Practising infanticide, observing narrative: Controversial texts in a field science

Social Studies of Science

Volumn 31, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 507-531

  Rees, Amanda ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF YORK   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Anthropocentrism; Closure; Ethology; Experiment; Primates; Trust

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; ANIMAL WELFARE; ARTICLE; HISTORY; HISTORY OF MEDICINE; HUMAN; INFANT; INFANTICIDE; NEWBORN; PRIMATE; RESEARCH;

ANIMAL; ANIMAL WELFARE; HISTORY OF MEDICINE, 20TH CENT.; HUMAN; INFANT; INFANT, NEWBORN; INFANTICIDE; PRIMATES; RESEARCH;

EID: 0035413598     PISSN: 03063127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/030631201031004002     Document Type: Article

References (86)

1. One of the first (and certainly one of the most detailed) accounts of a controversy in field science was that provided by Martin Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: the Shaping of Scientific Knowledge Among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985). More recent examples of studies of field science in general include: Eileen Crist, 'Naturalists' Portrayals of Animal Life: Engaging the Verstehen Approach', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 4 (November 1996), 799-838; Henrika Kuklick and Robert E. Kohler (eds), Science in the Field, Osiris, 2nd series, Vol. 11 (1996); Bruno Latour, Pandora's Hope: Essays on the Reality of Science Studies (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999); Wolff-Michael Roth and G. Michael Bowen, 'Digitizing Lizards: the Topology of "Vision" in Ecological Fieldwork', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 719-64; Christopher R. Henke, 'Making a Place for Science: The Field Trial', ibid., Vol. 30, No. 4 (August 2000), 483-511.
2. One of the first (and certainly one of the most detailed) accounts of a controversy in field science was that provided by Martin Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: the Shaping of Scientific Knowledge Among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985). More recent examples of studies of field science in general include: Eileen Crist, 'Naturalists' Portrayals of Animal Life: Engaging the Verstehen Approach', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 4 (November 1996), 799-838; Henrika Kuklick and Robert E. Kohler (eds), Science in the Field, Osiris, 2nd series, Vol. 11 (1996); Bruno Latour, Pandora's Hope: Essays on the Reality of Science Studies (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999); Wolff-Michael Roth and G. Michael Bowen, 'Digitizing Lizards: the Topology of "Vision" in Ecological Fieldwork', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 719-64; Christopher R. Henke, 'Making a Place for Science: The Field Trial', ibid., Vol. 30, No. 4 (August 2000), 483-511.
3. One of the first (and certainly one of the most detailed) accounts of a controversy in field science was that provided by Martin Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: the Shaping of Scientific Knowledge Among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985). More recent examples of studies of field science in general include: Eileen Crist, 'Naturalists' Portrayals of Animal Life: Engaging the Verstehen Approach', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 4 (November 1996), 799-838; Henrika Kuklick and Robert E. Kohler (eds), Science in the Field, Osiris, 2nd series, Vol. 11 (1996); Bruno Latour, Pandora's Hope: Essays on the Reality of Science Studies (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999); Wolff-Michael Roth and G. Michael Bowen, 'Digitizing Lizards: the Topology of "Vision" in Ecological Fieldwork', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 719-64; Christopher R. Henke, 'Making a Place for Science: The Field Trial', ibid., Vol. 30, No. 4 (August 2000), 483-511.
4. One of the first (and certainly one of the most detailed) accounts of a controversy in field science was that provided by Martin Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: the Shaping of Scientific Knowledge Among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985). More recent examples of studies of field science in general include: Eileen Crist, 'Naturalists' Portrayals of Animal Life: Engaging the Verstehen Approach', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 4 (November 1996), 799-838; Henrika Kuklick and Robert E. Kohler (eds), Science in the Field, Osiris, 2nd series, Vol. 11 (1996); Bruno Latour, Pandora's Hope: Essays on the Reality of Science Studies (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999); Wolff-Michael Roth and G. Michael Bowen, 'Digitizing Lizards: the Topology of "Vision" in Ecological Fieldwork', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 719-64; Christopher R. Henke, 'Making a Place for Science: The Field Trial', ibid., Vol. 30, No. 4 (August 2000), 483-511.
5. One of the first (and certainly one of the most detailed) accounts of a controversy in field science was that provided by Martin Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: the Shaping of Scientific Knowledge Among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985). More recent examples of studies of field science in general include: Eileen Crist, 'Naturalists' Portrayals of Animal Life: Engaging the Verstehen Approach', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 4 (November 1996), 799-838; Henrika Kuklick and Robert E. Kohler (eds), Science in the Field, Osiris, 2nd series, Vol. 11 (1996); Bruno Latour, Pandora's Hope: Essays on the Reality of Science Studies (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999); Wolff-Michael Roth and G. Michael Bowen, 'Digitizing Lizards: the Topology of "Vision" in Ecological Fieldwork', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 719-64; Christopher R. Henke, 'Making a Place for Science: The Field Trial', ibid., Vol. 30, No. 4 (August 2000), 483-511.
6. One of the first (and certainly one of the most detailed) accounts of a controversy in field science was that provided by Martin Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: the Shaping of Scientific Knowledge Among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985). More recent examples of studies of field science in general include: Eileen Crist, 'Naturalists' Portrayals of Animal Life: Engaging the Verstehen Approach', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 4 (November 1996), 799-838; Henrika Kuklick and Robert E. Kohler (eds), Science in the Field, Osiris, 2nd series, Vol. 11 (1996); Bruno Latour, Pandora's Hope: Essays on the Reality of Science Studies (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999); Wolff-Michael Roth and G. Michael Bowen, 'Digitizing Lizards: the Topology of "Vision" in Ecological Fieldwork', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 719-64; Christopher R. Henke, 'Making a Place for Science: The Field Trial', ibid., Vol. 30, No. 4 (August 2000), 483-511.
7. See, for example, Bruno Latour, trans. Alan Sheridan and John Law, The Pasteurisation of France (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988).
8. Henrika Kuklick and Robert E. Kohler, 'Introduction', in Kuklick & Kohler (eds), op. cit. note 1, 1-14, at 4.
9. Some of these studies include: Donna Haraway, Primate Visions: Gender, Race and Nature in the World of Modern Science (London & New York: Routledge, 1989); Haraway, 'The Contest for Primate Nature: Daughters of Man the Hunter in the Field', in Mark Kann (ed.), The Future of American Democracy: Views from the Left (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1983), 175-207;
10. Some of these studies include: Donna Haraway, Primate Visions: Gender, Race and Nature in the World of Modern Science (London & New York: Routledge, 1989); Haraway, 'The Contest for Primate Nature: Daughters of Man the Hunter in the Field', in Mark Kann (ed.), The Future of American Democracy: Views from the Left (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1983), 175-207;
11. Misia Landau, Narratives of Human Evolution (New Haven, CT & London: Yale University Press, 1991); Bruno Latour and Shirley Strum, 'Human Social Origins: Please Tell Us Another Story', Journal of Social and Biological Sciences, Vol. 9 (1986), 167-87.
12. Misia Landau, Narratives of Human Evolution (New Haven, CT & London: Yale University Press, 1991); Bruno Latour and Shirley Strum, 'Human Social Origins: Please Tell Us Another Story', Journal of Social and Biological Sciences, Vol. 9 (1986), 167-87.
13. For a critique of anthropomorphism in studies of animal behaviour, see John S. Kennedy, The New Anthropomorphism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
14. Haraway (1983), op. cit. note 4.
15. The list of such studies is far too long to attempt here. Perhaps two of the most frequently cited are Latour, op. cit. note 2; and Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air-Pump; Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985).
16. Again, the exhaustive list would take up far too much space. See, for example: H.M. Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1992); H.M. Collins and Trevor Pinch, Frames of Meaning: The Social Construction of Extraordinary Science (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982).
17. Again, the exhaustive list would take up far too much space. See, for example: H.M. Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1992); H.M. Collins and Trevor Pinch, Frames of Meaning: The Social Construction of Extraordinary Science (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982).
18. It may be worth clarifying this point. No one questioned that adult male primates sometimes killed infant members of their own species. The controversy turned on the issue of whether these infant deaths were the result of a situation in which adult males had been selected to specifically target the offspring of other males in order to increase their own reproductive success at the expense of another.
19. Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, 'Male-Male Competition and Infanticide among the Langurs (Presbytis entellus) of Abu, Rajasthan', Folia Primatologica, Vol. 22 (1974), 19-58 [hereafter Hrdy, 1974]; Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, 'Infanticide as a Primate Reproductive Strategy', American Scientist, Vol. 65, No. 1 (January-February 1977), 40-49 [hereafter Hrdy, 1977]; Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, 'Infanticide Among Animals: a Review, Classification and Examination of the Implications for the Reproductive Strategies of Females', Ethology and Sociobiology, Vol. 1 (1979), 13-40 [hereafter Hrdy, 1979].
20. Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, 'Male-Male Competition and Infanticide among the Langurs (Presbytis entellus) of Abu, Rajasthan', Folia Primatologica, Vol. 22 (1974), 19-58 [hereafter Hrdy, 1974]; Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, 'Infanticide as a Primate Reproductive Strategy', American Scientist, Vol. 65, No. 1 (January-February 1977), 40-49 [hereafter Hrdy, 1977]; Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, 'Infanticide Among Animals: a Review, Classification and Examination of the Implications for the Reproductive Strategies of Females', Ethology and Sociobiology, Vol. 1 (1979), 13-40 [hereafter Hrdy, 1979].
21. Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, 'Male-Male Competition and Infanticide among the Langurs (Presbytis entellus) of Abu, Rajasthan', Folia Primatologica, Vol. 22 (1974), 19-58 [hereafter Hrdy, 1974]; Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, 'Infanticide as a Primate Reproductive Strategy', American Scientist, Vol. 65, No. 1 (January-February 1977), 40-49 [hereafter Hrdy, 1977]; Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, 'Infanticide Among Animals: a Review, Classification and Examination of the Implications for the Reproductive Strategies of Females', Ethology and Sociobiology, Vol. 1 (1979), 13-40 [hereafter Hrdy, 1979].
22. Hrdy was the first person to argue for this explanation publicly: she acknowledges that Yukimaru Sugiyama was the first primatologist to suggest that infanticide might be an adaptive strategy [Hrdy, 1974: 20].
23. Richard A. Curtin, 'Langur Social Behaviour and Infant Mortality', Kroeber Anthropological Society Papers, Vol. 50 (1977), 27-36 [hereafter Curtin, 1977]; R.A. Curtin and Phyllis Dolhinow, 'Primate Social Behaviour in a Changing World', American Scientist, Vol. 66, No. 5 (September-October 1978), 468-75 [hereafter Curtin & Dolhinow, 1978].
24. Richard A. Curtin, 'Langur Social Behaviour and Infant Mortality', Kroeber Anthropological Society Papers, Vol. 50 (1977), 27-36 [hereafter Curtin, 1977]; R.A. Curtin and Phyllis Dolhinow, 'Primate Social Behaviour in a Changing World', American Scientist, Vol. 66, No. 5 (September-October 1978), 468-75 [hereafter Curtin & Dolhinow, 1978].
25. Glenn Hausfater and Sarah Blaffer Hrdy (eds), Infanticide: Comparative and Evolutionary Perspectives (NewYork: Aldine, 1984).
26. John Alcock, Animal Behaviour: An Evolutionary Perspective (Cambridge, MA: Sinauer Press, 1st edn, 1975; 2nd edn, 1979; 6th edn, 1998).
27. John Alcock, Animal Behaviour: An Evolutionary Perspective (Cambridge, MA: Sinauer Press, 1st edn, 1975; 2nd edn, 1979; 6th edn, 1998).
28. John Alcock, Animal Behaviour: An Evolutionary Perspective (Cambridge, MA: Sinauer Press, 1st edn, 1975; 2nd edn, 1979; 6th edn, 1998).
29. Phyllis Jay, 'The Common Langur of North India', in Irven DeVore (ed.), Primate Behaviour: Field Studies of Monkeys and Apes (New York: Holt, Reinhart & Winston, 1965), 197-249.
30. Yukimaru Sugiyama, 'Social Organisation of Hanuman Langurs', in Stuart Altmann (ed.), Social Communication Among Primates (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1967), 221-36.
31. Ibid., 224.
32. Kenji Yoshiba, 'Local and Intertroop Variability in Ecology and Social Behaviour of Common Indian Langurs', in Phyllis Jay (ed.), Primates: Studies in Adaption and Variability (New York: Holt, Reinhart & Winston, 1968), 217-41, at 236.
33. Ibid., 242.
34. See note 10.
35. See note 10.
36. I am not aware of any reports of female langurs attacking or killing infants; however, such reports do exist for other primate species. For example, see Jane Goodall, 'Infant Killing and Cannibalism in Free-Living Chimpanzees', Folia Primatologica, Vol. 28 (1977), 259-82. For an account of the importance of developing new research problems as part of a strategy for successfully resolving a controversy, see Greg Myers, Writing Biology: Texts in the Social Construction of Scientific Knowledge (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 100-14, at 114.
37. I am not aware of any reports of female langurs attacking or killing infants; however, such reports do exist for other primate species. For example, see Jane Goodall, 'Infant Killing and Cannibalism in Free-Living Chimpanzees', Folia Primatologica, Vol. 28 (1977), 259-82. For an account of the importance of developing new research problems as part of a strategy for successfully resolving a controversy, see Greg Myers, Writing Biology: Texts in the Social Construction of Scientific Knowledge (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 100-14, at 114.
38. See Kuklick & Kohler (eds), op. cit. note 1, for some historical accounts of the strains of field research. Others can be found in some of the autobiographical accounts of field-based research that have been published since the beginning of the 1960s. For examples, see: Biruté Galdikas, Reflections of Eden: My Life with the Orangutans of Borneo (London: Victor Gollancz, 1995); Hans Kummer, trans. M. Ann Biederman-Thorson, In Quest of the Sacred Baboon: A Scientist's Journey (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Craig Packer, Into Africa (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994); Dian Fossey, Gorillas in the Mist (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1983); Jane Goodall, In the Shadow of Man (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971); Vernon Reynolds, Budongo: A Forest and its Chimpanzees (London: Methuen, 1965); George Schaller, The Year of the Gorilla (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1964); Barbara Harrison, Orang-utan (London: Collins, 1962). A rather more reflexively humorous account can be found in Monique Borgerhoff Mulder and Wendy Logsdon, I've Been Gone Far Too Long: Field Trip Fiascos and Expedition Disasters (Oakland, CA: RDR Books, 1996).
39. See Kuklick & Kohler (eds), op. cit. note 1, for some historical accounts of the strains of field research. Others can be found in some of the autobiographical accounts of field-based research that have been published since the beginning of the 1960s. For examples, see: Biruté Galdikas, Reflections of Eden: My Life with the Orangutans of Borneo (London: Victor Gollancz, 1995); Hans Kummer, trans. M. Ann Biederman-Thorson, In Quest of the Sacred Baboon: A Scientist's Journey (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Craig Packer, Into Africa (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994); Dian Fossey, Gorillas in the Mist (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1983); Jane Goodall, In the Shadow of Man (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971); Vernon Reynolds, Budongo: A Forest and its Chimpanzees (London: Methuen, 1965); George Schaller, The Year of the Gorilla (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1964); Barbara Harrison, Orang-utan (London: Collins, 1962). A rather more reflexively humorous account can be found in Monique Borgerhoff Mulder and Wendy Logsdon, I've Been Gone Far Too Long: Field Trip Fiascos and Expedition Disasters (Oakland, CA: RDR Books, 1996).
40. See Kuklick & Kohler (eds), op. cit. note 1, for some historical accounts of the strains of field research. Others can be found in some of the autobiographical accounts of field-based research that have been published since the beginning of the 1960s. For examples, see: Biruté Galdikas, Reflections of Eden: My Life with the Orangutans of Borneo (London: Victor Gollancz, 1995); Hans Kummer, trans. M. Ann Biederman-Thorson, In Quest of the Sacred Baboon: A Scientist's Journey (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Craig Packer, Into Africa (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994); Dian Fossey, Gorillas in the Mist (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1983); Jane Goodall, In the Shadow of Man (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971); Vernon Reynolds, Budongo: A Forest and its Chimpanzees (London: Methuen, 1965); George Schaller, The Year of the Gorilla (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1964); Barbara Harrison, Orang-utan (London: Collins, 1962). A rather more reflexively humorous account can be found in Monique Borgerhoff Mulder and Wendy Logsdon, I've Been Gone Far Too Long: Field Trip Fiascos and Expedition Disasters (Oakland, CA: RDR Books, 1996).
41. See Kuklick & Kohler (eds), op. cit. note 1, for some historical accounts of the strains of field research. Others can be found in some of the autobiographical accounts of field-based research that have been published since the beginning of the 1960s. For examples, see: Biruté Galdikas, Reflections of Eden: My Life with the Orangutans of Borneo (London: Victor Gollancz, 1995); Hans Kummer, trans. M. Ann Biederman-Thorson, In Quest of the Sacred Baboon: A Scientist's Journey (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Craig Packer, Into Africa (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994); Dian Fossey, Gorillas in the Mist (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1983); Jane Goodall, In the Shadow of Man (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971); Vernon Reynolds, Budongo: A Forest and its Chimpanzees (London: Methuen, 1965); George Schaller, The Year of the Gorilla (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1964); Barbara Harrison, Orang-utan (London: Collins, 1962). A rather more reflexively humorous account can be found in Monique Borgerhoff Mulder and Wendy Logsdon, I've Been Gone Far Too Long: Field Trip Fiascos and Expedition Disasters (Oakland, CA: RDR Books, 1996).
42. See Kuklick & Kohler (eds), op. cit. note 1, for some historical accounts of the strains of field research. Others can be found in some of the autobiographical accounts of field-based research that have been published since the beginning of the 1960s. For examples, see: Biruté Galdikas, Reflections of Eden: My Life with the Orangutans of Borneo (London: Victor Gollancz, 1995); Hans Kummer, trans. M. Ann Biederman-Thorson, In Quest of the Sacred Baboon: A Scientist's Journey (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Craig Packer, Into Africa (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994); Dian Fossey, Gorillas in the Mist (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1983); Jane Goodall, In the Shadow of Man (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971); Vernon Reynolds, Budongo: A Forest and its Chimpanzees (London: Methuen, 1965); George Schaller, The Year of the Gorilla (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1964); Barbara Harrison, Orang-utan (London: Collins, 1962). A rather more reflexively humorous account can be found in Monique Borgerhoff Mulder and Wendy Logsdon, I've Been Gone Far Too Long: Field Trip Fiascos and Expedition Disasters (Oakland, CA: RDR Books, 1996).
43. See Kuklick & Kohler (eds), op. cit. note 1, for some historical accounts of the strains of field research. Others can be found in some of the autobiographical accounts of field-based research that have been published since the beginning of the 1960s. For examples, see: Biruté Galdikas, Reflections of Eden: My Life with the Orangutans of Borneo (London: Victor Gollancz, 1995); Hans Kummer, trans. M. Ann Biederman-Thorson, In Quest of the Sacred Baboon: A Scientist's Journey (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Craig Packer, Into Africa (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994); Dian Fossey, Gorillas in the Mist (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1983); Jane Goodall, In the Shadow of Man (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971); Vernon Reynolds, Budongo: A Forest and its Chimpanzees (London: Methuen, 1965); George Schaller, The Year of the Gorilla (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1964); Barbara Harrison, Orang-utan (London: Collins, 1962). A rather more reflexively humorous account can be found in Monique Borgerhoff Mulder and Wendy Logsdon, I've Been Gone Far Too Long: Field Trip Fiascos and Expedition Disasters (Oakland, CA: RDR Books, 1996).
44. See Kuklick & Kohler (eds), op. cit. note 1, for some historical accounts of the strains of field research. Others can be found in some of the autobiographical accounts of field-based research that have been published since the beginning of the 1960s. For examples, see: Biruté Galdikas, Reflections of Eden: My Life with the Orangutans of Borneo (London: Victor Gollancz, 1995); Hans Kummer, trans. M. Ann Biederman-Thorson, In Quest of the Sacred Baboon: A Scientist's Journey (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Craig Packer, Into Africa (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994); Dian Fossey, Gorillas in the Mist (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1983); Jane Goodall, In the Shadow of Man (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971); Vernon Reynolds, Budongo: A Forest and its Chimpanzees (London: Methuen, 1965); George Schaller, The Year of the Gorilla (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1964); Barbara Harrison, Orang-utan (London: Collins, 1962). A rather more reflexively humorous account can be found in Monique Borgerhoff Mulder and Wendy Logsdon, I've Been Gone Far Too Long: Field Trip Fiascos and Expedition Disasters (Oakland, CA: RDR Books, 1996).
45. See Kuklick & Kohler (eds), op. cit. note 1, for some historical accounts of the strains of field research. Others can be found in some of the autobiographical accounts of field-based research that have been published since the beginning of the 1960s. For examples, see: Biruté Galdikas, Reflections of Eden: My Life with the Orangutans of Borneo (London: Victor Gollancz, 1995); Hans Kummer, trans. M. Ann Biederman-Thorson, In Quest of the Sacred Baboon: A Scientist's Journey (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Craig Packer, Into Africa (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994); Dian Fossey, Gorillas in the Mist (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1983); Jane Goodall, In the Shadow of Man (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971); Vernon Reynolds, Budongo: A Forest and its Chimpanzees (London: Methuen, 1965); George Schaller, The Year of the Gorilla (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1964); Barbara Harrison, Orang-utan (London: Collins, 1962). A rather more reflexively humorous account can be found in Monique Borgerhoff Mulder and Wendy Logsdon, I've Been Gone Far Too Long: Field Trip Fiascos and Expedition Disasters (Oakland, CA: RDR Books, 1996).
46. See Kuklick & Kohler (eds), op. cit. note 1, for some historical accounts of the strains of field research. Others can be found in some of the autobiographical accounts of field-based research that have been published since the beginning of the 1960s. For examples, see: Biruté Galdikas, Reflections of Eden: My Life with the Orangutans of Borneo (London: Victor Gollancz, 1995); Hans Kummer, trans. M. Ann Biederman-Thorson, In Quest of the Sacred Baboon: A Scientist's Journey (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Craig Packer, Into Africa (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994); Dian Fossey, Gorillas in the Mist (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1983); Jane Goodall, In the Shadow of Man (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971); Vernon Reynolds, Budongo: A Forest and its Chimpanzees (London: Methuen, 1965); George Schaller, The Year of the Gorilla (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1964); Barbara Harrison, Orang-utan (London: Collins, 1962). A rather more reflexively humorous account can be found in Monique Borgerhoff Mulder and Wendy Logsdon, I've Been Gone Far Too Long: Field Trip Fiascos and Expedition Disasters (Oakland, CA: RDR Books, 1996).
47. See Kuklick & Kohler (eds), op. cit. note 1, for some historical accounts of the strains of field research. Others can be found in some of the autobiographical accounts of field-based research that have been published since the beginning of the 1960s. For examples, see: Biruté Galdikas, Reflections of Eden: My Life with the Orangutans of Borneo (London: Victor Gollancz, 1995); Hans Kummer, trans. M. Ann Biederman-Thorson, In Quest of the Sacred Baboon: A Scientist's Journey (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Craig Packer, Into Africa (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994); Dian Fossey, Gorillas in the Mist (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1983); Jane Goodall, In the Shadow of Man (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971); Vernon Reynolds, Budongo: A Forest and its Chimpanzees (London: Methuen, 1965); George Schaller, The Year of the Gorilla (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1964); Barbara Harrison, Orang-utan (London: Collins, 1962). A rather more reflexively humorous account can be found in Monique Borgerhoff Mulder and Wendy Logsdon, I've Been Gone Far Too Long: Field Trip Fiascos and Expedition Disasters (Oakland, CA: RDR Books, 1996).
48. See note 12.
49. See Steven Shapin, A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press), 260-66, for an account of the way in which sea-divers' testimony about water pressure was also rendered inadmissible, not least because there was little cost attached to disbelieving their accounts.
50. See note 12.
51. For examples of the professional literature up until the end of the 1970s, see: S.C. Makwana, 'Infanticide and Social Change in Two Groups of the Hanuman Langur, Presbytis entellus, at Jodhpur', Primates, Vol. 20 (1979), 293-300; Katherine E. Wolfe and John G. Fleagle, 'Adult Male Replacement in a Group of Silvered Leaf-monkeys (Presbytis cristata) at Kuala Selangor, Malaysia', ibid., Vol. 18 (1977), 949-55; Jane Goodall, 'Infant Killing and Cannibalism in Free-Living Chimpanzees', Folia Primatologica, Vol. 28 (1977), 259-82; R. Rudran, 'Adult Male Replacement in One-Male Troops of Purple-Faced Langurs (Presbytis senex senex) and its Effect on Population Structure', ibid., Vol. 19 (1973), 166-92,; T. Ransom and B. Ransom, 'Adult Male-Infant Interactions among Baboons (Papio anubis)', ibid., Vol. 16 (1971), 179-95.
52. For examples of the professional literature up until the end of the 1970s, see: S.C. Makwana, 'Infanticide and Social Change in Two Groups of the Hanuman Langur, Presbytis entellus, at Jodhpur', Primates, Vol. 20 (1979), 293-300; Katherine E. Wolfe and John G. Fleagle, 'Adult Male Replacement in a Group of Silvered Leaf-monkeys (Presbytis cristata) at Kuala Selangor, Malaysia', ibid., Vol. 18 (1977), 949-55; Jane Goodall, 'Infant Killing and Cannibalism in Free-Living Chimpanzees', Folia Primatologica, Vol. 28 (1977), 259-82; R. Rudran, 'Adult Male Replacement in One-Male Troops of Purple-Faced Langurs (Presbytis senex senex) and its Effect on Population Structure', ibid., Vol. 19 (1973), 166-92,; T. Ransom and B. Ransom, 'Adult Male-Infant Interactions among Baboons (Papio anubis)', ibid., Vol. 16 (1971), 179-95.
53. For examples of the professional literature up until the end of the 1970s, see: S.C. Makwana, 'Infanticide and Social Change in Two Groups of the Hanuman Langur, Presbytis entellus, at Jodhpur', Primates, Vol. 20 (1979), 293-300; Katherine E. Wolfe and John G. Fleagle, 'Adult Male Replacement in a Group of Silvered Leaf-monkeys (Presbytis cristata) at Kuala Selangor, Malaysia', ibid., Vol. 18 (1977), 949-55; Jane Goodall, 'Infant Killing and Cannibalism in Free-Living Chimpanzees', Folia Primatologica, Vol. 28 (1977), 259-82; R. Rudran, 'Adult Male Replacement in One-Male Troops of Purple-Faced Langurs (Presbytis senex senex) and its Effect on Population Structure', ibid., Vol. 19 (1973), 166-92,; T. Ransom and B. Ransom, 'Adult Male-Infant Interactions among Baboons (Papio anubis)', ibid., Vol. 16 (1971), 179-95.
54. For examples of the professional literature up until the end of the 1970s, see: S.C. Makwana, 'Infanticide and Social Change in Two Groups of the Hanuman Langur, Presbytis entellus, at Jodhpur', Primates, Vol. 20 (1979), 293-300; Katherine E. Wolfe and John G. Fleagle, 'Adult Male Replacement in a Group of Silvered Leaf-monkeys (Presbytis cristata) at Kuala Selangor, Malaysia', ibid., Vol. 18 (1977), 949-55; Jane Goodall, 'Infant Killing and Cannibalism in Free-Living Chimpanzees', Folia Primatologica, Vol. 28 (1977), 259-82; R. Rudran, 'Adult Male Replacement in One-Male Troops of Purple-Faced Langurs (Presbytis senex senex) and its Effect on Population Structure', ibid., Vol. 19 (1973), 166-92,; T. Ransom and B. Ransom, 'Adult Male-Infant Interactions among Baboons (Papio anubis)', ibid., Vol. 16 (1971), 179-95.
55. For examples of the professional literature up until the end of the 1970s, see: S.C. Makwana, 'Infanticide and Social Change in Two Groups of the Hanuman Langur, Presbytis entellus, at Jodhpur', Primates, Vol. 20 (1979), 293-300; Katherine E. Wolfe and John G. Fleagle, 'Adult Male Replacement in a Group of Silvered Leaf-monkeys (Presbytis cristata) at Kuala Selangor, Malaysia', ibid., Vol. 18 (1977), 949-55; Jane Goodall, 'Infant Killing and Cannibalism in Free-Living Chimpanzees', Folia Primatologica, Vol. 28 (1977), 259-82; R. Rudran, 'Adult Male Replacement in One-Male Troops of Purple-Faced Langurs (Presbytis senex senex) and its Effect on Population Structure', ibid., Vol. 19 (1973), 166-92,; T. Ransom and B. Ransom, 'Adult Male-Infant Interactions among Baboons (Papio anubis)', ibid., Vol. 16 (1971), 179-95.
56. W. Angst and D. Thommen, 'New Data and a Discussion of Infant Killing in Old World Monkeys and Apes', Folia Primatologica, Vol. 27 (1977), 198-229, at 215.
57. S.M. Mohnot, Madhav Gadgil and S.C. Makwana, 'On the Dynamics of the Hanuman Langur Populations of Jodhpur (Rajasthan, India)', Primates, Vol. 22 (1981) 182-91, at 182.
58. G. Agoramoorthy and S.M. Mohnot, 'Infanticide and Juvenilicide in Hanuman Langurs (Presbytis entellus) around Jodhpur, India', Human Evolution, Vol. 3 (1988) 279-96.
59. See note 14.
60. See note 10.
61. Colobines, or leaf-eating monkeys, are the subgroup of Old World monkeys to which langurs belong.
62. Jane Boggess, 'Infant Killing and Male Reproductive Strategies in Langurs (Presbytis entellus)', in Hausfater & Hrdy (eds), op. cit. note 13, 283-310. It is worth noting that this oppositional article was still included in a text intended to display the normality of infanticide in the natural world (ibid., xi-xii). In fact, the section dealing with the non-human primates was introduced with the subtitle that acknowledged the ongoing controversy ('A Topic of Continuing Debate', 145). However, it is also notable that Boggess's article came after seven chapters describing infanticidal attacks in a number of monkey and ape species, and was immediately followed by two pieces written by Sugiyama and Hrdy with the subtitles 'A Reply to Boggess': Yoshima Sugiyama, 'Proximate Factors of Infanticide among Langurs at Dharwar: A Reply to Boggess', in Hausfater & Hrdy (eds), op. cit. note 13, 311-14; Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, 'Assumptions and Evidence Regarding the Sexual Selection Hypothesis: A Reply to Boggess', ibid., 315-19.
63. Jane Boggess, 'Infant Killing and Male Reproductive Strategies in Langurs (Presbytis entellus)', in Hausfater & Hrdy (eds), op. cit. note 13, 283-310. It is worth noting that this oppositional article was still included in a text intended to display the normality of infanticide in the natural world (ibid., xi-xii). In fact, the section dealing with the non-human primates was introduced with the subtitle that acknowledged the ongoing controversy ('A Topic of Continuing Debate', 145). However, it is also notable that Boggess's article came after seven chapters describing infanticidal attacks in a number of monkey and ape species, and was immediately followed by two pieces written by Sugiyama and Hrdy with the subtitles 'A Reply to Boggess': Yoshima Sugiyama, 'Proximate Factors of Infanticide among Langurs at Dharwar: A Reply to Boggess', in Hausfater & Hrdy (eds), op. cit. note 13, 311-14; Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, 'Assumptions and Evidence Regarding the Sexual Selection Hypothesis: A Reply to Boggess', ibid., 315-19.
64. Jane Boggess, 'Infant Killing and Male Reproductive Strategies in Langurs (Presbytis entellus)', in Hausfater & Hrdy (eds), op. cit. note 13, 283-310. It is worth noting that this oppositional article was still included in a text intended to display the normality of infanticide in the natural world (ibid., xi-xii). In fact, the section dealing with the non-human primates was introduced with the subtitle that acknowledged the ongoing controversy ('A Topic of Continuing Debate', 145). However, it is also notable that Boggess's article came after seven chapters describing infanticidal attacks in a number of monkey and ape species, and was immediately followed by two pieces written by Sugiyama and Hrdy with the subtitles 'A Reply to Boggess': Yoshima Sugiyama, 'Proximate Factors of Infanticide among Langurs at Dharwar: A Reply to Boggess', in Hausfater & Hrdy (eds), op. cit. note 13, 311-14; Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, 'Assumptions and Evidence Regarding the Sexual Selection Hypothesis: A Reply to Boggess', ibid., 315-19.
65. Jane Boggess, 'Troop Male Membership Changes and Infant Killings in Langurs (Presbytis entellus)', Folia Primatologica, Vol. 32 (1979), 64-107, at 87.
66. Of course, one could argue that infanticide was an adaptive response to overpopulation and stress, but Boggess is stressing proximate rather than ultimate causes here.
67. Boggess, op. cit. note 34, 303.
68. It should not be forgotten that while it is usually clear which animal gives birth to the infant, determining the father is dependent on the existence of detailed mating observations - and it is obviously impossible to be sure that all mating events have been recorded in a situation where animals are free to roam at will.
69. Quotations from Hrdy, 'Reply', op. cit. note 34, respectively at 317, 315 and 319. This distinction is important to Boggess as a means of emphasizing the fact that adult males had not been seen to kill infants, only to attack them, and that therefore the assertion that a particular male was responsible for a particular dead infant had to remain a presumption. It was still possible that the death of the infant was due to other causes.
70. Ibid., 319.
71. Glenn Hausfater, 'Infanticide in Non-Human Primates: An Introduction and Perspective', in Hausfater & Hrdy (eds), op. cit. note 13, 145-50, quote at 148.
72. See ibid., 149. The phrase 'disciplinary schizophrenia' refers to the fact that primatologists have been drawn from a number of different research traditions, including psychology, zoology, anthropology, biology and even sociology, and that this has hindered the development of intra-disciplinary co-operation in the development of primatological theory and methodology.
73. S.R. Creel and P.M. Waser, 'Variation in Reproductive Suppression Among Dwarf Mongooses: Interplay Between Mechanisms and Evolution', in N. G. Solomon and J.A. French (eds), Co-operative Breeding in Mammals (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 34-75.
74. Hayden White, 'The Historical Text as Literary Artefact', Clio, Vol. 3 (1974), 277-303.
75. Ibid., 287.
76. Angst & Thommen, op. cit. note 28.
77. Sugiyama, op. cit. note 16.
78. For a discussion of this point see, for example, Myers, op. cit. note 22, 135.
79. A recently published book on infanticide, which may awaken the debate within primatology, is Carel van Schaik and Charles Janson, Infanticide By Males and its Implications (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). Interestingly, the web advertising for this text includes the following statement and question: 'Infanticide by males is relatively common . . . although it tends to be rare even in species where it occurs. Is this behaviour pathological or accidental, or does it reflect a conditional reproductive strategy for males in certain circumstances?' 〈http://www.cup.org〉.
80. H.M. Collins and Steven Yearley, 'Epistemological Chicken', in Andrew Pickering (ed.), Science as Practice and Culture (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1992), 301-26; Michel Gallon, 'Some Elements of a Sociology ofTranslation: Domestication of the Scallops and the Fishermen of St Brieuc Bay', in John Law (ed.), Power, Action and Belief: A New Sociology of Knowledge? (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986), 196-233; Michel Gallon and Bruno Latour, 'Don't Throw the Baby Out with the Bath School!', in Pickering (ed.), op. cit., 343-68.
81. H.M. Collins and Steven Yearley, 'Epistemological Chicken', in Andrew Pickering (ed.), Science as Practice and Culture (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1992), 301-26; Michel Gallon, 'Some Elements of a Sociology ofTranslation: Domestication of the Scallops and the Fishermen of St Brieuc Bay', in John Law (ed.), Power, Action and Belief: A New Sociology of Knowledge? (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986), 196-233; Michel Gallon and Bruno Latour, 'Don't Throw the Baby Out with the Bath School!', in Pickering (ed.), op. cit., 343-68.
82. H.M. Collins and Steven Yearley, 'Epistemological Chicken', in Andrew Pickering (ed.), Science as Practice and Culture (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1992), 301-26; Michel Gallon, 'Some Elements of a Sociology ofTranslation: Domestication of the Scallops and the Fishermen of St Brieuc Bay', in John Law (ed.), Power, Action and Belief: A New Sociology of Knowledge? (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986), 196-233; Michel Gallon and Bruno Latour, 'Don't Throw the Baby Out with the Bath School!', in Pickering (ed.), op. cit., 343-68.
83. Andrew Pickering, The Mangle of Practice: Time, Agency, and Science (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1995), 5-27.
84. An example of this can be found in Roger Smith, Inhibition: History and Meaning in the Sciences of Mind and Brain (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), where Smith discusses the way in which practitioners found it impossible to use the term 'inhibition' in a professionally specific way without also implying the word's more general public meaning. A useful general discussion of rhetoric in science writing can be found in J.R. Martin and Robert Veel (eds), Reading Science: Critical and Functional Perspectives on Discourses of Science (London & New York: Routledge, 1998).
85. An example of this can be found in Roger Smith, Inhibition: History and Meaning in the Sciences of Mind and Brain (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), where Smith discusses the way in which practitioners found it impossible to use the term 'inhibition' in a professionally specific way without also implying the word's more general public meaning. A useful general discussion of rhetoric in science writing can be found in J.R. Martin and Robert Veel (eds), Reading Science: Critical and Functional Perspectives on Discourses of Science (London & New York: Routledge, 1998).
86. Haraway, opera cit. note 4.