constitutionalism - Meaning, Endangerment, Sustainability," in S. Saberwal and H. Sievers, editors, Rules, Laws, Constitutions (London: Sage Publications, 1998), 172-187; Andrzej Rapaczynski, "Constitutional Politics in Poland: A Report on the Constitutional Committee of the Polish Parliament," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe, 93-131; Herman Schwartz, The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000); Wojciech Sokolewicz, "The Relevance of Western Models for Constitution-Building in Poland," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 243-277; Pawel Spiewak, "The Battle for a Constitution," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 89-96; Ulrich K. Preuss, "Patterns of Constitutional Evolution and Change in Eastern Europe," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe, 95-126; Wiktor Osiatynski, Twoja konstytucja (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1997).
56. For works specifically devoted to the analysis of preambles as political, legal, and symbolic texts, see on France, Geneviéve Koubi, editor. Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946: Antinomies juridiques et contradictions politiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) and on India, K. C. Markandan, The Preamble: Key to the Mind of the Makers of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi: National, 1984). On constitutionalism and constitution-making in Poland and in East and Central Europe, see Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland; Roman Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski: Tradycje, doswiadczenia, spory (Cracow: Znak, 1997); Constance Grewe and Henri Oberdoff, Les Constitutions des états de l'Union européenne (1999); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, editor, Constitutionalism in East Central Europe: Discussions in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Bratislava (Bratislava: Czecho-Slovak Committee of the European Cultural Foundation, 1994); International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy: 12 Constitutions of Central and Eastern Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1996); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Introduction: When Polish Constitutionalism Began," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 64-76; Ewa Letowska, "A Constitution of Possibilities," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 76-81; Ewa Letowska, "La Constitution, oeuvre de la société?" in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen (Zurich: Publications de l'Institut suisse de droit comparé, 1995), 117-131; Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996); Katarina Mathernova, "Checho? Slovakia: Constitutional Disappointments," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe (Washington: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993), 57-92; Wiktor Osiatynski, "The Referendum, Popular Initiative and the Issue of Legitimacy in Consitution-Making in Poland," in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen, 345-358; Ulrich Preuss, "Constitutionalism - Meaning, Endangerment, Sustainability," in S. Saberwal and H. Sievers, editors, Rules, Laws, Constitutions (London: Sage Publications, 1998), 172-187; Andrzej Rapaczynski, "Constitutional Politics in Poland: A Report on the Constitutional Committee of the Polish Parliament," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe, 93-131; Herman Schwartz, The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000); Wojciech Sokolewicz, "The Relevance of Western Models for Constitution-Building in Poland," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 243-277; Pawel Spiewak, "The Battle for a Constitution," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 89-96; Ulrich K. Preuss, "Patterns of Constitutional Evolution and Change in Eastern Europe," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe, 95-126; Wiktor Osiatynski, Twoja konstytucja (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1997).
57. For works specifically devoted to the analysis of preambles as political, legal, and symbolic texts, see on France, Geneviéve Koubi, editor. Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946: Antinomies juridiques et contradictions politiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) and on India, K. C. Markandan, The Preamble: Key to the Mind of the Makers of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi: National, 1984). On constitutionalism and constitution-making in Poland and in East and Central Europe, see Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland; Roman Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski: Tradycje, doswiadczenia, spory (Cracow: Znak, 1997); Constance Grewe and Henri Oberdoff, Les Constitutions des états de l'Union européenne (1999); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, editor, Constitutionalism in East Central Europe: Discussions in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Bratislava (Bratislava: Czecho-Slovak Committee of the European Cultural Foundation, 1994); International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy: 12 Constitutions of Central and Eastern Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1996); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Introduction: When Polish Constitutionalism Began," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 64-76; Ewa Letowska, "A Constitution of Possibilities," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 76-81; Ewa Letowska, "La Constitution, oeuvre de la société?" in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen (Zurich: Publications de l'Institut suisse de droit comparé, 1995), 117-131; Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996); Katarina Mathernova, "Checho? Slovakia: Constitutional Disappointments," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe (Washington: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993), 57-92; Wiktor Osiatynski, "The Referendum, Popular Initiative and the Issue of Legitimacy in Consitution-Making in Poland," in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen, 345-358; Ulrich Preuss, "Constitutionalism - Meaning, Endangerment, Sustainability," in S. Saberwal and H. Sievers, editors, Rules, Laws, Constitutions (London: Sage Publications, 1998), 172-187; Andrzej Rapaczynski, "Constitutional Politics in Poland: A Report on the Constitutional Committee of the Polish Parliament," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe, 93-131; Herman Schwartz, The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000); Wojciech Sokolewicz, "The Relevance of Western Models for Constitution-Building in Poland," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 243-277; Pawel Spiewak, "The Battle for a Constitution," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 89-96; Ulrich K. Preuss, "Patterns of Constitutional Evolution and Change in Eastern Europe," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe, 95-126; Wiktor Osiatynski, Twoja konstytucja (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1997).
58. For works specifically devoted to the analysis of preambles as political, legal, and symbolic texts, see on France, Geneviéve Koubi, editor. Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946: Antinomies juridiques et contradictions politiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) and on India, K. C. Markandan, The Preamble: Key to the Mind of the Makers of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi: National, 1984). On constitutionalism and constitution-making in Poland and in East and Central Europe, see Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland; Roman Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski: Tradycje, doswiadczenia, spory (Cracow: Znak, 1997); Constance Grewe and Henri Oberdoff, Les Constitutions des états de l'Union européenne (1999); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, editor, Constitutionalism in East Central Europe: Discussions in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Bratislava (Bratislava: Czecho-Slovak Committee of the European Cultural Foundation, 1994); International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy: 12 Constitutions of Central and Eastern Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1996); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Introduction: When Polish Constitutionalism Began," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 64-76; Ewa Letowska, "A Constitution of Possibilities," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 76-81; Ewa Letowska, "La Constitution, oeuvre de la société?" in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen (Zurich: Publications de l'Institut suisse de droit comparé, 1995), 117-131; Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996); Katarina Mathernova, "Checho? Slovakia: Constitutional Disappointments," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe (Washington: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993), 57-92; Wiktor Osiatynski, "The Referendum, Popular Initiative and the Issue of Legitimacy in Consitution-Making in Poland," in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen, 345-358; Ulrich Preuss, "Constitutionalism - Meaning, Endangerment, Sustainability," in S. Saberwal and H. Sievers, editors, Rules, Laws, Constitutions (London: Sage Publications, 1998), 172-187; Andrzej Rapaczynski, "Constitutional Politics in Poland: A Report on the Constitutional Committee of the Polish Parliament," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe, 93-131; Herman Schwartz, The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000); Wojciech Sokolewicz, "The Relevance of Western Models for Constitution-Building in Poland," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 243-277; Pawel Spiewak, "The Battle for a Constitution," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 89-96; Ulrich K. Preuss, "Patterns of Constitutional Evolution and Change in Eastern Europe," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe, 95-126; Wiktor Osiatynski, Twoja konstytucja (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1997).
59. For works specifically devoted to the analysis of preambles as political, legal, and symbolic texts, see on France, Geneviéve Koubi, editor. Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946: Antinomies juridiques et contradictions politiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) and on India, K. C. Markandan, The Preamble: Key to the Mind of the Makers of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi: National, 1984). On constitutionalism and constitution-making in Poland and in East and Central Europe, see Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland; Roman Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski: Tradycje, doswiadczenia, spory (Cracow: Znak, 1997); Constance Grewe and Henri Oberdoff, Les Constitutions des états de l'Union européenne (1999); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, editor, Constitutionalism in East Central Europe: Discussions in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Bratislava (Bratislava: Czecho-Slovak Committee of the European Cultural Foundation, 1994); International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy: 12 Constitutions of Central and Eastern Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1996); Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Introduction: When Polish Constitutionalism Began," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 64-76; Ewa Letowska, "A Constitution of Possibilities," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 76-81; Ewa Letowska, "La Constitution, oeuvre de la société?" in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen (Zurich: Publications de l'Institut suisse de droit comparé, 1995), 117-131; Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996); Katarina Mathernova, "Checho? Slovakia: Constitutional Disappointments," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe (Washington: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993), 57-92; Wiktor Osiatynski, "The Referendum, Popular Initiative and the Issue of Legitimacy in Consitution-Making in Poland," in R. Bieber and P. Widmer, editors, L'espace constitutionel européen, 345-358; Ulrich Preuss, "Constitutionalism - Meaning, Endangerment, Sustainability," in S. Saberwal and H. Sievers, editors, Rules, Laws, Constitutions (London: Sage Publications, 1998), 172-187; Andrzej Rapaczynski, "Constitutional Politics in Poland: A Report on the Constitutional Committee of the Polish Parliament," in A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe, 93-131; Herman Schwartz, The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000); Wojciech Sokolewicz, "The Relevance of Western Models for Constitution-Building in Poland," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 243-277; Pawel Spiewak, "The Battle for a Constitution," East European Constitutional Review, 6/2-3 (1997): 89-96; Ulrich K. Preuss, "Patterns of Constitutional Evolution and Change in Eastern Europe," in J. J. Hesse and N. Johnson, editors, Constitutional Policy and Change in Europe, 95-126; Wiktor Osiatynski, Twoja konstytucja (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1997).
60. Pierre Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991); Bruce Lincoln, Discourse and the Construction of Society: Comparative Studies of Myth, Ritual, and Classification (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).
61. Pierre Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991); Bruce Lincoln, Discourse and the Construction of Society: Comparative Studies of Myth, Ritual, and Classification (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).
62. From Left to Right: Nie, Polityka, Gazeta Wyborcza, Tygodnik Powszechny, Gazeta Polska, Nasza Polska. Each is loosely associated with a party. Nie with SLD, Polityka with SLD and UW, Gazeta Wyborcza with UW, Tygodnik Powszechny with the conservative wing of UW, Gazeta Polska with AWS and ROP, and Nasza Polska with AWS, ROP, and National Catholic parties (a list of acronyms is provided in the appendix). I also reviewed the Catholic Church's weekly, Katolicka Agencja Informacyjna, in which official statements by the Primate and the Episcopate, Pastoral letters, sermons, and interviews with the Church's hierarchy are published. Note that Gazeta Wyborcza, a daily of the Center-Left edited by Adam Michnik, is by far the most popular newspaper n Poland, with the largest circulation. Its circulation is actually higher than any other paper in Eastern Europe, according to Ekiert and Kubik (Rebellious Civil Society, 15); Gazeta Polska and Nasza Polska, on the other hand, are far-Right weeklies with much smaller readerships. Very graphic in their language and strident in the tone of their interventions, they should not be considered "mainstream." They remain relatively marginal in Polish society although they do not go unnoticed, especially when authorities of the Church or politicians give them interviews. For a useful characterization of the radical Right in Poland and its relative
63. It is important to note that the Left-Right cleavage is defined in ideological terms, not in socioeconomic ones (although they may sometimes overlap). The Left-Right opposition should thus not be understood as one between support for state intervention in the economy vs. neoliberal free-market economy, but one between secular and confessional conceptions of the social order and between a civic and ethnic vision of the nation. Moreover, values and beliefs have a greater impact on voting behavior than does socioeconomic status. See Krzysztof Jasiewicz, "Dead Ends and New Beginnings: the Quest for a Procedural Republic in Poland," Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 33 (2000): 101-122, and Radoslaw Markowski, "Political Parties and Ideological Spaces in East Central Europe," Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 33 (1997).
64. It is important to note that the Left-Right cleavage is defined in ideological terms, not in socioeconomic ones (although they may sometimes overlap). The Left-Right opposition should thus not be understood as one between support for state intervention in the economy vs. neoliberal free-market economy, but one between secular and confessional conceptions of the social order and between a civic and ethnic vision of the nation. Moreover, values and beliefs have a greater impact on voting behavior than does socioeconomic status. See Krzysztof Jasiewicz, "Dead Ends and New Beginnings: the Quest for a Procedural Republic in Poland," Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 33 (2000): 101-122, and Radoslaw Markowski, "Political Parties and Ideological Spaces in East Central Europe," Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 33 (1997).
65. The Polish word, for this literary genre is "publicystyka" (German: publizistik). It is translated in English as "journalism," but its meaning is actually quite different. "Publicystyka" is "a type of writing that presents important current problems of social, political, economical, cultural life etc., from a definite point of view, aiming at the shaping of public opinion" (Mala Encyklopedia Powszechna, Warsaw: Panstwowe Wydanie Naukowe, 1997). It is thus rot mere description of an event, but partisan analysis. It is comparable to the op-ed pages in American newspapers.
66. Ronald Grigor Suny and Michael D. Kennedy, editors, Intellectuals and the Articulation of the Nation (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 2000), 2.
67. For preambles and full Constitutional texts, see The International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy; for an analysis of the process of Constitution-making in Eastern Europe and in the successor states of the former Soviet Union, see A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe and Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance. Consult the East European Constitutional Review for country by country accounts of constitutional developmerts and analyses of specific cases.
68. For preambles and full Constitutional texts, see The International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy; for an analysis of the process of Constitution-making in Eastern Europe and in the successor states of the former Soviet Union, see A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe and Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance. Consult the East European Constitutional Review for country by country accounts of constitutional developmerts and analyses of specific cases.
69. For preambles and full Constitutional texts, see The International Institute for Democracy, editor, The Rebirth of Democracy; for an analysis of the process of Constitution-making in Eastern Europe and in the successor states of the former Soviet Union, see A. E. Dick Howard, editor, Constitution Making in Eastern Europe and Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance. Consult the East European Constitutional Review for country by country accounts of constitutional developmerts and analyses of specific cases.
70. The Polish original is: My, Naród polski…. This fragment is sometimes wrongly translated as "We, the Polish People." In Polish, the word "naród" has a clear ethnic and cultural connotation, referring to a historical and cultural community. I discuss the meaning of "naród" (nation), "spoleczenstwo" (society) and "obywatel/stwo" (citizen, citizenship) below.
71. All translations are those of the author, unless otherwise noted.
72. The National Assembly is constituted by the Sejm (parliament) and the Senate, with a total of 560 elected members (460 deputies and 100 senators).
73. This opposition has been analyzed in different terms: on the dichotomy between liberal and traditional conservative democracy, see Danuta Waniek, editor, Problemy socjologii konstytucji (Warsaw: Instytut Studiow Politycznych Polskiej Akademii Nauk, 1991) and Osiatynski, Twoja Konstytucja; on humanist and national-Catholic traditions, see Jaroslaw Gowin, Kosciol po Komunizmie (Cracow: Znak, 1995); on legal-rational and traditional schemes of thought, see Wojciech Pawlik, "The Church and its Critics: The Spell of the Polish Ombudsman," Polish Sociological Review, 1 (1995): 31-45; and on ethnic and a civic understandings of the nation, see Geneviéve Zubrzycki, "De la nation ethnique à la nation civique: enjeux pour l'église catholique polonaise," Social Compass, 44/1 (1997): 37-51; and Joanna Kurczewska, "Patriotyzm spoleczenstwa polskiego lat 90: Miedzy wspolnota kultury a wspolnota obywateli," in Henryk Domanski and Andrzej Rychard, editors, Elementy nowego ladu (Warsaw: IfiS Pan, 1997).
74. This opposition has been analyzed in different terms: on the dichotomy between liberal and traditional conservative democracy, see Danuta Waniek, editor, Problemy socjologii konstytucji (Warsaw: Instytut Studiow Politycznych Polskiej Akademii Nauk, 1991) and Osiatynski, Twoja Konstytucja; on humanist and national-Catholic traditions, see Jaroslaw Gowin, Kosciol po Komunizmie (Cracow: Znak, 1995); on legal-rational and traditional schemes of thought, see Wojciech Pawlik, "The Church and its Critics: The Spell of the Polish Ombudsman," Polish Sociological Review, 1 (1995): 31-45; and on ethnic and a civic understandings of the nation, see Geneviéve Zubrzycki, "De la nation ethnique à la nation civique: enjeux pour l'église catholique polonaise," Social Compass, 44/1 (1997): 37-51; and Joanna Kurczewska, "Patriotyzm spoleczenstwa polskiego lat 90: Miedzy wspolnota kultury a wspolnota obywateli," in Henryk Domanski and Andrzej Rychard, editors, Elementy nowego ladu (Warsaw: IfiS Pan, 1997).
75. This opposition has been analyzed in different terms: on the dichotomy between liberal and traditional conservative democracy, see Danuta Waniek, editor, Problemy socjologii konstytucji (Warsaw: Instytut Studiow Politycznych Polskiej Akademii Nauk, 1991) and Osiatynski, Twoja Konstytucja; on humanist and national-Catholic traditions, see Jaroslaw Gowin, Kosciol po Komunizmie (Cracow: Znak, 1995); on legal-rational and traditional schemes of thought, see Wojciech Pawlik, "The Church and its Critics: The Spell of the Polish Ombudsman," Polish Sociological Review, 1 (1995): 31-45; and on ethnic and a civic understandings of the nation, see Geneviéve Zubrzycki, "De la nation ethnique à la nation civique: enjeux pour l'église catholique polonaise," Social Compass, 44/1 (1997): 37-51; and Joanna Kurczewska, "Patriotyzm spoleczenstwa polskiego lat 90: Miedzy wspolnota kultury a wspolnota obywateli," in Henryk Domanski and Andrzej Rychard, editors, Elementy nowego ladu (Warsaw: IfiS Pan, 1997).
76. This opposition has been analyzed in different terms: on the dichotomy between liberal and traditional conservative democracy, see Danuta Waniek, editor, Problemy socjologii konstytucji (Warsaw: Instytut Studiow Politycznych Polskiej Akademii Nauk, 1991) and Osiatynski, Twoja Konstytucja; on humanist and national-Catholic traditions, see Jaroslaw Gowin, Kosciol po Komunizmie (Cracow: Znak, 1995); on legal-rational and traditional schemes of thought, see Wojciech Pawlik, "The Church and its Critics: The Spell of the Polish Ombudsman," Polish Sociological Review, 1 (1995): 31-45; and on ethnic and a civic understandings of the nation, see Geneviéve Zubrzycki, "De la nation ethnique à la nation civique: enjeux pour l'église catholique polonaise," Social Compass, 44/1 (1997): 37-51; and Joanna Kurczewska, "Patriotyzm spoleczenstwa polskiego lat 90: Miedzy wspolnota kultury a wspolnota obywateli," in Henryk Domanski and Andrzej Rychard, editors, Elementy nowego ladu (Warsaw: IfiS Pan, 1997).
77. This opposition has been analyzed in different terms: on the dichotomy between liberal and traditional conservative democracy, see Danuta Waniek, editor, Problemy socjologii konstytucji (Warsaw: Instytut Studiow Politycznych Polskiej Akademii Nauk, 1991) and Osiatynski, Twoja Konstytucja; on humanist and national-Catholic traditions, see Jaroslaw Gowin, Kosciol po Komunizmie (Cracow: Znak, 1995); on legal-rational and traditional schemes of thought, see Wojciech Pawlik, "The Church and its Critics: The Spell of the Polish Ombudsman," Polish Sociological Review, 1 (1995): 31-45; and on ethnic and a civic understandings of the nation, see Geneviéve Zubrzycki, "De la nation ethnique à la nation civique: enjeux pour l'église catholique polonaise," Social Compass, 44/1 (1997): 37-51; and Joanna Kurczewska, "Patriotyzm spoleczenstwa polskiego lat 90: Miedzy wspolnota kultury a wspolnota obywateli," in Henryk Domanski and Andrzej Rychard, editors, Elementy nowego ladu (Warsaw: IfiS Pan, 1997).
78. This opposition has been analyzed in different terms: on the dichotomy between liberal and traditional conservative democracy, see Danuta Waniek, editor, Problemy socjologii konstytucji (Warsaw: Instytut Studiow Politycznych Polskiej Akademii Nauk, 1991) and Osiatynski, Twoja Konstytucja; on humanist and national-Catholic traditions, see Jaroslaw Gowin, Kosciol po Komunizmie (Cracow: Znak, 1995); on legal-rational and traditional schemes of thought, see Wojciech Pawlik, "The Church and its Critics: The Spell of the Polish Ombudsman," Polish Sociological Review, 1 (1995): 31-45; and on ethnic and a civic understandings of the nation, see Geneviéve Zubrzycki, "De la nation ethnique à la nation civique: enjeux pour l'église catholique polonaise," Social Compass, 44/1 (1997): 37-51; and Joanna Kurczewska, "Patriotyzm spoleczenstwa polskiego lat 90: Miedzy wspolnota kultury a wspolnota obywateli," in Henryk Domanski and Andrzej Rychard, editors, Elementy nowego ladu (Warsaw: IfiS Pan, 1997).
79. Following Bernard Yack, I use "civic" and "ethnic" categories to contrast nations whose distinctive cultural inheritance centers on political symbols and political stories, with nations whose cultural inheritance centers on language and stories about ethnic origins (Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation," 197). Such an emphasis on discursive representations allows us to highlight the differences between the civic and ethnic understandings of the nation, while preventing us from reifying the nation in practice with a reification of nations in theory (Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, 13-22).
80. Following Bernard Yack, I use "civic" and "ethnic" categories to contrast nations whose distinctive cultural inheritance centers on political symbols and political stories, with nations whose cultural inheritance centers on language and stories about ethnic origins (Yack, "The Myth of the Civic Nation," 197). Such an emphasis on discursive representations allows us to highlight the differences between the civic and ethnic understandings of the nation, while preventing us from reifying the nation in practice with a reification of nations in theory (Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, 13-22).
81. Brzezinski, The Struggle for Constitutionalism in Poland, 250.
82. 2 in the West, amputating Germany from Silesia, Eastern Pomerania as well as a part of Brandenburg. German populations were deported. Poland thereby became one of the most homogeneous nation-states in the world. While in 1931 Catholics composed 65 percent of Poland's population, by 1946 the proportion of Catholics had increased to 96.6 percent of the population within the new Poland, according to data in J. Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1994, 90, 26). In addition to the "physical-geographical" construction of the post-war nation-state's homogeneity, "Polishness" is, of course, constructed and maintained through a myriad of cultural forms (myths, commemorations, traditions, literature, and music) and institutional settings (museums, schools, the army, etc.), as well as through the annihilation of other potential identities. On the processes of such construction, see E. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism (N.Y.: Cambridge U. Press, 1995); Anderson, Imagined Communities; J. Gillis, Commemorations (Princeton: Princeton U. Press, 1994); E. Weber. Peasants into Frenchmen (Stanford: Stanford U. Press, 1976); P. Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1995).
83. 2 in the West, amputating Germany from Silesia, Eastern Pomerania as well as a part of Brandenburg. German populations were deported. Poland thereby became one of the most homogeneous nation-states in the world. While in 1931 Catholics composed 65 percent of Poland's population, by 1946 the proportion of Catholics had increased to 96.6 percent of the population within the new Poland, according to data in J. Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1994, 90, 26). In addition to the "physical-geographical" construction of the post-war nation-state's homogeneity, "Polishness" is, of course, constructed and maintained through a myriad of cultural forms (myths, commemorations, traditions, literature, and music) and institutional settings (museums, schools, the army, etc.), as well as through the annihilation of other potential identities. On the processes of such construction, see E. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism (N.Y.: Cambridge U. Press, 1995); Anderson, Imagined Communities; J. Gillis, Commemorations (Princeton: Princeton U. Press, 1994); E. Weber. Peasants into Frenchmen (Stanford: Stanford U. Press, 1976); P. Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1995).
84. 2 in the West, amputating Germany from Silesia, Eastern Pomerania as well as a part of Brandenburg. German populations were deported. Poland thereby became one of the most homogeneous nation-states in the world. While in 1931 Catholics composed 65 percent of Poland's population, by 1946 the proportion of Catholics had increased to 96.6 percent of the population within the new Poland, according to data in J. Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1994, 90, 26). In addition to the "physical-geographical" construction of the post-war nation-state's homogeneity, "Polishness" is, of course, constructed and maintained through a myriad of cultural forms (myths, commemorations, traditions, literature, and music) and institutional settings (museums, schools, the army, etc.), as well as through the annihilation of other potential identities. On the processes of such construction, see E. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism (N.Y.: Cambridge U. Press, 1995); Anderson, Imagined Communities; J. Gillis, Commemorations (Princeton: Princeton U. Press, 1994); E. Weber. Peasants into Frenchmen (Stanford: Stanford U. Press, 1976); P. Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1995).
85. 2 in the West, amputating Germany from Silesia, Eastern Pomerania as well as a part of Brandenburg. German populations were deported. Poland thereby became one of the most homogeneous nation-states in the world. While in 1931 Catholics composed 65 percent of Poland's population, by 1946 the proportion of Catholics had increased to 96.6 percent of the population within the new Poland, according to data in J. Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1994, 90, 26). In addition to the "physical-geographical" construction of the post-war nation-state's homogeneity, "Polishness" is, of course, constructed and maintained through a myriad of cultural forms (myths, commemorations, traditions, literature, and music) and institutional settings (museums, schools, the army, etc.), as well as through the annihilation of other potential identities. On the processes of such construction, see E. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism (N.Y.: Cambridge U. Press, 1995); Anderson, Imagined Communities; J. Gillis, Commemorations (Princeton: Princeton U. Press, 1994); E. Weber. Peasants into Frenchmen (Stanford: Stanford U. Press, 1976); P. Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1995).
86. 2 in the West, amputating Germany from Silesia, Eastern Pomerania as well as a part of Brandenburg. German populations were deported. Poland thereby became one of the most homogeneous nation-states in the world. While in 1931 Catholics composed 65 percent of Poland's population, by 1946 the proportion of Catholics had increased to 96.6 percent of the population within the new Poland, according to data in J. Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1994, 90, 26). In addition to the "physical-geographical" construction of the post-war nation-state's homogeneity, "Polishness" is, of course, constructed and maintained through a myriad of cultural forms (myths, commemorations, traditions, literature, and music) and institutional settings (museums, schools, the army, etc.), as well as through the annihilation of other potential identities. On the processes of such construction, see E. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism (N.Y.: Cambridge U. Press, 1995); Anderson, Imagined Communities; J. Gillis, Commemorations (Princeton: Princeton U. Press, 1994); E. Weber. Peasants into Frenchmen (Stanford: Stanford U. Press, 1976); P. Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1995).
87. 2 in the West, amputating Germany from Silesia, Eastern Pomerania as well as a part of Brandenburg. German populations were deported. Poland thereby became one of the most homogeneous nation-states in the world. While in 1931 Catholics composed 65 percent of Poland's population, by 1946 the proportion of Catholics had increased to 96.6 percent of the population within the new Poland, according to data in J. Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1994, 90, 26). In addition to the "physical-geographical" construction of the post-war nation-state's homogeneity, "Polishness" is, of course, constructed and maintained through a myriad of cultural forms (myths, commemorations, traditions, literature, and music) and institutional settings (museums, schools, the army, etc.), as well as through the annihilation of other potential identities. On the processes of such construction, see E. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism (N.Y.: Cambridge U. Press, 1995); Anderson, Imagined Communities; J. Gillis, Commemorations (Princeton: Princeton U. Press, 1994); E. Weber. Peasants into Frenchmen (Stanford: Stanford U. Press, 1976); P. Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1995).
88. 2 in the West, amputating Germany from Silesia, Eastern Pomerania as well as a part of Brandenburg. German populations were deported. Poland thereby became one of the most homogeneous nation-states in the world. While in 1931 Catholics composed 65 percent of Poland's population, by 1946 the proportion of Catholics had increased to 96.6 percent of the population within the new Poland, according to data in J. Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1994, 90, 26). In addition to the "physical-geographical" construction of the post-war nation-state's homogeneity, "Polishness" is, of course, constructed and maintained through a myriad of cultural forms (myths, commemorations, traditions, literature, and music) and institutional settings (museums, schools, the army, etc.), as well as through the annihilation of other potential identities. On the processes of such construction, see E. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism (N.Y.: Cambridge U. Press, 1995); Anderson, Imagined Communities; J. Gillis, Commemorations (Princeton: Princeton U. Press, 1994); E. Weber. Peasants into Frenchmen (Stanford: Stanford U. Press, 1976); P. Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1995).
89. 2 in the West, amputating Germany from Silesia, Eastern Pomerania as well as a part of Brandenburg. German populations were deported. Poland thereby became one of the most homogeneous nation-states in the world. While in 1931 Catholics composed 65 percent of Poland's population, by 1946 the proportion of Catholics had increased to 96.6 percent of the population within the new Poland, according to data in J. Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1994, 90, 26). In addition to the "physical-geographical" construction of the post-war nation-state's homogeneity, "Polishness" is, of course, constructed and maintained through a myriad of cultural forms (myths, commemorations, traditions, literature, and music) and institutional settings (museums, schools, the army, etc.), as well as through the annihilation of other potential identities. On the processes of such construction, see E. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism (N.Y.: Cambridge U. Press, 1995); Anderson, Imagined Communities; J. Gillis, Commemorations (Princeton: Princeton U. Press, 1994); E. Weber. Peasants into Frenchmen (Stanford: Stanford U. Press, 1976); P. Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1995).
90. Waniek, editor, Problemy socjologii konstytucji, 14.
91. Giovanni Sartori's concept of "polarized pluralism" has also been used in the Polish context. See Anna Seleny, "Old Political Rationalities and New Democracies: Compromise and Confrontation in Hungary and Poland," World Politics, 51 (1999): 484-519, and Jasiewicz, "Dead Ends and New Beginnings."
92. Giovanni Sartori's concept of "polarized pluralism" has also been used in the Polish context. See Anna Seleny, "Old Political Rationalities and New Democracies: Compromise and Confrontation in Hungary and Poland," World Politics, 51 (1999): 484-519, and Jasiewicz, "Dead Ends and New Beginnings."
93. Gazeta Wyborcza, 26 February 1997. Deputy in the Sejm since 1991, member of the post-communist coalition SLD, he has been actively involved in the writing of the preamble, making many suggestions to Tadeusz Mazowiecki, the preamble's main author.
94. Nasza Polska, 19 February 1997.
95. It is important to point out that although the ethnic conception has been the dominant one since the nineteenth century, the discursive field on the "nation" in Poland has historically been shaped by a tension and sometimes an opposition between civic and ethnic conceptions of the nation. The eighteenth century Polish "nation" (or proto-nation) was constructed by a political relation between nobles, the szlachta, who elected the King (Democracy of Nobles). With the disappearance of the Polish state in 1795, the nation was slowly re-imagined along ethno-cultural and religious lines at the critical period of the national sentiment's democratization, a process referred to, by Rogers Brubaker, as the "ethnic narrowing and the social deepening" of Polish national identity. (Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, 84-86). Tensions between the visions of Poland, however, remained, carried by different groups and associations involved in the independence movement (the romantics and the positivists, for example). (For an excellent analysis of the moment when the nation is being redefined in ethnic terms, through a thoroughly detailed analysis of political discourse of the 19th century, see Brian Porter, When Nationalism Began to Hate: Imagining Modern Politics in Nineteenth-Century Poland (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000). These tensions are especially significant in periods of transition to state formation (1918-1939, 1989-), which suggests relations among structural, institutional and social transformations and the re-orientation of national identity along civic or ethnic lines.
96. It is important to point out that although the ethnic conception has been the dominant one since the nineteenth century, the discursive field on the "nation" in Poland has historically been shaped by a tension and sometimes an opposition between civic and ethnic conceptions of the nation. The eighteenth century Polish "nation" (or proto-nation) was constructed by a political relation between nobles, the szlachta, who elected the King (Democracy of Nobles). With the disappearance of the Polish state in 1795, the nation was slowly re-imagined along ethno-cultural and religious lines at the critical period of the national sentiment's democratization, a process referred to, by Rogers Brubaker, as the "ethnic narrowing and the social deepening" of Polish national identity. (Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, 84-86). Tensions between the visions of Poland, however, remained, carried by different groups and associations involved in the independence movement (the romantics and the positivists, for example). (For an excellent analysis of the moment when the nation is being redefined in ethnic terms, through a thoroughly detailed analysis of political discourse of the 19th century, see Brian Porter, When Nationalism Began to Hate: Imagining Modern Politics in Nineteenth-Century Poland (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000). These tensions are especially significant in periods of transition to state formation (1918-1939, 1989-), which suggests relations among structural, institutional and social transformations and the re-orientation of national identity along civic or ethnic lines.
97. First partitioned among Prussia, the Russian, and the Austro-Hungarian empires from 1795 to 1918, German occupation and the Soviet take-over of Eastern Europe after World War II again meant the (indirect) submission of Poland to a foreign power.
98. Jerzy Szacki, "Polish Sociology and Problems of Nation-Building," in R. Breton, G. Houle, G. Caldwell, E. Mokrzycki, and E. Wnuk-Lipinski, editors, National Survival in Dependent Societies, Social Change in Canada and Poland (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1990), 71-81; Jerzy Topolski, "Formation de la nation et du nationalisme polonais: des partages à la premiére guerre mondiale," in B. Jewsiewicki and J. Létourneau, editors, Constructions identitaires: questionnements théoriques et études de cas, Québec: Actes du Célat, 1992), 99-111; Stanislaw Ossowski, O ojczyznie i narodzie (Warsaw: Panstwowe Wydanie Naukowe, 1984); Zdzislaw Mach, Symbols, Conflict and Identity, Essays in Political Anthropology (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993); Jan Kubik, The Power of Symbols Against the Symbols of Power: The Rise of Solidarity and the Fall of Communism in Poland (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994); Porter, When Nationalism Began to Hate.
99. Jerzy Szacki, "Polish Sociology and Problems of Nation-Building," in R. Breton, G. Houle, G. Caldwell, E. Mokrzycki, and E. Wnuk-Lipinski, editors, National Survival in Dependent Societies, Social Change in Canada and Poland (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1990), 71-81; Jerzy Topolski, "Formation de la nation et du nationalisme polonais: des partages à la premiére guerre mondiale," in B. Jewsiewicki and J. Létourneau, editors, Constructions identitaires: questionnements théoriques et études de cas, Québec: Actes du Célat, 1992), 99-111; Stanislaw Ossowski, O ojczyznie i narodzie (Warsaw: Panstwowe Wydanie Naukowe, 1984); Zdzislaw Mach, Symbols, Conflict and Identity, Essays in Political Anthropology (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993); Jan Kubik, The Power of Symbols Against the Symbols of Power: The Rise of Solidarity and the Fall of Communism in Poland (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994); Porter, When Nationalism Began to Hate.
100. Jerzy Szacki, "Polish Sociology and Problems of Nation-Building," in R. Breton, G. Houle, G. Caldwell, E. Mokrzycki, and E. Wnuk-Lipinski, editors, National Survival in Dependent Societies, Social Change in Canada and Poland (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1990), 71-81; Jerzy Topolski, "Formation de la nation et du nationalisme polonais: des partages à la premiére guerre mondiale," in B. Jewsiewicki and J. Létourneau, editors, Constructions identitaires: questionnements théoriques et études de cas, Québec: Actes du Célat, 1992), 99-111; Stanislaw Ossowski, O ojczyznie i narodzie (Warsaw: Panstwowe Wydanie Naukowe, 1984); Zdzislaw Mach, Symbols, Conflict and Identity, Essays in Political Anthropology (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993); Jan Kubik, The Power of Symbols Against the Symbols of Power: The Rise of Solidarity and the Fall of Communism in Poland (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994); Porter, When Nationalism Began to Hate.
101. Jerzy Szacki, "Polish Sociology and Problems of Nation-Building," in R. Breton, G. Houle, G. Caldwell, E. Mokrzycki, and E. Wnuk-Lipinski, editors, National Survival in Dependent Societies, Social Change in Canada and Poland (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1990), 71-81; Jerzy Topolski, "Formation de la nation et du nationalisme polonais: des partages à la premiére guerre mondiale," in B. Jewsiewicki and J. Létourneau, editors, Constructions identitaires: questionnements théoriques et études de cas, Québec: Actes du Célat, 1992), 99-111; Stanislaw Ossowski, O ojczyznie i narodzie (Warsaw: Panstwowe Wydanie Naukowe, 1984); Zdzislaw Mach, Symbols, Conflict and Identity, Essays in Political Anthropology (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993); Jan Kubik, The Power of Symbols Against the Symbols of Power: The Rise of Solidarity and the Fall of Communism in Poland (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994); Porter, When Nationalism Began to Hate.
102. Jerzy Szacki, "Polish Sociology and Problems of Nation-Building," in R. Breton, G. Houle, G. Caldwell, E. Mokrzycki, and E. Wnuk-Lipinski, editors, National Survival in Dependent Societies, Social Change in Canada and Poland (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1990), 71-81; Jerzy Topolski, "Formation de la nation et du nationalisme polonais: des partages à la premiére guerre mondiale," in B. Jewsiewicki and J. Létourneau, editors, Constructions identitaires: questionnements théoriques et études de cas, Québec: Actes du Célat, 1992), 99-111; Stanislaw Ossowski, O ojczyznie i narodzie (Warsaw: Panstwowe Wydanie Naukowe, 1984); Zdzislaw Mach, Symbols, Conflict and Identity, Essays in Political Anthropology (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993); Jan Kubik, The Power of Symbols Against the Symbols of Power: The Rise of Solidarity and the Fall of Communism in Poland (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994); Porter, When Nationalism Began to Hate.
103. Jerzy Szacki, "Polish Sociology and Problems of Nation-Building," in R. Breton, G. Houle, G. Caldwell, E. Mokrzycki, and E. Wnuk-Lipinski, editors, National Survival in Dependent Societies, Social Change in Canada and Poland (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1990), 71-81; Jerzy Topolski, "Formation de la nation et du nationalisme polonais: des partages à la premiére guerre mondiale," in B. Jewsiewicki and J. Létourneau, editors, Constructions identitaires: questionnements théoriques et études de cas, Québec: Actes du Célat, 1992), 99-111; Stanislaw Ossowski, O ojczyznie i narodzie (Warsaw: Panstwowe Wydanie Naukowe, 1984); Zdzislaw Mach, Symbols, Conflict and Identity, Essays in Political Anthropology (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993); Jan Kubik, The Power of Symbols Against the Symbols of Power: The Rise of Solidarity and the Fall of Communism in Poland (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994); Porter, When Nationalism Began to Hate.
104. The predominance of the ethnic understanding of the nation, the dichotomy between "nation" and "state," and the distinction between nationality and citizenship are not unique to Poland, but are rather characteristic of most of Central and Eastern Europe.
105. Identity is obviously not only constructed in opposition to "external others." "Internal others" play a crucial role in that process, and in Poland, they are also defined along religious lines. Jews have been the "internal other" par excellence, but since 1989 "bad Catholics," "cosmopolitan secularists," and Freemasons (the last two categories, however, working as codewords for "Jews") have also been categories of symbolic exclusion from the nation in ethno-catholic milieus. It is important to note that the last decade has witnessed a significant rise in anti-Semitism, despite the virtual absence of Jews in that country. This phenomenon could be explained by the fact that Jews, in Poland, serve as the prime "symbolic other." Adam Michnik calls this peculiar phenomenon "magical anti-Semitism": "The logic of normal, correct and healthy anti-Semitism is the following: Adam Michnik is a Jew, therefore he is a hooligan, a thief, a traitor, a bandit etc. Magical anti-Semitism however works this way: Adam Michnik is a thief, therefore he is most probably a Jew." (Adam Michnik, "Wystapienie," in Bohdan Oppenheim, editor, Kosciol polski wobec antysemityzmu, 1989-1999: Rachunek sumienia (Cracow: WAM, 1999, 73.) Any opponent to the ethnic vision of the nation, therefore, is accused, through a series of associations and double-entendres, of being a Jew. This comes up in various quotations used below.
106. Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany; Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed.
107. Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany; Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed.
108. Geneviéve Zubrzycki, "Changement social et construction identitaire: état, église et identité nationale au Québec et en Pologne," in G. Bouchard and Y. Lamonde, editors, La nation dans tous ses états: Le Québec en comparaison (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1997), 221-250.
109. Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World; Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism Since 1780, 67-68.
110. Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World; Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism Since 1780, 67-68.
111. Patrick Michel, La société retrouvée. Politique et religion dans l'Europe soviétisée (Paris: Fayard, 1988); Ewa Morawska, "Civil Religion vs. State Power in Poland," Society, 21/4 (1984): 29-34; Topolski, "Formation de la nation et du nationalisme polonais"; Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World.
112. Patrick Michel, La société retrouvée. Politique et religion dans l'Europe soviétisée (Paris: Fayard, 1988); Ewa Morawska, "Civil Religion vs. State Power in Poland," Society, 21/4 (1984): 29-34; Topolski, "Formation de la nation et du nationalisme polonais"; Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World.
113. Patrick Michel, La société retrouvée. Politique et religion dans l'Europe soviétisée (Paris: Fayard, 1988); Ewa Morawska, "Civil Religion vs. State Power in Poland," Society, 21/4 (1984): 29-34; Topolski, "Formation de la nation et du nationalisme polonais"; Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World.
114. Patrick Michel, La société retrouvée. Politique et religion dans l'Europe soviétisée (Paris: Fayard, 1988); Ewa Morawska, "Civil Religion vs. State Power in Poland," Society, 21/4 (1984): 29-34; Topolski, "Formation de la nation et du nationalisme polonais"; Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World.
115. The constructed association between Polishness and Catholicism has been so successfully "naturalized" that the tension between nationalism and the supranational Catholicism has vanished. The accession of Karol Wojtyla to the papacy has helped in diminishing this tension: the Pope is seen as a national hero and national spiritual guide. The Catholic narrative of the nation has been very successful in retrospectively building the identity of Poles as intrinsically related to their Catholicism and their national aspirations defended by the Catholic Church. This is, however, not historically accurate. If the members of the lower clergy were often actively involved in the insurrectional movements of 1830 and 1863, the episcopate, following the Vatican's line, preferred to limit its interventions. Rome had recognized the Partitions of Poland and consequently disapproved of insurrectional movements. The Holy See dreaded more generally the growing national agitation in Eastern Europe at the beginning of the nineteenth century, and advocated the maintenance of the European map of the Congress of Vienna (1812). Krzysztof Pornian, Pologne: défi à l'impossible? De la révolte de Poznan à Solidarité (Paris: Les éditions ouvriéres, 1982), 120-121. The symbiosis between Catholicism and ethrionationalism is thus constructed through a long process of nationalization, in which national identity was "catholicized." This is primarily a twentieth-century process, accelerated in its second half, as described above.
116. See Stefan Czarnowski, "La culture religieuse des paysans polonais," Archives des Sciences sociales des Religions, 65/1 (1988 [1934]): 7-23 for a classical ethnography of this association; Zawadzki, "Le nationalisme contre la citoyenneté" for an analysis of the process, which was accentuated and generalized only under socialism; and Ewa Nowicka, Religia a obcosc (Cracow Nomos, 1991) for an analysis of the contemporary significance of the "Polak-Katolik" stereotype in processes of inclusion and exclusion.
117. See Stefan Czarnowski, "La culture religieuse des paysans polonais," Archives des Sciences sociales des Religions, 65/1 (1988 [1934]): 7-23 for a classical ethnography of this association; Zawadzki, "Le nationalisme contre la citoyenneté" for an analysis of the process, which was accentuated and generalized only under socialism; and Ewa Nowicka, Religia a obcosc (Cracow Nomos, 1991) for an analysis of the contemporary significance of the "Polak-Katolik" stereotype in processes of inclusion and exclusion.
118. See Stefan Czarnowski, "La culture religieuse des paysans polonais," Archives des Sciences sociales des Religions, 65/1 (1988 [1934]): 7-23 for a classical ethnography of this association; Zawadzki, "Le nationalisme contre la citoyenneté" for an analysis of the process, which was accentuated and generalized only under socialism; and Ewa Nowicka, Religia a obcosc (Cracow Nomos, 1991) for an analysis of the contemporary significance of the "Polak-Katolik" stereotype in processes of inclusion and exclusion.
119. Zawadzki, "Le nationalisme contre la citoyenneté," 169-185;
120. Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World.
121. Grzegorz Babinski, "Religia i nacjonalizm w siodkowej i wschodniej Europie. Zarys problematyki," in I. Borowik and A. Szyjewski, editors, Religie i Koscioly w spoleczenstwach postkomunistycznych (Cracow: Nomos, 1993), 193-198; Nowicka, Religia a obcosc; Kubik, The Power of Symbols Against the Symbols of Power; Ewa Morawska, "The Polish Roman Catholic Church Unbound: Change of Face or Change of Context?" in S.E. Hanson and W. Spohn, editors, Can Europe Work? Germany and the Reconstruction of Postcommunist Societies (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995), 47-75; Maryjane Osa, "Pastoral Mobilization and Contention: The Religious Foundations of the Solicarity Movement in Poland" in C. Smith, editor, Disruptive Religion: The Force of Faith in Social-Movement Activism (New York: Routledge, 1996), 67-85.
122. Grzegorz Babinski, "Religia i nacjonalizm w siodkowej i wschodniej Europie. Zarys problematyki," in I. Borowik and A. Szyjewski, editors, Religie i Koscioly w spoleczenstwach postkomunistycznych (Cracow: Nomos, 1993), 193-198; Nowicka, Religia a obcosc; Kubik, The Power of Symbols Against the Symbols of Power; Ewa Morawska, "The Polish Roman Catholic Church Unbound: Change of Face or Change of Context?" in S.E. Hanson and W. Spohn, editors, Can Europe Work? Germany and the Reconstruction of Postcommunist Societies (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995), 47-75; Maryjane Osa, "Pastoral Mobilization and Contention: The Religious Foundations of the Solicarity Movement in Poland" in C. Smith, editor, Disruptive Religion: The Force of Faith in Social-Movement Activism (New York: Routledge, 1996), 67-85.
123. Grzegorz Babinski, "Religia i nacjonalizm w siodkowej i wschodniej Europie. Zarys problematyki," in I. Borowik and A. Szyjewski, editors, Religie i Koscioly w spoleczenstwach postkomunistycznych (Cracow: Nomos, 1993), 193-198; Nowicka, Religia a obcosc; Kubik, The Power of Symbols Against the Symbols of Power; Ewa Morawska, "The Polish Roman Catholic Church Unbound: Change of Face or Change of Context?" in S.E. Hanson and W. Spohn, editors, Can Europe Work? Germany and the Reconstruction of Postcommunist Societies (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995), 47-75; Maryjane Osa, "Pastoral Mobilization and Contention: The Religious Foundations of the Solicarity Movement in Poland" in C. Smith, editor, Disruptive Religion: The Force of Faith in Social-Movement Activism (New York: Routledge, 1996), 67-85.
124. Grzegorz Babinski, "Religia i nacjonalizm w siodkowej i wschodniej Europie. Zarys problematyki," in I. Borowik and A. Szyjewski, editors, Religie i Koscioly w spoleczenstwach postkomunistycznych (Cracow: Nomos, 1993), 193-198; Nowicka, Religia a obcosc; Kubik, The Power of Symbols Against the Symbols of Power; Ewa Morawska, "The Polish Roman Catholic Church Unbound: Change of Face or Change of Context?" in S.E. Hanson and W. Spohn, editors, Can Europe Work? Germany and the Reconstruction of Postcommunist Societies (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995), 47-75; Maryjane Osa, "Pastoral Mobilization and Contention: The Religious Foundations of the Solicarity Movement in Poland" in C. Smith, editor, Disruptive Religion: The Force of Faith in Social-Movement Activism (New York: Routledge, 1996), 67-85.
125. Grzegorz Babinski, "Religia i nacjonalizm w siodkowej i wschodniej Europie. Zarys problematyki," in I. Borowik and A. Szyjewski, editors, Religie i Koscioly w spoleczenstwach postkomunistycznych (Cracow: Nomos, 1993), 193-198; Nowicka, Religia a obcosc; Kubik, The Power of Symbols Against the Symbols of Power; Ewa Morawska, "The Polish Roman Catholic Church Unbound: Change of Face or Change of Context?" in S.E. Hanson and W. Spohn, editors, Can Europe Work? Germany and the Reconstruction of Postcommunist Societies (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995), 47-75; Maryjane Osa, "Pastoral Mobilization and Contention: The Religious Foundations of the Solicarity Movement in Poland" in C. Smith, editor, Disruptive Religion: The Force of Faith in Social-Movement Activism (New York: Routledge, 1996), 67-85.
126. For an analysis of the discourse of Polish Catholicism, see Kubik, The Power of Symbols Against the Symbols of Power.
127. Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World, 74.
128. This is how 1989 is often referred to in everyday life and public discourses.
129. Morawska, "The Polish Roman Catholic Church Unbound: Change of Face or Change of Context?"; Zubrzycki, "De la nation ethnique à la nation civique"; Zubrzycki "Changement social et construction identitaire"; and Irena Borowik, Procesy instytucjonalizacji i prywatyzacji Religii w powojennej Polsce (Cracow: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellonskiego, 1997).
130. Morawska, "The Polish Roman Catholic Church Unbound: Change of Face or Change of Context?"; Zubrzycki, "De la nation ethnique à la nation civique"; Zubrzycki "Changement social et construction identitaire"; and Irena Borowik, Procesy instytucjonalizacji i prywatyzacji Religii w powojennej Polsce (Cracow: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellonskiego, 1997).
131. Morawska, "The Polish Roman Catholic Church Unbound: Change of Face or Change of Context?"; Zubrzycki, "De la nation ethnique à la nation civique"; Zubrzycki "Changement social et construction identitaire"; and Irena Borowik, Procesy instytucjonalizacji i prywatyzacji Religii w powojennej Polsce (Cracow: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellonskiego, 1997).
132. Morawska, "The Polish Roman Catholic Church Unbound: Change of Face or Change of Context?"; Zubrzycki, "De la nation ethnique à la nation civique"; Zubrzycki "Changement social et construction identitaire"; and Irena Borowik, Procesy instytucjonalizacji i prywatyzacji Religii w powojennej Polsce (Cracow: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellonskiego, 1997).
133. Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World, Zubrzycki "Changement social et construction identitaire."
134. Adam Michnik, "Le nouvel évolutionisme vingt ans aprés," in M. Molnar, G. Nivat, and A. Reszler, editors, Vers une mutation de société. La marche de l'Europe de l'Est vers la démocratie (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1991), 46. Michnik is one of the most influent intellectuals and activists of post-war Poland. He co-founded KOR (Komitet Obrony Robotnikow - Committee of Workers' Defense) in 1976, was advisor to Solidarity in 1980-1981, and since 1989 has been the chief editor of Poland's most important daily, Gazeta Wyborcza.
135. I am referring to the intellectuals associated with Polityka, Adam Michnik's Gazeta Wyborcza, and to some extent with the liberal Catholic weekly Tygodnik Powszechny and Znak, its publishing house. Examples of their efforts can be found in the Press, but also in discussion forums, seminars, and workshops which they participate in and sometimes sponsor.
136. On the meaning of "Europe" in post-communist Poland, see Mary Kaldor, "Cosmopolitanism Versus Nationalism: The New Divide?," in R. Capland and J. Feffer, editors, Europe's New Nationalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 42-58; Krystyna A. Paszkiewicz, "Koncepcje 'Powrotu do Europy' we wspolczesnej polskiej mysli politycznej" in B. Pasierb and K. A. Paszkiewicz, editors, Wspolczesna polska mysl polityczna (Wroclaw: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wroclawskiego, 1996), 15-38; Leslaw Kocwin, " 'Narodowcy' i 'Europejczycy' wobec problemu jednosci Europejskiej," in B. Pasierb and K. A. Paszkiewicz, editors, Wspolczesna polska mysl polityczna, 39-64; and Geneviéve Zubrzycki, "'Poland's Return to Europe': Reconstructing National Identity in a Global World," unpublished manuscript presented at the 14th World Congress of Sociology, Montréal, 1998.
137. On the meaning of "Europe" in post-communist Poland, see Mary Kaldor, "Cosmopolitanism Versus Nationalism: The New Divide?," in R. Capland and J. Feffer, editors, Europe's New Nationalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 42-58; Krystyna A. Paszkiewicz, "Koncepcje 'Powrotu do Europy' we wspolczesnej polskiej mysli politycznej" in B. Pasierb and K. A. Paszkiewicz, editors, Wspolczesna polska mysl polityczna (
138. On the meaning of "Europe" in post-communist Poland, see Mary Kaldor, "Cosmopolitanism Versus Nationalism: The New Divide?," in R. Capland and J. Feffer, editors, Europe's New Nationalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 42-58; Krystyna A. Paszkiewicz, "Koncepcje 'Powrotu do Europy' we wspolczesnej polskiej mysli politycznej" in B. Pasierb and K. A. Paszkiewicz, editors, Wspolczesna polska mysl polityczna (Wroclaw: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wroclawskiego, 1996), 15-38; Leslaw Kocwin, " 'Narodowcy' i 'Europejczycy' wobec problemu jednosci Europejskiej," in B. Pasierb and K. A. Paszkiewicz, editors, Wspolczesna polska mysl polityczna, 39-64; and Geneviéve Zubrzycki, "'Poland's Return to Europe': Reconstructing National Identity in a Global World," unpublished manuscript presented at the 14th World Congress of Sociology, Montréal, 1998.
139. On the meaning of "Europe" in post-communist Poland, see Mary Kaldor, "Cosmopolitanism Versus Nationalism: The New Divide?," in R. Capland and J. Feffer, editors, Europe's New Nationalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 42-58; Krystyna A. Paszkiewicz, "Koncepcje 'Powrotu do Europy' we wspolczesnej polskiej mysli politycznej" in B. Pasierb and K. A. Paszkiewicz, editors, Wspolczesna polska mysl polityczna (Wroclaw: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wroclawskiego, 1996), 15-38; Leslaw Kocwin, " 'Narodowcy' i 'Europejczycy' wobec problemu jednosci Europejskiej," in B. Pasierb and K. A. Paszkiewicz, editors, Wspolczesna polska mysl polityczna, 39-64; and Geneviéve Zubrzycki, "'Poland's Return to Europe': Reconstructing National Identity in a Global World," unpublished manuscript presented at the 14th World Congress of Sociology, Montréal, 1998.
140. For Hungary and Romania respectively, see the analyses of Gal, "Bartok's Funeral" and Verdery, "Civil Society or Nation? 'Europe' in the Symbolism of Romania's Postsocialist Politics," in What Was Socialism (reprinted in Suny and Kennedy, editors, Intellectuals, 301-340).
141. As articulated by the Pope in Veritatis Splendor. Jean-Paul II, La splendeur de la Vérité - l'enseignement moral de l'Eglise, lettre encyclique Veritatis splendor (Paris: Editions du Cerf, 1993), 326-327, and in Tygodnik Powszechny on 22 February 1998. Cardinal Glemp also argues that Poland should enter the European community, but bring to it what defines Poles: faith (in Gazeta Polska, 15 March 1998). For an analysis of the debates over Poland's return to Europe and how they are related to civic, ethnic and Catholic understandings of the nation, see Elzbieta Skotnicka-Illasiewicz and Wlodzimierz Wesolowski, "The Significance of Preconceptions: Europe of Civil Societies and Europe of Nationalities" in S. Periwal, editor, Notions of Nationalism (Budapest-New York: Central University Press, 1995); Zubrzycki, " 'Poland's Return to Europe.'"
142. As articulated by the Pope in Veritatis Splendor. Jean-Paul II, La splendeur de la Vérité - l'enseignement moral de l'Eglise, lettre encyclique Veritatis splendor (Paris: Editions du Cerf, 1993), 326-327, and in Tygodnik Powszechny on 22 February 1998. Cardinal Glemp also argues that Poland should enter the European community, but bring to it what defines Poles: faith (in Gazeta Polska, 15 March 1998). For an analysis of the debates over Poland's return to Europe and how they are related to civic, ethnic and Catholic understandings of the nation, see Elzbieta Skotnicka-Illasiewicz and Wlodzimierz Wesolowski, "The Significance of Preconceptions: Europe of Civil Societies and Europe of Nationalities" in S. Periwal, editor, Notions of Nationalism (Budapest-New York: Central University Press, 1995); Zubrzycki, " 'Poland's Return to Europe.'"
143. As articulated by the Pope in Veritatis Splendor. Jean-Paul II, La splendeur de la Vérité - l'enseignement moral de l'Eglise, lettre encyclique Veritatis splendor (Paris: Editions du Cerf, 1993), 326-327, and in Tygodnik Powszechny on 22 February 1998. Cardinal Glemp also argues that Poland should enter the European community, but bring to it what defines Poles: faith (in Gazeta Polska, 15 March 1998). For an analysis of the debates over Poland's return to Europe and how they are related to civic, ethnic and Catholic understandings of the nation, see Elzbieta Skotnicka-Illasiewicz and Wlodzimierz Wesolowski, "The Significance of Preconceptions: Europe of Civil Societies and Europe of Nationalities" in S. Periwal, editor, Notions of Nationalism (Budapest-New York: Central University Press, 1995); Zubrzycki, " 'Poland's Return to Europe.'"
144. The International Institute for Democracy, for example, states that the "the rights of national minorities have. been enshrined in the constitutions, albeit in response to urgent requests from European organisations and notably from the Council of Europe" (The Rebirth of Democracy, 6, emphasis mine), which testifies to the influence of supranational organizations in the design of the Constitutions of Central and Eastern European states and the symbolism included in preambles. See The International Institute for Democracy, The Rebirth of Democracy for preambles and full Constitutional texts, and for a comparison with the Constitutions of the states of the European Union, see Constance Grewe and Henri Oberdoff, Les Constitutions des états de l'Union européenne (1999). I thank an anonymous reviewer of this article for pressing me to emphasize the international dimension of constitutional symbolism.
145. I do not mean here the community of Catholics, but more narrowly the institutional Church, the Episcopate, and the clergy. There are of course different tendencies within the Church itself, and within the active Catholic community at large. The most obvious orientations are that of a "closed" Catholicism and Church, and that of a more "open" Church, conscious of the necessity of a greater flexibility and adaptability, but, most of all, of the need and urgency to go back to the essence of its role, religion. One of the Church's most daring characters, priest and philosopher Józef Tischner (1931-2000), even warned against the integrist tendencies of the institution and has publicly promoted a rapprochement with intellectual élites of the Center-Left, most notably through his association and collaborative work with Adam Michnik. Adam Michnik, Jozef Tischner and Jacek Zakowski, Miedzy Pattern a Plebanem (Cracow: Znak, 1995). The goal of "open" Catholics is to reform the institution along the spirit of Vatican II, and help it to adjust to the new situation and to understand the criticisms it increasingly faces. Advocates for an open Church (Kosciol otwarty) are members of the editorial board of the liberal Catholic Tygodnik Powszechny, and lay journalists form Michnik's Gazeta Wyborcza. On those divisions, consult the subtle analysis of Gowin, Kosciol po komunizmie.
146. This position is most clearly associated with AWS and ROP party members and with Gazeta Polska and Nasza Polska. It is also the position of the controversial Catholic radio station, Radio Maryja, and more recently with a group of intellectuals from the Right, the club "Mysl dla Polski" (Thought for Poland) associated with Krakow's Nasz Dziennik. On Radio Maryjc's social and political ramifications, see Krzysztof Jasiewicz, "Democratic Transition and Social Movements in Poland: From Solidarnosc to Rodzina Radia Maryja," paper presented at the 31st National Convention of the American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies, St. Louis, Missouri, 2000.
147. Bernard Lecomte, "Le Pape et l'aprés-communisme européen," in G. Mink and J.-C. Szurek, editors, Cet étrange post-communisme. Rupture et transitions en Europe centrale et orientale (Paris: La découverte, 1992), 115-124.
148. Czeslaw Bartnik, Chrzescijanska nauka o narodzie wedlug Prymasa Stefana Wyszynskiego (London: Odnowa, 1982); Jan Lewandowski, Narod w nauczaniu kardynala Stefana Wyszynskiego (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, 1989).
149. Czeslaw Bartnik, Chrzescijanska nauka o narodzie wedlug Prymasa Stefana Wyszynskiego (London: Odnowa, 1982); Jan Lewandowski, Narod w nauczaniu kardynala Stefana Wyszynskiego (Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, 1989).
150. Lewandowski, Narod w nauczaniu kardynala Stefana Wyszynskiego, 153.
151. Bartnik, Chrzescijanska nauka o narodzie, 9-10
152. Cardinal Wyszynski quoted in Gilles Houle, Piotr Lukasiewicz, and Andrzej Sicinski, "Social and National Consciousness Transformations in Dependent Societies," in R. Breton, G. Houle, G. Caldwell, E. Mokrzycki, and E. Wnuk-Lipinski, editors, National Survival in Dependent Societies, 153.
153. Wieslaw Chrzanowski, Tygodnik Powszechny 1992/17.
154. "Us" was the nation, united behind Solidarity md the Catholic Church, and "them" the élite in power, perceived as serving the interests of the Soviet Union rather than those of Poland. There existed, of course, a plurality of opinions and diversity in political orientations. But for the sake of unity in the fight against the totalitarian régime, these differences were pushed aside. This has important repercussions now. It gives the false impression that Communist Poland was unified, and wrongly identifies the fall of communism as the source of a chaotic pluralism that had been present but minimized. On master frames, see David A. Snow and Robert D. Benford, "Master Frames and Cycles of Protest," in A. D. Morris and C. McClurg Mueller, editors, Frontiers in Social Movement Theory (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 133-155; on Poland more specifically, see Maryjane Osa, "Pastoral Mobilization and Contention: The Religious Foundations of the Solidarity Movement in Poland."
155. "Us" was the nation, united behind Solidarity md the Catholic Church, and "them" the élite in power, perceived as serving the interests of the Soviet Union rather than those of Poland. There existed, of course, a plurality of opinions and diversity in political orientations. But for the sake of unity in the fight against the totalitarian régime, these differences were pushed aside. This has important repercussions now. It gives the false impression that Communist Poland was unified, and wrongly identifies the fall of communism as the source of a chaotic pluralism that had been present but minimized. On master frames, see David A. Snow and Robert D. Benford, "Master Frames and Cycles of Protest," in A. D. Morris and C. McClurg Mueller, editors, Frontiers in Social Movement Theory (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 133-155; on Poland more specifically, see Maryjane Osa, "Pastoral Mobilization and Contention: The Religious Foundations of the Solidarity Movement in Poland."
156. Frances Millard, Polish Politics and Society (New York: Routledge, 1999), 142. For data on the social authority of the Catholic Church in post-communist Poland, see Morawska, "The Polish Roman Catholic Church Unbound," and Borowik, Procesy instytucjonalizacji i prywatyzacji Religii.
157. Frances Millard, Polish Politics and Society (New York: Routledge, 1999), 142. For data on the social authority of the Catholic Church in post-communist Poland, see Morawska, "The Polish Roman Catholic Church Unbound," and Borowik, Procesy instytucjonalizacji i prywatyzacji Religii.
158. Frances Millard, Polish Politics and Society (New York: Routledge, 1999), 142. For data on the social authority of the Catholic Church in post-communist Poland, see Morawska, "The Polish Roman Catholic Church Unbound," and Borowik, Procesy instytucjonalizacji i prywatyzacji Religii.
159. Katherine Verdery found something similar in Romania, where the discourse of civil society fails to resonate below because, she argues, liberal intellectuals did not do enough to translate it positively into the life terms of everyone else. Verdery, What Was Socialism. 67. T. Mazowiecki (1927-), principal author of the preamble, intellectual and politician, deputy at the Sejm. Co-founder, in 1957, of the Warsaw KIK (Klub Inteligencji Katolickiej - Catholic Intelligentsia's Club) and in 1958 of the Catholic monthly Wiez (Tie). Advisor to Lech Walesa during the August 1980 strikes, he was one of the co-authors of the Agreements of the Round Table (1989). In 1989-1990, he was Poland's Prime Minister. He co-founded one of the most important parties of post-communist Poland, Unia Demokratyczna (Democratic Union), now Unia Wolnosci (Freedom Union).
160. Rada Stala Episkopatu Polski, "Komunikat," 13 February 1997 in Katolicka Agencja Informacyjna 13: 42. Note how Bishop Michalik grounds his response by referring to the institutions that, according to the Right, control the civic project: international law and the European Union's legislation. Proponents of the civic discourse are often accused of privileging international or supra-national (i.e., anti-national) interests. This rhetoric attempts to link symbolically the Center-Left's project to that of the People's Republic of Poland's communist régime, which "also" privileged foreign interests (the Soviet Union's and the Communist Bloc's structures, the Warsaw Pact and the Comecon) over national ones. In the discourse on Poland's so-called "return to Europe," subtle comparisons between the Soviet Union and the European Union are frequently made: both are potential threats to Polish sovereignty and Polish cultural (i.e., Catholic) specificity.
161. Non Possumus, text addressed to the Sejm on 28 February 1997, printed in Gazeta Wyborcza on 3 March 1997. Non Possumus ("We Cannot"): Latin formula for the Papacy's negative response to expectations from the secular power that the Church deems impossible to fulfill. Non Possumus, in the Polish context, refers to a memorandum of the Conference of the Episcopate of Poland to the government in May 1953, reacting to the increasing pressure from the state to reduce the autonomy of the Church. The phrase was again invoked during the constitutional debates in March 1997 in a quite different discursive and historical context, a point to which I return in the last section of this article.
162. Non Possumus, text addressed to the Sejm on 28 February 1997, printed in Gazeta Wyborcza on 3 March 1997. Non Possumus ("We Cannot"): Latin formula for the Papacy's negative response to expectations from the secular power that the Church deems impossible to fulfill. Non Possumus, in the Polish context, refers to a memorandum of the Conference of the Episcopate of Poland to the government in May 1953, reacting to the increasing pressure from the state to reduce the autonomy of the Church. The phrase was again invoked during the constitutional debates in March 1997 in a quite different discursive and historical context, a point to which I return in the last section of this article.
163. Osrodek Badania Opinii Publicznej, Tresc przyszlej konstytucji w opinii Polakow (1997), 23.N = 1116 of Poland's inhabitants over 16 years of age.
164. Gazeta Wyborcza, 26 February 1997.
165. Gazeta Wyborcza, 3 March 1997. From 1990 to 1996, Osiatynski was an advisor to the Constitutional Commission, a fervent supporter of the Constitution.
166. Gazeta Wyborcza, 21 February 1997.
167. BP Tadeusz Pieronek, Katolicka Agencja Informacyjna, 8, 28 February 1997.
168. Stanislaw Krajski in Nasza Polska, 23 April 1997.
169. For works on Right-wing politics and the far-Right in Central and Eastern Europe, see Stephen Fischer-Galati, "The Political Right in Eastern Europe in Historical Perspective," in J. Held, editor, Democracy and Right-Wing Politics in Eastern Europe in the 1990's (Boulder: East European Monographs, 1993), 1-12; Sabrina Ramet, editor, The Radical Right in Central and Eastern Europe since 1989. On Poland more specifically, see Andrzej Korbonski, "The Revival of the Political Right in Post-Communist Poland: Historical Roots," in J. Held, editor, Democracy and Right-Wing Politics, 13-31; Sarah M. Terry, "What's Right, What's Left, and What's Wrong in Polish Politics?" in J. Held, editor, Democracy and Right-Wing Politics, 33-60; and Ost, "The Radical Right in Poland." For an analysis of the relationship between conceptions of the nation and the success of Right-wing movements, see Ruud Koopmans and Paul Statham, "Ethnic and Civic Conceptions of Nationhood and the Differential Success of the Extreme Right in Germany and Italy" in M. Giugni, D. McAdam, and C. Tilly, editors, How Social Movements Matter (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 1999), 225-251.
170. For works on Right-wing politics and the far-Right in Central and Eastern Europe, see Stephen Fischer-Galati, "The Political Right in Eastern Europe in Historical Perspective," in J. Held, editor, Democracy and Right-Wing Politics in Eastern Europe in the 1990's (Boulder: East European Monographs, 1993), 1-12; Sabrina Ramet, editor, The Radical Right in Central and Eastern Europe since 1989. On Poland more specifically, see Andrzej Korbonski, "The Revival of the Political Right in Post-Communist Poland: Historical Roots," in J. Held, editor, Democracy and Right-Wing Politics, 13-31; Sarah M. Terry, "What's Right, What's Left, and What's Wrong in Polish Politics?" in J. Held, editor, Democracy and Right-Wing Politics, 33-60; and Ost, "The Radical Right in Poland." For an analysis of the relationship between conceptions of the nation and the success of Right-wing movements, see Ruud Koopmans and Paul Statham, "Ethnic and Civic Conceptions of Nationhood and the Differential Success of the Extreme Right in Germany and Italy" in M. Giugni, D. McAdam, and C. Tilly, editors, How Social Movements Matter (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 1999), 225-251.
171. For works on Right-wing politics and the far-Right in Central and Eastern Europe, see Stephen Fischer-Galati, "The Political Right in Eastern Europe in Historical Perspective," in J. Held, editor, Democracy and Right-Wing Politics in Eastern Europe in the 1990's (Boulder: East European Monographs, 1993), 1-12; Sabrina Ramet, editor, The Radical Right in Central and Eastern Europe since 1989. On Poland more specifically, see Andrzej Korbonski, "The Revival of the Political Right in Post-Communist Poland: Historical Roots," in J. Held, editor, Democracy and Right-Wing Politics, 13-31; Sarah M. Terry, "What's Right, What's Left, and What's Wrong in Polish Politics?" in J. Held, editor, Democracy and Right-Wing Politics, 33-60; and Ost, "The Radical Right in Poland." For an analysis of the relationship between conceptions of the nation and the success of Right-wing movements, see Ruud Koopmans and Paul Statham, "Ethnic and Civic Conceptions of Nationhood and the Differential Success of the Extreme Right in Germany and Italy" in M. Giugni, D. McAdam, and C. Tilly, editors, How Social Movements Matter (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 1999), 225-251.
172. For works on Right-wing politics and the far-Right in Central and Eastern Europe, see Stephen Fischer-Galati, "The Political Right in Eastern Europe in Historical Perspective," in J. Held, editor, Democracy and Right-Wing Politics in Eastern Europe in the 1990's (Boulder: East European Monographs, 1993), 1-12; Sabrina Ramet, editor, The Radical Right in Central and Eastern Europe since 1989. On Poland more specifically, see Andrzej Korbonski, "The Revival of the Political Right in Post-Communist Poland: Historical Roots," in J. Held, editor, Democracy and Right-Wing Politics, 13-31; Sarah M. Terry, "What's Right, What's Left, and What's Wrong in Polish Politics?" in J. Held, editor, Democracy and Right-Wing Politics, 33-60; and Ost, "The Radical Right in Poland." For an analysis of the relationship between conceptions of the nation and the success of Right-wing movements, see Ruud Koopmans and Paul Statham, "Ethnic and Civic Conceptions of Nationhood and the Differential Success of the Extreme Right in Germany and Italy" in M. Giugni, D. McAdam, and C. Tilly, editors, How Social Movements Matter (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 1999), 225-251.
173. For works on Right-wing politics and the far-Right in Central and Eastern Europe, see Stephen Fischer-Galati, "The Political Right in Eastern Europe in Historical Perspective," in J. Held, editor, Democracy and Right-Wing Politics in Eastern Europe in the 1990's (Boulder: East European Monographs, 1993), 1-12; Sabrina Ramet, editor, The Radical Right in Central and Eastern Europe since 1989. On Poland more specifically, see Andrzej Korbonski, "The Revival of the Political Right in Post-Communist Poland: Historical Roots," in J. Held, editor, Democracy and Right-Wing Politics, 13-31; Sarah M. Terry, "What's Right, What's Left, and What's Wrong in Polish Politics?" in J. Held, editor, Democracy and Right-Wing Politics, 33-60; and Ost, "The Radical Right in Poland." For an analysis of the relationship between conceptions of the nation and the success of Right-wing movements, see Ruud Koopmans and Paul Statham, "Ethnic and Civic Conceptions of Nationhood and the Differential Success of the Extreme Right in Germany and Italy" in M. Giugni, D. McAdam, and C. Tilly, editors, How Social Movements Matter (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 1999), 225-251.
174. For works on Right-wing politics and the far-Right in Central and Eastern Europe, see Stephen Fischer-Galati, "The Political Right in Eastern Europe in Historical Perspective," in J. Held, editor, Democracy and Right-Wing Politics in Eastern Europe in the 1990's (Boulder: East European Monographs, 1993), 1-12; Sabrina Ramet, editor, The Radical Right in Central and Eastern Europe since 1989. On Poland more specifically, see Andrzej Korbonski, "The Revival of the Political Right in Post-Communist Poland: Historical Roots," in J. Held, editor, Democracy and Right-Wing Politics, 13-31; Sarah M. Terry, "What's Right, What's Left, and What's Wrong in Polish Politics?" in J. Held, editor, Democracy and Right-Wing Politics, 33-60; and Ost, "The Radical Right in Poland." For an analysis of the relationship between conceptions of the nation and the success of Right-wing movements, see Ruud Koopmans and Paul Statham, "Ethnic and Civic Conceptions of Nationhood and the Differential Success of the Extreme Right in Germany and Italy" in M. Giugni, D. McAdam, and C. Tilly, editors, How Social Movements Matter (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 1999), 225-251.
175. Wojciech Cejrowski in Gazela Polska (1997), 16.
176. Wieslaw Magiera, in Nasza Polska, 30 April 1997. Note that the term "de-nationalization" - wynarodowienie - has very strong connotations in Polish. It refers to attempts to annihilate the sentiment of belonging to the Polish nation in the nineteenth century by Prussia and Russia. The standard Polish dictionary (Maly slownik jezyka polskiego) defines the verb wynaradawiac (denationalize) as follows: deprive someone of hit or her national traits, of his or her national distinctiveness, deprive someone of the consciousness of belonging to some nation.
177. Zycie Warszawy, 19 September 1996.
178. Natural law refers to "principles of law and morality, supposedly universal in scope and binding on human conduct." Oxford Dictionary of Sociology (London: Oxford University Press, 1994), 348. Following St. Thomas Aquinas, it was believed to be God-given, but from the Reformation onward, natural law was given secular foundations in human nature and reason. Natural law stipulates that there is a normative system given in nature; that norms are not subject to change in time or place. The logic of positive law is different: it is the law that defines the normative system; norms are a human creation and therefore are subject to change and interpretation. The law could then define norms that are against natural law or humanity. (Nazi Germany is often given as an example of the dangers of a strict positive law.) This is why it is often insisted that positive law be based on natural law. The Polish case is complex in that regard. The Church insisted that the Constitution be directly based on the first version of natural law (as God-given), when the Constitution actually was founded on positive law based on natural law's secular version (human nature and reason). The members of the Constitutional Commission thus argued that even without the invocatio Dei, the Constitution was still ultimately - although indirectly - founded on natural law.
179. Whether preambles do have legal consequences or not is beside the point here: what is important is that those involved in the debate on the invocatio Dei treated the preamble as though it could. See also note 14.
180. Polityka (1996), no. 20.
181. Zycie Warszawy, 19 September 1996.
182. Gazeta Wyborcza, 25 February 1997.
183. BP Michalik, Katolicka Agencja Informacyjna, no. 10, 1997.
184. Cardinal Glemp, "Kazanie pasyjne," Katolicka Agencja Informacyjna, no. 20, 1997
185. BP. Michalik in Nasza Polska, no. 5
186. Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, 17.
187. Gowin, Kosciol po Komunizmie.
188. Senator Grzeskowiak in Gazeta Wyborcza, 25 February 1997.
189. Polityka, no. 20,18 May 1997.
190. Nasza Polska, 23 April 1997. Targowica is a town in Ukraine where in 1792-1793 some Polish magnates conspired against Poland to abolish the Constitution of the Third of May (1791). They sought the protection of Catherine II, which gave the pretext for the second partition of Poland (1793). The term "Targowica" since then has been synonymous with high treason and conspiracy against the country.
191. The editor of Nasza Polska declared that the civic nation is an invention of Jews: "Not everyone knows that one of the inventors of this new 'meaning' of the word 'nation' is Tomasz Wolek, editor-in-chief of the daily Zycie. Who is Tomasz Wolek, and what is Zycie? To this question, we can answer indirectly by noting that his substitute is a certain Bronislaw Wildstein." (Stanislaw Krajski in Nasza Polska, 23 April 1997). What is interesting to note, here, besides the blatant anti-semitism and the association Jews = civic nation = cosmopolitan = anti-Polish, is that the newspaper Zycie is itself on the conservative Right in the political ideological landscape. This shows how far on the Right Nasza Polska (and Gazela Polska) are. I thank Krzysztof Jasiewicz for pointing this out.
192. This is especially true of Jerzy Urban's weekly. Nie. Urban describes his paper as "a satirico-critical newspaper, attacking nationalism, clericalism, parties from the Right, parties issued from Solidarity and Walesa." Nie is on the extreme-Left, not so much in terms of the content of its interventions, but in its form. The weekly is famous for its satire, its hostility toward the Church, and its vulgar caricatures. It is comparable to the National Lampoon. Urban was General Jaruzelski's spokesman in the 1980s.
193. Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power.
194. In Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski, 206.
195. Graczyk, Konstytucja dla Polski, 206.
196. Jasiewicz, "Dead Ends and New Beginnings," 101-122.
197. The AWS is a coalition of parties of the Right, formed after the 1993 elections.
198. In Jerzy Kloczowski, Chrzescijanstwo w Polsce: Zarys przemian 966-1979 (Lublin: Towarzystwo Naukowe Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego, 1992), 615.
199. 42.86 percent, which means that about 23 percent of those eligible to vote voted for, and about 17 percent voted against. (Official numbers reported in Gazeta Wyborcza, 26 May 1997).