Train wrecks to typhoid fever: The development of railroad medicine organizations, 1850 to World War I

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 75, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 254-289

  Aldrich, Mark ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Accidents; American Medical Association; First aid; Group practice; Hospitals; Injuries; Preventive medicine; Professionalization; Public health; Railroad; Vaccination

Indexed keywords

ACCIDENT; ARTICLE; HISTORY; HOSPITAL; HUMAN; MEDICAL SOCIETY; RAILWAY; TYPHOID FEVER; UNITED STATES;

ACCIDENTS; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HOSPITALS; HUMANS; RAILROADS; SOCIETIES, MEDICAL; TYPHOID FEVER; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0035377632     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/bhm.2001.0053     Document Type: Article

References (186)

1. Robert G. Paterson, Robert Harvey Reed: A Sanitary Pioneer in Ohio (Columbus: Ohio Public Health Association, 1935), p. 46.
2. C. P. Wertenbaker, "The Sanitation of Railway Stations," Association of Surgeons of the Southern Railway, Fifteenth Annual Meeting, 1910, pp. 33-39, on p. 34.
3. A. G. Ellingwood, "Reminiscences of a Collision," Railw. Surg., 1894, 1: 287.
4. No comprehensive secondary literature on railroad medical programs exists. Early discussions of some programs are in Emory Johnson, "Railway Relief Departments," U.S. Department of Labor, Bulletin, 1897, 8: 39-57; W. H. Baldwin, "Railroad Relief and Beneficiary Associations," American Economic Association, Papers and Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting, 1899, pp. 213-30. A survey of the extent of such programs as of 1930 is in Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment, Publications of the National Bureau of Economic Research, no. 20 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1932). For a broader discussion of railroad and other programs, see Ronald L. Numbers, "The Third Party: Health Insurance in America," in The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine, ed. Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), pp. 177-200; idem, Almost Persuaded: American Physicians and Compulsory Health Insurance, 1912-1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). Railroad programs are treated briefly in Henry B. Selleck, Occupational Health in America (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962); John Duffy, The Healers: A History of American Medicine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979); William Rothstein, American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century: From Sects to Science (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972, 1992); and Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982). Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), largely ignores railroad medical programs, as does Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983). James Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails: Workers of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 1869-1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), briefly notes the Santa Fe medical department. For details of individual programs, see Henry J. Short, Railroad Doctors, Hospitals, and Associations: Pioneers in Comprehensive Low Cost Medical Care (Upper Lake, Calif.: H. J. Short, 1986); J. Roy Jones, The Old Central Pacific Hospital (San Francisco: Western Association of Railway Surgeons, 1961); Logan Eib, "Pacific System's Big Human Repair Plant," Southern Pacific Bull., 1921, 10: 3-5.
5. No comprehensive secondary literature on railroad medical programs exists. Early discussions of some programs are in Emory Johnson, "Railway Relief Departments," U.S. Department of Labor, Bulletin, 1897, 8: 39-57; W. H. Baldwin, "Railroad Relief and Beneficiary Associations," American Economic Association, Papers and Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting, 1899, pp. 213-30. A survey of the extent of such programs as of 1930 is in Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment, Publications of the National Bureau of Economic Research, no. 20 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1932). For a broader discussion of railroad and other programs, see Ronald L. Numbers, "The Third Party: Health Insurance in America," in The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine, ed. Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), pp. 177-200; idem, Almost Persuaded: American Physicians and Compulsory Health Insurance, 1912-1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). Railroad programs are treated briefly in Henry B. Selleck, Occupational Health in America (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962); John Duffy, The Healers: A History of American Medicine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979); William Rothstein, American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century: From Sects to Science (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972, 1992); and Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982). Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), largely ignores railroad medical programs, as does Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983). James Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails: Workers of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 1869-1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), briefly notes the Santa Fe medical department. For details of individual programs, see Henry J. Short, Railroad Doctors, Hospitals, and Associations: Pioneers in Comprehensive Low Cost Medical Care (Upper Lake, Calif.: H. J. Short, 1986); J. Roy Jones, The Old Central Pacific Hospital (San Francisco: Western Association of Railway Surgeons, 1961); Logan Eib, "Pacific System's Big Human Repair Plant," Southern Pacific Bull., 1921, 10: 3-5.
6. No comprehensive secondary literature on railroad medical programs exists. Early discussions of some programs are in Emory Johnson, "Railway Relief Departments," U.S. Department of Labor, Bulletin, 1897, 8: 39-57; W. H. Baldwin, "Railroad Relief and Beneficiary Associations," American Economic Association, Papers and Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting, 1899, pp. 213-30. A survey of the extent of such programs as of 1930 is in Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment, Publications of the National Bureau of Economic Research, no. 20 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1932). For a broader discussion of railroad and other programs, see Ronald L. Numbers, "The Third Party: Health Insurance in America," in The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine, ed. Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), pp. 177-200; idem, Almost Persuaded: American Physicians and Compulsory Health Insurance, 1912-1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). Railroad programs are treated briefly in Henry B. Selleck, Occupational Health in America (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962); John Duffy, The Healers: A History of American Medicine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979); William Rothstein, American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century: From Sects to Science (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972, 1992); and Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982). Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), largely ignores railroad medical programs, as does Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983). James Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails: Workers of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 1869-1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), briefly notes the Santa Fe medical department. For details of individual programs, see Henry J. Short, Railroad Doctors, Hospitals, and Associations: Pioneers in Comprehensive Low Cost Medical Care (Upper Lake, Calif.: H. J. Short, 1986); J. Roy Jones, The Old Central Pacific Hospital (San Francisco: Western Association of Railway Surgeons, 1961); Logan Eib, "Pacific System's Big Human Repair Plant," Southern Pacific Bull., 1921, 10: 3-5.
7. No comprehensive secondary literature on railroad medical programs exists. Early discussions of some programs are in Emory Johnson, "Railway Relief Departments," U.S. Department of Labor, Bulletin, 1897, 8: 39-57; W. H. Baldwin, "Railroad Relief and Beneficiary Associations," American Economic Association, Papers and Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting, 1899, pp. 213-30. A survey of the extent of such programs as of 1930 is in Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment, Publications of the National Bureau of Economic Research, no. 20 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1932). For a broader discussion of railroad and other programs, see Ronald L. Numbers, "The Third Party: Health Insurance in America," in The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine, ed. Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), pp. 177-200; idem, Almost Persuaded: American Physicians and Compulsory Health Insurance, 1912-1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). Railroad programs are treated briefly in Henry B. Selleck, Occupational Health in America (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962); John Duffy, The Healers: A History of American Medicine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979); William Rothstein, American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century: From Sects to Science (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972, 1992); and Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982). Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), largely ignores railroad medical programs, as does Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983). James Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails: Workers of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 1869-1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), briefly notes the Santa Fe medical department. For details of individual programs, see Henry J. Short, Railroad Doctors, Hospitals, and Associations: Pioneers in Comprehensive Low Cost Medical Care (Upper Lake, Calif.: H. J. Short, 1986); J. Roy Jones, The Old Central Pacific Hospital (San Francisco: Western Association of Railway Surgeons, 1961); Logan Eib, "Pacific System's Big Human Repair Plant," Southern Pacific Bull., 1921, 10: 3-5.
8. No comprehensive secondary literature on railroad medical programs exists. Early discussions of some programs are in Emory Johnson, "Railway Relief Departments," U.S. Department of Labor, Bulletin, 1897, 8: 39-57; W. H. Baldwin, "Railroad Relief and Beneficiary Associations," American Economic Association, Papers and Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting, 1899, pp. 213-30. A survey of the extent of such programs as of 1930 is in Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment, Publications of the National Bureau of Economic Research, no. 20 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1932). For a broader discussion of railroad and other programs, see Ronald L. Numbers, "The Third Party: Health Insurance in America," in The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine, ed. Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), pp. 177-200; idem, Almost Persuaded: American Physicians and Compulsory Health Insurance, 1912-1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). Railroad programs are treated briefly in Henry B. Selleck, Occupational Health in America (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962); John Duffy, The Healers: A History of American Medicine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979); William Rothstein, American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century: From Sects to Science (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972, 1992); and Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982). Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), largely ignores railroad medical programs, as does Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983). James Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails: Workers of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 1869-1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), briefly notes the Santa Fe medical department. For details of individual programs, see Henry J. Short, Railroad Doctors, Hospitals, and Associations: Pioneers in Comprehensive Low Cost Medical Care (Upper Lake, Calif.: H. J. Short, 1986); J. Roy Jones, The Old Central Pacific Hospital (San Francisco: Western Association of Railway Surgeons, 1961); Logan Eib, "Pacific System's Big Human Repair Plant," Southern Pacific Bull., 1921, 10: 3-5.
9. No comprehensive secondary literature on railroad medical programs exists. Early discussions of some programs are in Emory Johnson, "Railway Relief Departments," U.S. Department of Labor, Bulletin, 1897, 8: 39-57; W. H. Baldwin, "Railroad Relief and Beneficiary Associations," American Economic Association, Papers and Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting, 1899, pp. 213-30. A survey of the extent of such programs as of 1930 is in Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment, Publications of the National Bureau of Economic Research, no. 20 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1932). For a broader discussion of railroad and other programs, see Ronald L. Numbers, "The Third Party: Health Insurance in America," in The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine, ed. Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), pp. 177-200; idem, Almost Persuaded: American Physicians and Compulsory Health Insurance, 1912-1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). Railroad programs are treated briefly in Henry B. Selleck, Occupational Health in America (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962); John Duffy, The Healers: A History of American Medicine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979); William Rothstein, American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century: From Sects to Science (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972, 1992); and Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982). Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), largely ignores railroad medical programs, as does Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983). James Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails: Workers of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 1869-1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), briefly notes the Santa Fe medical department. For details of individual programs, see Henry J. Short, Railroad Doctors, Hospitals, and Associations: Pioneers in Comprehensive Low Cost Medical Care (Upper Lake, Calif.: H. J. Short, 1986); J. Roy Jones, The Old Central Pacific Hospital (San Francisco: Western Association of Railway Surgeons, 1961); Logan Eib, "Pacific System's Big Human Repair Plant," Southern Pacific Bull., 1921, 10: 3-5.
10. No comprehensive secondary literature on railroad medical programs exists. Early discussions of some programs are in Emory Johnson, "Railway Relief Departments," U.S. Department of Labor, Bulletin, 1897, 8: 39-57; W. H. Baldwin, "Railroad Relief and Beneficiary Associations," American Economic Association, Papers and Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting, 1899, pp. 213-30. A survey of the extent of such programs as of 1930 is in Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment, Publications of the National Bureau of Economic Research, no. 20 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1932). For a broader discussion of railroad and other programs, see Ronald L. Numbers, "The Third Party: Health Insurance in America," in The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine, ed. Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), pp. 177-200; idem, Almost Persuaded: American Physicians and Compulsory Health Insurance, 1912-1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). Railroad programs are treated briefly in Henry B. Selleck, Occupational Health in America (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962); John Duffy, The Healers: A History of American Medicine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979); William Rothstein, American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century: From Sects to Science (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972, 1992); and Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982). Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), largely ignores railroad medical programs, as does Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983). James Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails: Workers of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 1869-1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), briefly notes the Santa Fe medical department. For details of individual programs, see Henry J. Short, Railroad Doctors, Hospitals, and Associations: Pioneers in Comprehensive Low Cost Medical Care (Upper Lake, Calif.: H. J. Short, 1986); J. Roy Jones, The Old Central Pacific Hospital (San Francisco: Western Association of Railway Surgeons, 1961); Logan Eib, "Pacific System's Big Human Repair Plant," Southern Pacific Bull., 1921, 10: 3-5.
11. No comprehensive secondary literature on railroad medical programs exists. Early discussions of some programs are in Emory Johnson, "Railway Relief Departments," U.S. Department of Labor, Bulletin, 1897, 8: 39-57; W. H. Baldwin, "Railroad Relief and Beneficiary Associations," American Economic Association, Papers and Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting, 1899, pp. 213-30. A survey of the extent of such programs as of 1930 is in Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment, Publications of the National Bureau of Economic Research, no. 20 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1932). For a broader discussion of railroad and other programs, see Ronald L. Numbers, "The Third Party: Health Insurance in America," in The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine, ed. Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), pp. 177-200; idem, Almost Persuaded: American Physicians and Compulsory Health Insurance, 1912-1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). Railroad programs are treated briefly in Henry B. Selleck, Occupational Health in America (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962); John Duffy, The Healers: A History of American Medicine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979); William Rothstein, American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century: From Sects to Science (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972, 1992); and Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982). Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), largely ignores railroad medical programs, as does Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983). James Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails: Workers of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 1869-1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), briefly notes the Santa Fe medical department. For details of individual programs, see Henry J. Short, Railroad Doctors, Hospitals, and Associations: Pioneers in Comprehensive Low Cost Medical Care (Upper Lake, Calif.: H. J. Short, 1986); J. Roy Jones, The Old Central Pacific Hospital (San Francisco: Western Association of Railway Surgeons, 1961); Logan Eib, "Pacific System's Big Human Repair Plant," Southern Pacific Bull., 1921, 10: 3-5.
12. No comprehensive secondary literature on railroad medical programs exists. Early discussions of some programs are in Emory Johnson, "Railway Relief Departments," U.S. Department of Labor, Bulletin, 1897, 8: 39-57; W. H. Baldwin, "Railroad Relief and Beneficiary Associations," American Economic Association, Papers and Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting, 1899, pp. 213-30. A survey of the extent of such programs as of 1930 is in Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment, Publications of the National Bureau of Economic Research, no. 20 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1932). For a broader discussion of railroad and other programs, see Ronald L. Numbers, "The Third Party: Health Insurance in America," in The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine, ed. Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), pp. 177-200; idem, Almost Persuaded: American Physicians and Compulsory Health Insurance, 1912-1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). Railroad programs are treated briefly in Henry B. Selleck, Occupational Health in America (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962); John Duffy, The Healers: A History of American Medicine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979); William Rothstein, American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century: From Sects to Science (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972, 1992); and Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982). Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), largely ignores railroad medical programs, as does Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983). James Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails: Workers of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 1869-1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), briefly notes the Santa Fe medical department. For details of individual programs, see Henry J. Short, Railroad Doctors, Hospitals, and Associations: Pioneers in Comprehensive Low Cost Medical Care (Upper Lake, Calif.: H. J. Short, 1986); J. Roy Jones, The Old Central Pacific Hospital (San Francisco: Western Association of Railway Surgeons, 1961); Logan Eib, "Pacific System's Big Human Repair Plant," Southern Pacific Bull., 1921, 10: 3-5.
13. No comprehensive secondary literature on railroad medical programs exists. Early discussions of some programs are in Emory Johnson, "Railway Relief Departments," U.S. Department of Labor, Bulletin, 1897, 8: 39-57; W. H. Baldwin, "Railroad Relief and Beneficiary Associations," American Economic Association, Papers and Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting, 1899, pp. 213-30. A survey of the extent of such programs as of 1930 is in Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment, Publications of the National Bureau of Economic Research, no. 20 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1932). For a broader discussion of railroad and other programs, see Ronald L. Numbers, "The Third Party: Health Insurance in America," in The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine, ed. Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), pp. 177-200; idem, Almost Persuaded: American Physicians and Compulsory Health Insurance, 1912-1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). Railroad programs are treated briefly in Henry B. Selleck, Occupational Health in America (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962); John Duffy, The Healers: A History of American Medicine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979); William Rothstein, American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century: From Sects to Science (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972, 1992); and Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982). Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), largely ignores railroad medical programs, as does Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983). James Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails: Workers of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 1869-1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), briefly notes the Santa Fe medical department. For details of individual programs, see Henry J. Short, Railroad Doctors, Hospitals, and Associations: Pioneers in Comprehensive Low Cost Medical Care (Upper Lake, Calif.: H. J. Short, 1986); J. Roy Jones, The Old Central Pacific Hospital (San Francisco: Western Association of Railway Surgeons, 1961); Logan Eib, "Pacific System's Big Human Repair Plant," Southern Pacific Bull., 1921, 10: 3-5.
14. No comprehensive secondary literature on railroad medical programs exists. Early discussions of some programs are in Emory Johnson, "Railway Relief Departments," U.S. Department of Labor, Bulletin, 1897, 8: 39-57; W. H. Baldwin, "Railroad Relief and Beneficiary Associations," American Economic Association, Papers and Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting, 1899, pp. 213-30. A survey of the extent of such programs as of 1930 is in Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment, Publications of the National Bureau of Economic Research, no. 20 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1932). For a broader discussion of railroad and other programs, see Ronald L. Numbers, "The Third Party: Health Insurance in America," in The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine, ed. Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), pp. 177-200; idem, Almost Persuaded: American Physicians and Compulsory Health Insurance, 1912-1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). Railroad programs are treated briefly in Henry B. Selleck, Occupational Health in America (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962); John Duffy, The Healers: A History of American Medicine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979); William Rothstein, American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century: From Sects to Science (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972, 1992); and Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982). Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), largely ignores railroad medical programs, as does Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983). James Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails: Workers of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 1869-1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), briefly notes the Santa Fe medical department. For details of individual programs, see Henry J. Short, Railroad Doctors, Hospitals, and Associations: Pioneers in Comprehensive Low Cost Medical Care (Upper Lake, Calif.: H. J. Short, 1986); J. Roy Jones, The Old Central Pacific Hospital (San Francisco: Western Association of Railway Surgeons, 1961); Logan Eib, "Pacific System's Big Human Repair Plant," Southern Pacific Bull., 1921, 10: 3-5.
15. No comprehensive secondary literature on railroad medical programs exists. Early discussions of some programs are in Emory Johnson, "Railway Relief Departments," U.S. Department of Labor, Bulletin, 1897, 8: 39-57; W. H. Baldwin, "Railroad Relief and Beneficiary Associations," American Economic Association, Papers and Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting, 1899, pp. 213-30. A survey of the extent of such programs as of 1930 is in Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment, Publications of the National Bureau of Economic Research, no. 20 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1932). For a broader discussion of railroad and other programs, see Ronald L. Numbers, "The Third Party: Health Insurance in America," in The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine, ed. Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), pp. 177-200; idem, Almost Persuaded: American Physicians and Compulsory Health Insurance, 1912-1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). Railroad programs are treated briefly in Henry B. Selleck, Occupational Health in America (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962); John Duffy, The Healers: A History of American Medicine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979); William Rothstein, American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century: From Sects to Science (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972, 1992); and Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982). Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), largely ignores railroad medical programs, as does Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983). James Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails: Workers of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 1869-1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), briefly notes the Santa Fe medical department. For details of individual programs, see Henry J. Short, Railroad Doctors, Hospitals, and Associations: Pioneers in Comprehensive Low Cost Medical Care (Upper Lake, Calif.: H. J. Short, 1986); J. Roy Jones, The Old Central Pacific Hospital (San Francisco: Western Association of Railway Surgeons, 1961); Logan Eib, "Pacific System's Big Human Repair Plant," Southern Pacific Bull., 1921, 10: 3-5.
16. No comprehensive secondary literature on railroad medical programs exists. Early discussions of some programs are in Emory Johnson, "Railway Relief Departments," U.S. Department of Labor, Bulletin, 1897, 8: 39-57; W. H. Baldwin, "Railroad Relief and Beneficiary Associations," American Economic Association, Papers and Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting, 1899, pp. 213-30. A survey of the extent of such programs as of 1930 is in Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment, Publications of the National Bureau of Economic Research, no. 20 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1932). For a broader discussion of railroad and other programs, see Ronald L. Numbers, "The Third Party: Health Insurance in America," in The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine, ed. Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), pp. 177-200; idem, Almost Persuaded: American Physicians and Compulsory Health Insurance, 1912-1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). Railroad programs are treated briefly in Henry B. Selleck, Occupational Health in America (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962); John Duffy, The Healers: A History of American Medicine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979); William Rothstein, American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century: From Sects to Science (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972, 1992); and Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982). Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), largely ignores railroad medical programs, as does Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983). James Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails: Workers of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 1869-1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), briefly notes the Santa Fe medical department. For details of individual programs, see Henry J. Short, Railroad Doctors, Hospitals, and Associations: Pioneers in Comprehensive Low Cost Medical Care (Upper Lake, Calif.: H. J. Short, 1986); J. Roy Jones, The Old Central Pacific Hospital (San Francisco: Western Association of Railway Surgeons, 1961); Logan Eib, "Pacific System's Big Human Repair Plant," Southern Pacific Bull., 1921, 10: 3-5.
17. No comprehensive secondary literature on railroad medical programs exists. Early discussions of some programs are in Emory Johnson, "Railway Relief Departments," U.S. Department of Labor, Bulletin, 1897, 8: 39-57; W. H. Baldwin, "Railroad Relief and Beneficiary Associations," American Economic Association, Papers and Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting, 1899, pp. 213-30. A survey of the extent of such programs as of 1930 is in Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment, Publications of the National Bureau of Economic Research, no. 20 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1932). For a broader discussion of railroad and other programs, see Ronald L. Numbers, "The Third Party: Health Insurance in America," in The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine, ed. Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), pp. 177-200; idem, Almost Persuaded: American Physicians and Compulsory Health Insurance, 1912-1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). Railroad programs are treated briefly in Henry B. Selleck, Occupational Health in America (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962); John Duffy, The Healers: A History of American Medicine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979); William Rothstein, American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century: From Sects to Science (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972, 1992); and Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982). Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), largely ignores railroad medical programs, as does Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983). James Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails: Workers of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 1869-1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), briefly notes the Santa Fe medical department. For details of individual programs, see Henry J. Short, Railroad Doctors, Hospitals, and Associations: Pioneers in Comprehensive Low Cost Medical Care (Upper Lake, Calif.: H. J. Short, 1986); J. Roy Jones, The Old Central Pacific Hospital (San Francisco: Western Association of Railway Surgeons, 1961); Logan Eib, "Pacific System's Big Human Repair Plant," Southern Pacific Bull., 1921, 10: 3-5.
18. No comprehensive secondary literature on railroad medical programs exists. Early discussions of some programs are in Emory Johnson, "Railway Relief Departments," U.S. Department of Labor, Bulletin, 1897, 8: 39-57; W. H. Baldwin, "Railroad Relief and Beneficiary Associations," American Economic Association, Papers and Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting, 1899, pp. 213-30. A survey of the extent of such programs as of 1930 is in Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment, Publications of the National Bureau of Economic Research, no. 20 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1932). For a broader discussion of railroad and other programs, see Ronald L. Numbers, "The Third Party: Health Insurance in America," in The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine, ed. Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), pp. 177-200; idem, Almost Persuaded: American Physicians and Compulsory Health Insurance, 1912-1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). Railroad programs are treated briefly in Henry B. Selleck, Occupational Health in America (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962); John Duffy, The Healers: A History of American Medicine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979); William Rothstein, American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century: From Sects to Science (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972, 1992); and Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982). Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), largely ignores railroad medical programs, as does Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983). James Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails: Workers of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 1869-1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), briefly notes the Santa Fe medical department. For details of individual programs, see Henry J. Short, Railroad Doctors, Hospitals, and Associations: Pioneers in Comprehensive Low Cost Medical Care (Upper Lake, Calif.: H. J. Short, 1986); J. Roy Jones, The Old Central Pacific Hospital (San Francisco: Western Association of Railway Surgeons, 1961); Logan Eib, "Pacific System's Big Human Repair Plant," Southern Pacific Bull., 1921, 10: 3-5.
19. Some early mining operations also found it expeditious to provide medical care for employees. For brief treatments, see Ray Ginger, "Company-Sponsored Welfare Plans in the Anthracite Industry," Bus. Hist. Rev., 1953, 27: 112-20; Jerome L. Schwarz, "Early History of Prepaid Medical Care Plans," Bull. Hist. Med., 1965, 39: 450-75; Larry Lankton, Cradle to Grave: Life, Work, and Death at the Lake Superior Copper Mines (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), chap. 11; Mark Wyman, Hard Rock Epic: Western Miners and the Industrial Revolution, 1860-1910 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), pp. 178-84; and Ronald Brown, Hard Rock Miners: The Intermountain West, 1860-1920 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1979), p. 142. Jeremy W. Kilar, Michigan's Lumbertowns: Lumbermen and Laborers in Saginaw, May City, and Muskegon, 1870-1905 (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1990), pp. 93-94, claims that the logging companies left medical care up to the towns.
20. Some early mining operations also found it expeditious to provide medical care for employees. For brief treatments, see Ray Ginger, "Company-Sponsored Welfare Plans in the Anthracite Industry," Bus. Hist. Rev., 1953, 27: 112-20; Jerome L. Schwarz, "Early History of Prepaid Medical Care Plans," Bull. Hist. Med., 1965, 39: 450-75; Larry Lankton, Cradle to Grave: Life, Work, and Death at the Lake Superior Copper Mines (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), chap. 11; Mark Wyman, Hard Rock Epic: Western Miners and the Industrial Revolution, 1860-1910 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), pp. 178-84; and Ronald Brown, Hard Rock Miners: The Intermountain West, 1860-1920 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1979), p. 142. Jeremy W. Kilar, Michigan's Lumbertowns: Lumbermen and Laborers in Saginaw, May City, and Muskegon, 1870-1905 (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1990), pp. 93-94, claims that the logging companies left medical care up to the towns.
21. Some early mining operations also found it expeditious to provide medical care for employees. For brief treatments, see Ray Ginger, "Company-Sponsored Welfare Plans in the Anthracite Industry," Bus. Hist. Rev., 1953, 27: 112-20; Jerome L. Schwarz, "Early History of Prepaid Medical Care Plans," Bull. Hist. Med., 1965, 39: 450-75; Larry Lankton, Cradle to Grave: Life, Work, and Death at the Lake Superior Copper Mines (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), chap. 11; Mark Wyman, Hard Rock Epic: Western Miners and the Industrial Revolution, 1860-1910 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), pp. 178-84; and Ronald Brown, Hard Rock Miners: The Intermountain West, 1860-1920 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1979), p. 142. Jeremy W. Kilar, Michigan's Lumbertowns: Lumbermen and Laborers in Saginaw, May City, and Muskegon, 1870-1905 (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1990), pp. 93-94, claims that the logging companies left medical care up to the towns.
22. Some early mining operations also found it expeditious to provide medical care for employees. For brief treatments, see Ray Ginger, "Company-Sponsored Welfare Plans in the Anthracite Industry," Bus. Hist. Rev., 1953, 27: 112-20; Jerome L. Schwarz, "Early History of Prepaid Medical Care Plans," Bull. Hist. Med., 1965, 39: 450-75; Larry Lankton, Cradle to Grave: Life, Work, and Death at the Lake Superior Copper Mines (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), chap. 11; Mark Wyman, Hard Rock Epic: Western Miners and the Industrial Revolution, 1860-1910 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), pp. 178-84; and Ronald Brown, Hard Rock Miners: The Intermountain West, 1860-1920 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1979), p. 142. Jeremy W. Kilar, Michigan's Lumbertowns: Lumbermen and Laborers in Saginaw, May City, and Muskegon, 1870-1905 (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1990), pp. 93-94, claims that the logging companies left medical care up to the towns.
23. Some early mining operations also found it expeditious to provide medical care for employees. For brief treatments, see Ray Ginger, "Company-Sponsored Welfare Plans in the Anthracite Industry," Bus. Hist. Rev., 1953, 27: 112-20; Jerome L. Schwarz, "Early History of Prepaid Medical Care Plans," Bull. Hist. Med., 1965, 39: 450-75; Larry Lankton, Cradle to Grave: Life, Work, and Death at the Lake Superior Copper Mines (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), chap. 11; Mark Wyman, Hard Rock Epic: Western Miners and the Industrial Revolution, 1860-1910 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), pp. 178-84; and Ronald Brown, Hard Rock Miners: The Intermountain West, 1860-1920 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1979), p. 142. Jeremy W. Kilar, Michigan's Lumbertowns: Lumbermen and Laborers in Saginaw, May City, and Muskegon, 1870-1905 (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1990), pp. 93-94, claims that the logging companies left medical care up to the towns.
24. Some early mining operations also found it expeditious to provide medical care for employees. For brief treatments, see Ray Ginger, "Company-Sponsored Welfare Plans in the Anthracite Industry," Bus. Hist. Rev., 1953, 27: 112-20; Jerome L. Schwarz, "Early History of Prepaid Medical Care Plans," Bull. Hist. Med., 1965, 39: 450-75; Larry Lankton, Cradle to Grave: Life, Work, and Death at the Lake Superior Copper Mines (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), chap. 11; Mark Wyman, Hard Rock Epic: Western Miners and the Industrial Revolution, 1860-1910 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), pp. 178-84; and Ronald Brown, Hard Rock Miners: The Intermountain West, 1860-1920 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1979), p. 142. Jeremy W. Kilar, Michigan's Lumbertowns: Lumbermen and Laborers in Saginaw, May City, and Muskegon, 1870-1905 (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1990), pp. 93-94, claims that the logging companies left medical care up to the towns.
25. Early details of railroad physicians are from "The Railway Surgeon as a Practical Pioneer of Industrial and Traumatic Surgery," Railw. Surg., 1928, 34: 190-92; G.J. Northrop, "Railway Surgery with the Duties of the Chief and Local Surgeons," ibid., 1894, 1: 25-29; E. R. Lewis, "The Evolution of Railway Surgery," ibid., pp. 227-33. Lowman's appointment is from I. P. Klingensmith, "The Care of the Injured by the Pennsylvania Railroad," National Association of Railway Surgeons (NARS), Proceedings, 1892, 5: 46-49.
26. Early details of railroad physicians are from "The Railway Surgeon as a Practical Pioneer of Industrial and Traumatic Surgery," Railw. Surg., 1928, 34: 190-92; G.J. Northrop, "Railway Surgery with the Duties of the Chief and Local Surgeons," ibid., 1894, 1: 25-29; E. R. Lewis, "The Evolution of Railway Surgery," ibid., pp. 227-33. Lowman's appointment is from I. P. Klingensmith, "The Care of the Injured by the Pennsylvania Railroad," National Association of Railway Surgeons (NARS), Proceedings, 1892, 5: 46-49.
27. Early details of railroad physicians are from "The Railway Surgeon as a Practical Pioneer of Industrial and Traumatic Surgery," Railw. Surg., 1928, 34: 190-92; G.J. Northrop, "Railway Surgery with the Duties of the Chief and Local Surgeons," ibid., 1894, 1: 25-29; E. R. Lewis, "The Evolution of Railway Surgery," ibid., pp. 227-33. Lowman's appointment is from I. P. Klingensmith, "The Care of the Injured by the Pennsylvania Railroad," National Association of Railway Surgeons (NARS), Proceedings, 1892, 5: 46-49.
28. Early details of railroad physicians are from "The Railway Surgeon as a Practical Pioneer of Industrial and Traumatic Surgery," Railw. Surg., 1928, 34: 190-92; G.J. Northrop, "Railway Surgery with the Duties of the Chief and Local Surgeons," ibid., 1894, 1: 25-29; E. R. Lewis, "The Evolution of Railway Surgery," ibid., pp. 227-33. Lowman's appointment is from I. P. Klingensmith, "The Care of the Injured by the Pennsylvania Railroad," National Association of Railway Surgeons (NARS), Proceedings, 1892, 5: 46-49.
29. The exchange with Carr is in J. E. Wooten to W. C. Wheeler, 14 January 1873, and J. B. Ramsey to Wheeler, 15 January 1873, box 174, Accident and Damage Claims, 1873, Reading Railroad Collection, Hagley Museum and Library, Wilmington, Del. (hereafter, RRC).
30. William McKenzie to J. E. Wooten, 29 September 1873, ibid.(emphasis in original).
31. McKenzie to Wooten, 8 April 1874, box 177, Accident and Damage Claims, 1874, RRC.
32. Railroad bureaucracies reflected a strong military influence, and the early medical departments with chief and assistant surgeons probably simply followed this structure. See Charles F. O'Connell, Jr., "The Corps of Engineers and the Rise of Modern Management, 1827-1856," in Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience, ed. Merritt Roe Smith (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985), pp. 87-116. The origins of the Central Pacific organization are from Lewis, "Evolution of Railway Surgery" (n. 6), and from S. S. Herrick, "Railway Medical Service," Amer. Railr. J., 1885, 59: 195-96, 232-33, 264-65, 297-98, 328-29, who claims that the Marine Hospital Service was the model for the CP organization. Also see Short, Railroad Doctors; Jones, Old Central Pacific Hospital; and Eib, "Pacific System's Big Human Repair Plant" (all in n. 4).
33. Railroad bureaucracies reflected a strong military influence, and the early medical departments with chief and assistant surgeons probably simply followed this structure. See Charles F. O'Connell, Jr., "The Corps of Engineers and the Rise of Modern Management, 1827-1856," in Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience, ed. Merritt Roe Smith (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985), pp. 87-116. The origins of the Central Pacific organization are from Lewis, "Evolution of Railway Surgery" (n. 6), and from S. S. Herrick, "Railway Medical Service," Amer. Railr. J., 1885, 59: 195-96, 232-33, 264-65, 297-98, 328-29, who claims that the Marine Hospital Service was the model for the CP organization. Also see Short, Railroad Doctors; Jones, Old Central Pacific Hospital; and Eib, "Pacific System's Big Human Repair Plant" (all in n. 4).
34. Railroad bureaucracies reflected a strong military influence, and the early medical departments with chief and assistant surgeons probably simply followed this structure. See Charles F. O'Connell, Jr., "The Corps of Engineers and the Rise of Modern Management, 1827-1856," in Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience, ed. Merritt Roe Smith (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985), pp. 87-116. The origins of the Central Pacific organization are from Lewis, "Evolution of Railway Surgery" (n. 6), and from S. S. Herrick, "Railway Medical Service," Amer. Railr. J., 1885, 59: 195-96, 232-33, 264-65, 297-98, 328-29, who claims that the Marine Hospital Service was the model for the CP organization. Also see Short, Railroad Doctors; Jones, Old Central Pacific Hospital; and Eib, "Pacific System's Big Human Repair Plant" (all in n. 4).
35. Railroad bureaucracies reflected a strong military influence, and the early medical departments with chief and assistant surgeons probably simply followed this structure. See Charles F. O'Connell, Jr., "The Corps of Engineers and the Rise of Modern Management, 1827-1856," in Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience, ed. Merritt Roe Smith (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985), pp. 87-116. The origins of the Central Pacific organization are from Lewis, "Evolution of Railway Surgery" (n. 6), and from S. S. Herrick, "Railway Medical Service," Amer. Railr. J., 1885, 59: 195-96, 232-33, 264-65, 297-98, 328-29, who claims that the Marine Hospital Service was the model for the CP organization. Also see Short, Railroad Doctors; Jones, Old Central Pacific Hospital; and Eib, "Pacific System's Big Human Repair Plant" (all in n. 4).
36. Herrick, "Railway Medical Service" (n. 10), p. 195.
37. The chief surgeon of CP hospital was a foe of Listerism until the early 1880s, which suggests that this hospital association was not motivated by advances in medical procedures; see Jones, Old Central Pacific Hospital (n. 4), p. 8. For improvements in hospital care, see Morris J. Vogel, The Invention of the Modem Hospital, Boston, 1870-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), chap. 3; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (New York: Basic Books, 1987), chap. 5. For a survey of programs, see Lewis, "Evolution of Railway Surgery" (n. 6); and Herrick, "Railway Medical Service" (n. 10), who describes the Northern Pacific as a beneficial society - but the only benefits it provided, except for medical care, were funeral expenses. For other hospital associations, see "Northern Pacific Beneficial Association," Railw. Surg., 1901, 8: 210-12 ; "The Atchison Railroad Employees' Association," Railw. Rev., 1884, 24: 135; George Chaffee, "The Railway Employees' Hospital Association," Railw. Surg., 1896, 2: 193-97; R. W. Corwin, "History of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company's Hospital," ibid., 1902, 8: 270-71; "A Hospital System on the Chicago, Milwaukee, & St. Paul," Railw. Age, 1894, 19: 61; Short, Railroad Doctors (n. 4).
38. The chief surgeon of CP hospital was a foe of Listerism until the early 1880s, which suggests that this hospital association was not motivated by advances in medical procedures; see Jones, Old Central Pacific Hospital (n. 4), p. 8. For improvements in hospital care, see Morris J. Vogel, The Invention of the Modem Hospital, Boston, 1870-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), chap. 3; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (New York: Basic Books, 1987), chap. 5. For a survey of programs, see Lewis, "Evolution of Railway Surgery" (n. 6); and Herrick, "Railway Medical Service" (n. 10), who describes the Northern Pacific as a beneficial society - but the only benefits it provided, except for medical care, were funeral expenses. For other hospital associations, see "Northern Pacific Beneficial Association," Railw. Surg., 1901, 8: 210-12 ; "The Atchison Railroad Employees' Association," Railw. Rev., 1884, 24: 135; George Chaffee, "The Railway Employees' Hospital Association," Railw. Surg., 1896, 2: 193-97; R. W. Corwin, "History of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company's Hospital," ibid., 1902, 8: 270-71; "A Hospital System on the Chicago, Milwaukee, & St. Paul," Railw. Age, 1894, 19: 61; Short, Railroad Doctors (n. 4).
39. The chief surgeon of CP hospital was a foe of Listerism until the early 1880s, which suggests that this hospital association was not motivated by advances in medical procedures; see Jones, Old Central Pacific Hospital (n. 4), p. 8. For improvements in hospital care, see Morris J. Vogel, The Invention of the Modem Hospital, Boston, 1870-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), chap. 3; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (New York: Basic Books, 1987), chap. 5. For a survey of programs, see Lewis, "Evolution of Railway Surgery" (n. 6); and Herrick, "Railway Medical Service" (n. 10), who describes the Northern Pacific as a beneficial society - but the only benefits it provided, except for medical care, were funeral expenses. For other hospital associations, see "Northern Pacific Beneficial Association," Railw. Surg., 1901, 8: 210-12 ; "The Atchison Railroad Employees' Association," Railw. Rev., 1884, 24: 135; George Chaffee, "The Railway Employees' Hospital Association," Railw. Surg., 1896, 2: 193-97; R. W. Corwin, "History of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company's Hospital," ibid., 1902, 8: 270-71; "A Hospital System on the Chicago, Milwaukee, & St. Paul," Railw. Age, 1894, 19: 61; Short, Railroad Doctors (n. 4).
40. The chief surgeon of CP hospital was a foe of Listerism until the early 1880s, which suggests that this hospital association was not motivated by advances in medical procedures; see Jones, Old Central Pacific Hospital (n. 4), p. 8. For improvements in hospital care, see Morris J. Vogel, The Invention of the Modem Hospital, Boston, 1870-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), chap. 3; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (New York: Basic Books, 1987), chap. 5. For a survey of programs, see Lewis, "Evolution of Railway Surgery" (n. 6); and Herrick, "Railway Medical Service" (n. 10), who describes the Northern Pacific as a beneficial society - but the only benefits it provided, except for medical care, were funeral expenses. For other hospital associations, see "Northern Pacific Beneficial Association," Railw. Surg., 1901, 8: 210-12 ; "The Atchison Railroad Employees' Association," Railw. Rev., 1884, 24: 135; George Chaffee, "The Railway Employees' Hospital Association," Railw. Surg., 1896, 2: 193-97; R. W. Corwin, "History of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company's Hospital," ibid., 1902, 8: 270-71; "A Hospital System on the Chicago, Milwaukee, & St. Paul," Railw. Age, 1894, 19: 61; Short, Railroad Doctors (n. 4).
41. The chief surgeon of CP hospital was a foe of Listerism until the early 1880s, which suggests that this hospital association was not motivated by advances in medical procedures; see Jones, Old Central Pacific Hospital (n. 4), p. 8. For improvements in hospital care, see Morris J. Vogel, The Invention of the Modem Hospital, Boston, 1870-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), chap. 3; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (New York: Basic Books, 1987), chap. 5. For a survey of programs, see Lewis, "Evolution of Railway Surgery" (n. 6); and Herrick, "Railway Medical Service" (n. 10), who describes the Northern Pacific as a beneficial society - but the only benefits it provided, except for medical care, were funeral expenses. For other hospital associations, see "Northern Pacific Beneficial Association," Railw. Surg., 1901, 8: 210-12 ; "The Atchison Railroad Employees' Association," Railw. Rev., 1884, 24: 135; George Chaffee, "The Railway Employees' Hospital Association," Railw. Surg., 1896, 2: 193-97; R. W. Corwin, "History of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company's Hospital," ibid., 1902, 8: 270-71; "A Hospital System on the Chicago, Milwaukee, & St. Paul," Railw. Age, 1894, 19: 61; Short, Railroad Doctors (n. 4).
42. The chief surgeon of CP hospital was a foe of Listerism until the early 1880s, which suggests that this hospital association was not motivated by advances in medical procedures; see Jones, Old Central Pacific Hospital (n. 4), p. 8. For improvements in hospital care, see Morris J. Vogel, The Invention of the Modem Hospital, Boston, 1870-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), chap. 3; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (New York: Basic Books, 1987), chap. 5. For a survey of programs, see Lewis, "Evolution of Railway Surgery" (n. 6); and Herrick, "Railway Medical Service" (n. 10), who describes the Northern Pacific as a beneficial society - but the only benefits it provided, except for medical care, were funeral expenses. For other hospital associations, see "Northern Pacific Beneficial Association," Railw. Surg., 1901, 8: 210-12 ; "The Atchison Railroad Employees' Association," Railw. Rev., 1884, 24: 135; George Chaffee, "The Railway Employees' Hospital Association," Railw. Surg., 1896, 2: 193-97; R. W. Corwin, "History of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company's Hospital," ibid., 1902, 8: 270-71; "A Hospital System on the Chicago, Milwaukee, & St. Paul," Railw. Age, 1894, 19: 61; Short, Railroad Doctors (n. 4).
43. The chief surgeon of CP hospital was a foe of Listerism until the early 1880s, which suggests that this hospital association was not motivated by advances in medical procedures; see Jones, Old Central Pacific Hospital (n. 4), p. 8. For improvements in hospital care, see Morris J. Vogel, The Invention of the Modem Hospital, Boston, 1870-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), chap. 3; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of
44. The chief surgeon of CP hospital was a foe of Listerism until the early 1880s, which suggests that this hospital association was not motivated by advances in medical procedures; see Jones, Old Central Pacific Hospital (n. 4), p. 8. For improvements in hospital care, see Morris J. Vogel, The Invention of the Modem Hospital, Boston, 1870-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), chap. 3; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (New York: Basic Books, 1987), chap. 5. For a survey of programs, see Lewis, "Evolution of Railway Surgery" (n. 6); and Herrick, "Railway Medical Service" (n. 10), who describes the Northern Pacific as a beneficial society - but the only benefits it provided, except for medical care, were funeral expenses. For other hospital associations, see "Northern Pacific Beneficial Association," Railw. Surg., 1901, 8: 210-12 ; "The Atchison Railroad Employees' Association," Railw. Rev., 1884, 24: 135; George Chaffee, "The Railway Employees' Hospital Association," Railw. Surg., 1896, 2: 193-97; R. W. Corwin, "History of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company's Hospital," ibid., 1902, 8: 270-71; "A Hospital System on the Chicago, Milwaukee, & St. Paul," Railw. Age, 1894, 19: 61; Short, Railroad Doctors (n. 4).
45. The chief surgeon of CP hospital was a foe of Listerism until the early 1880s, which suggests that this hospital association was not motivated by advances in medical procedures; see Jones, Old Central Pacific Hospital (n. 4), p. 8. For improvements in hospital care, see Morris J. Vogel, The Invention of the Modem Hospital, Boston, 1870-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), chap. 3; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (New York: Basic Books, 1987), chap. 5. For a survey of programs, see Lewis, "Evolution of Railway Surgery" (n. 6); and Herrick, "Railway Medical Service" (n. 10), who describes the Northern Pacific as a beneficial society - but the only benefits it provided, except for medical care, were funeral expenses. For other hospital associations, see "Northern Pacific Beneficial Association," Railw. Surg., 1901, 8: 210-12 ; "The Atchison Railroad Employees' Association," Railw. Rev., 1884, 24: 135; George Chaffee, "The Railway Employees' Hospital Association," Railw. Surg., 1896, 2: 193-97; R. W. Corwin, "History of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company's Hospital," ibid., 1902, 8: 270-71; "A Hospital System on the Chicago, Milwaukee, & St. Paul," Railw. Age, 1894, 19: 61; Short, Railroad Doctors (n. 4).
46. The chief surgeon of CP hospital was a foe of Listerism until the early 1880s, which suggests that this hospital association was not motivated by advances in medical procedures; see Jones, Old Central Pacific Hospital (n. 4), p. 8. For improvements in hospital care, see Morris J. Vogel, The Invention of the Modem Hospital, Boston, 1870-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), chap. 3; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (New York: Basic Books, 1987), chap. 5. For a survey of programs, see Lewis, "Evolution of Railway Surgery" (n. 6); and Herrick, "Railway Medical Service" (n. 10), who describes the Northern Pacific as a beneficial society - but the only benefits it provided, except for medical care, were funeral expenses. For other hospital associations, see "Northern Pacific Beneficial Association," Railw. Surg., 1901, 8: 210-12 ; "The Atchison Railroad Employees' Association," Railw. Rev., 1884, 24: 135; George Chaffee, "The Railway Employees' Hospital Association," Railw. Surg., 1896, 2: 193-97; R. W. Corwin, "History of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company's Hospital," ibid., 1902, 8: 270-71; "A Hospital System on the Chicago, Milwaukee, & St. Paul," Railw. Age, 1894, 19: 61; Short, Railroad Doctors (n. 4).
47. The chief surgeon of CP hospital was a foe of Listerism until the early 1880s, which suggests that this hospital association was not motivated by advances in medical procedures; see Jones, Old Central Pacific Hospital (n. 4), p. 8. For improvements in hospital care, see Morris J. Vogel, The Invention of the Modem Hospital, Boston, 1870-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), chap. 3; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (New York: Basic Books, 1987), chap. 5. For a survey of programs, see Lewis, "Evolution of Railway Surgery" (n. 6); and Herrick, "Railway Medical Service" (n. 10), who describes the Northern Pacific as a beneficial society - but the only benefits it provided, except for medical care, were funeral expenses. For other hospital associations, see "Northern Pacific Beneficial Association," Railw. Surg., 1901, 8: 210-12 ; "The Atchison Railroad Employees' Association," Railw. Rev., 1884, 24: 135; George Chaffee, "The Railway Employees' Hospital Association," Railw. Surg., 1896, 2: 193-97; R. W. Corwin, "History of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company's Hospital," ibid., 1902, 8: 270-71; "A Hospital System on the Chicago, Milwaukee, & St. Paul," Railw. Age, 1894, 19: 61; Short, Railroad Doctors (n. 4).
48. For early history of the Pennsylvania see Klingensmith, "Care of the Injured" (n. 6).
49. For the Pennsylvania's early support of hospitals, see Charles Pugh to S. M. Prevost, 20 March 1885, and [illegible] to Charles Pugh, 4 March 1889, who also notes that employees could choose their hospital; both in microfilm roll 84, board file 86, Pennsylvania Railroad Collection, Hagley Museum and Library, Wilmington, Del. (hereafter, PRRC). For later activities see F. W. Hankins to W. W. Atterbury, 27 October 1920, box 485, PRRC. In the 1880s the state of Pennsylvania built accident hospitals that gave preference to miners and railroad workers: see Rosemary Stevens, "Sweet Charity: State Aid to Hospitals in Pennsylvania, 1870-1910," Bull Hist. Med., 1984, 58: 287-314, 474-95. For the Delaware & Hudson, see Lewis Carr to F. P. Gutlius, 7 October 1919; Gutlius to Carr, 8 December 1919, box 17, ser. 2, Delaware & Hudson Collection, Manuscripts and Special Collections, New York State Library, Albany, N.Y.
50. "To the Employes [sic] of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company and its Branches and Divisions," (n.d., n.p.), copy in New York Public Library, New York, N.Y.; Baltimore and Ohio Employes [sic] Relief Association (BOERA), Act of Incorporation, Prospectus, Constitutions and By-laws of Its Relief, Annuity, Savings Fund and Building Features (Baltimore, n.d.); BOERA, First Annual Report for the Year Ending April 30, 1881 (Baltimore, 1881).
51. "To the Employes [sic] of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company and its Branches and Divisions," (n.d., n.p.), copy in New York Public Library, New York, N.Y.; Baltimore and Ohio Employes [sic] Relief Association (BOERA), Act of Incorporation, Prospectus, Constitutions and By-laws of Its Relief, Annuity, Savings Fund and Building Features (Baltimore, n.d.); BOERA, First Annual Report for the Year Ending April 30, 1881 (Baltimore, 1881).
52. "Railway Companies and Their Employees," Railw. Age, 1894, 19: 562-63, quotation on p. 562. That the Pennsylvania was studying some form of relief system is revealed in "Employees Fund," 13 October 1875, board file 91, microfilm roll 84, PRRC. The antiunion motive is revealed in Frank Thompson to G. B. Roberts, 23 August 1881, board file 91, microfilm roll 85, PRRC. For a survey of mutual benefit programs, see M. Riebenack, Railway Provident Institutions in English Speaking Countries (Philadelphia, 1905). Even where these programs were ostensibly voluntary, employees often felt pressured by officers to join, probably in order to keep costs low. See U.S. Industrial Commission, Report on Transportation (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1901), pp. 43-71.
53. "Railway Companies and Their Employees," Railw. Age, 1894, 19: 562-63, quotation on p. 562. That the Pennsylvania was studying some form of relief system is revealed in "Employees Fund," 13 October 1875, board file 91, microfilm roll 84, PRRC. The antiunion motive is revealed in Frank Thompson to G. B. Roberts, 23 August 1881, board file 91, microfilm roll 85, PRRC. For a survey of mutual benefit programs, see M. Riebenack, Railway Provident Institutions in English Speaking Countries (Philadelphia, 1905). Even where these programs were ostensibly voluntary, employees often felt pressured by officers to join, probably in order to keep costs low. See U.S. Industrial Commission, Report on Transportation (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1901), pp. 43-71.
54. "Railway Companies and Their Employees," Railw. Age, 1894, 19: 562-63, quotation on p. 562. That the Pennsylvania was studying some form of relief system is revealed in "Employees Fund," 13 October 1875, board file 91, microfilm roll 84, PRRC. The antiunion motive is revealed in Frank Thompson to G. B. Roberts, 23 August 1881, board file 91, microfilm roll 85, PRRC. For a survey of mutual benefit programs, see M. Riebenack, Railway Provident Institutions in English Speaking Countries (Philadelphia, 1905). Even where these programs were ostensibly voluntary, employees often felt pressured by officers to join, probably in order to keep costs low. See U.S. Industrial Commission, Report on Transportation (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1901), pp. 43-71.
55. J. A. Anderson to Advisory Committee of Relief Fund, 2 February 1892, board file 91, microfilm roll 85, PRRC.
56. Paul Black, "The Development of Management Personnel Policies on the Burlington Railroad, 1860-1900" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1972), pp. 377-87.
57. The Pinkerton involvement is revealed in Edward Gaylor to James Lanades, 14 July 1894, box 998, RRC. The Reading also mined anthracite coal, and its mining subsidiary had had a mutual benefit society since 1877; see Ginger, "Company-Sponsored Welfare Plans" (n.5).
58. C. M. Lawler to A. A. McLeod, 12 March 1889, box 998, RRC.
59. John Royer to A. A. McLeod, 12 February 1889, ibid.
60. On opposition to corporate medicine, see James Gordon Burrow, A.M.A., Voice of American Medicine (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1963), chap. 9; Starr, Social Transformation (n. 4), pp. 202-5. Neither Railway Surgeon nor the Journal of the American Medical Association reveals any hostility of the AMA toward railroad programs, which suggests that its opposition was more selective than these writers suggest. The only complaints I have discovered about low fees are in S. R. Miller, "Resolution," Association of Surgeons of the Southern Railway, Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting, 1907, p. 43, which resulted because the company's fees had not kept up with inflation. G. G. Dowdall [chief surgeon of the Illinois Central], "So-Called 'Contract Practice,'" Railw. Surg., 1915, 21: 345-52, discussion 352-55, claimed that the Illinois Central hospital organization was not contract medicine. It is the only reference to contract medicine I found in that journal.
61. On opposition to corporate medicine, see James Gordon Burrow, A.M.A., Voice of American Medicine (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1963), chap. 9; Starr, Social Transformation (n. 4), pp. 202-5. Neither Railway Surgeon nor the Journal of the American Medical Association reveals any hostility of the AMA toward railroad programs, which suggests that its opposition was more selective than these writers suggest. The only complaints I have discovered about low fees are in S. R. Miller, "Resolution," Association of Surgeons of the Southern Railway, Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting, 1907, p. 43, which resulted because the company's fees had not kept up with inflation. G. G. Dowdall [chief surgeon of the Illinois Central], "So-Called 'Contract Practice,'" Railw. Surg., 1915, 21: 345-52, discussion 352-55, claimed that the Illinois Central hospital organization was not contract medicine. It is the only reference to contract medicine I found in that journal.
62. On opposition to corporate medicine, see James Gordon Burrow, A.M.A., Voice of American Medicine (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1963), chap. 9; Starr, Social Transformation (n. 4), pp. 202-5. Neither Railway Surgeon nor the Journal of the American Medical Association reveals any hostility of the AMA toward railroad programs, which suggests that its opposition was more selective than these writers suggest. The only complaints I have discovered about low fees are in S. R. Miller, "Resolution," Association of Surgeons of the Southern Railway, Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting, 1907, p. 43, which resulted because the company's fees had not kept up with inflation. G. G. Dowdall [chief surgeon of the Illinois Central], "So-Called 'Contract Practice,'" Railw. Surg., 1915, 21: 345-52, discussion 352-55, claimed that the Illinois Central hospital organization was not contract medicine. It is the only reference to contract medicine I found in that journal.
63. On opposition to corporate medicine, see James Gordon Burrow, A.M.A., Voice of American Medicine (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1963), chap. 9; Starr, Social Transformation (n. 4), pp. 202-5. Neither Railway Surgeon nor the Journal of the American Medical Association reveals any hostility of the AMA toward railroad programs, which suggests that its opposition was more selective than these writers suggest. The only complaints I have discovered about low fees are in S. R. Miller, "Resolution," Association of Surgeons of the Southern Railway, Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting, 1907, p. 43, which resulted because the company's fees had not kept up with inflation. G. G. Dowdall [chief surgeon of the Illinois Central], "So-Called 'Contract Practice,'" Railw. Surg., 1915, 21: 345-52, discussion 352-55, claimed that the Illinois Central hospital organization was not contract medicine. It is the only reference to contract medicine I found in that journal.
64. C. B. Stemen, "The History of Railway Surgical Associations," Railw. Age, 1892, 17: 478. For the longevity of the Pennsylvania surgeons' association, see J. W. Oram, "Remarks," 12 October 1956, Association of Surgeons of the Pennsylvania Railroad file, box 854, PRRC.
65. C. B. Stemen, "The History of Railway Surgical Associations," Railw. Age, 1892, 17: 478. For the longevity of the Pennsylvania surgeons' association, see J. W. Oram, "Remarks," 12 October 1956, Association of Surgeons of the Pennsylvania Railroad file, box 854, PRRC.
66. The membership figure is from "Railway Surgery," Railw. Age, 1891, 16: 13. The origins are from "Department of Railway Surgery," Medico-Legal J., 1894-95, 12: 180. For Reed's activities see Paterson, Robert Harvey Reed (n. 1).
67. The membership figure is from "Railway Surgery," Railw. Age, 1891, 16: 13. The origins are from "Department of Railway Surgery," Medico-Legal J., 1894-95, 12: 180. For Reed's activities see Paterson, Robert Harvey Reed (n. 1).
68. The membership figure is from "Railway Surgery," Railw. Age, 1891, 16: 13. The origins are from "Department of Railway Surgery," Medico-Legal J., 1894-95, 12: 180. For Reed's activities see Paterson, Robert Harvey Reed (n. 1).
69. W. B. Outten, "Railway Relief Organizations in the United States," Railw. Surg., 1895, 2: 223-24, quotation on p. 224.
70. Ibid., p. 223.
71. Ibid., p. 224.
72. Quoted in Clark Bell, "Railways and Railway Surgeons," Railw. Surg., 1894, 1: 73-77, on p. 73.
73. Ralph Richards, "The Benefits of a Surgical Department to a Railroad," Railw. Surg., 1903, 9: 241-45, stresses public relations. See also " The Illinois Law Requiring First Aid Appliances on Trains," ibid., 1915, 21: 466-67. In 1929 the Pennsylvania Railroad's vice president of personnel described some physicians as "those who have been appointed for political reasons and who render efficient political services" (V. P. of Personnel to C. S. Krick, 18 October 1929, box 854, PRRC). D. B. Ealy, a company surgeon, advised that "My brother, [Pennsylvania State] Senator Charles Ealy, will go along with us fully in all matters - if I should discuss anything further with him advise me at once" (Ealy to Pennsylvania Railroad, 12 February 1933, box 807, PRRC).
74. Ralph Richards, "The Benefits of a Surgical Department to a Railroad," Railw. Surg., 1903, 9: 241-45, stresses public relations. See also " The Illinois Law Requiring First Aid Appliances on Trains," ibid., 1915, 21: 466-67. In 1929 the Pennsylvania Railroad's vice president of personnel described some physicians as "those who have been appointed for political reasons and who render efficient political services" (V. P. of Personnel to C. S. Krick, 18 October 1929, box 854, PRRC). D. B. Ealy, a company surgeon, advised that "My brother, [Pennsylvania State] Senator Charles Ealy, will go along with us fully in all matters - if I should discuss anything further with him advise me at once" (Ealy to Pennsylvania Railroad, 12 February 1933, box 807, PRRC).
75. Quoted in Bell, "Railways and Railway Surgeons" (n. 28), p. 74.
76. Ibid.
77. R. Harvey Reed, "Surgical Department," Railw. Age, 30 June 1893, 18: 521-22, quotation on p. 522.
78. Ibid., 10 February 1893, 18: 27.
79. Ibid., p. 522.
80. The percentage is derived from data in U.S. Railroad Administration (USRA), Survey and Recommendations of the Committee on Health and Medical Relief (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1920).
81. Reed, "Surgical Department" (n. 32), p. 522.
82. Ibid.
83. Quoted in Bell, "Railways and Railway Surgeons" (n. 28), p. 74.
84. Outten, "Railway Relief Organizations" (n. 25), p. 223.
85. Quote from discussion of Klingensmith, "Care of the Injured" (n. 6), p. 50.
86. For brief discussions of expert witnesses and the Medico-Legal Society, see James C. Mohr, Doctors and the Law: Medical Jurisprudence in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), chaps. 14, 15.
87. Clark Bell, "The True Field of Duty of the Railway Surgeon," Medico-Legal J., 1894, 12: 374-86, quotation on p. 374
88. Ibid., p. 378
89. Quoted in ibid., p. 380.
90. Clark Bell, "The Expert Witness," Railw. Surg., 1895, 2: 103-5, quotation on p. 103.
91. Alexander Cochran, "The Relationship Existing Between the Legal and Hospital Departments of Railways," Railw. Surg., 1902, 9: 61-63, quotation on p. 62.
92. Collected from data in USRA, Survey and Recommendations (n. 35).
93. On the difficulty of workers' winning law suits, see Christopher Tomlins, "A Mysterious Power: Industrial Accidents and the Legal Construction of Employment Relations in Massachusetts," Law & Hist. Rev., 1988, 6: 375-488; Mark Aldrich, Safety First: Technology, Labor, and Business in the Building of American Work Safety, 1870-1939 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), chaps. 1, 3.
94. On the difficulty of workers' winning law suits, see Christopher Tomlins, "A Mysterious Power: Industrial Accidents and the Legal Construction of Employment Relations in Massachusetts," Law & Hist. Rev., 1988, 6: 375-488; Mark Aldrich, Safety First: Technology, Labor, and Business in the Building of American Work Safety, 1870-1939 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), chaps. 1, 3.
95. W. H. Elliott, "The Organization of a Railway Surgical Department," NARS, Proceedings, 1892, 5: 31-36; J. F. Pritchard, "Surgical Department," Railw. Age, 1893, 18: 814.
96. W. H. Elliott, "The Organization of a Railway Surgical Department," NARS, Proceedings, 1892, 5: 31-36; J. F. Pritchard, "Surgical Department," Railw. Age, 1893, 18: 814.
97. The Freeman case is from "Imposture as a Profession," Railw. Surg., 1895, 1: 528-33; quotation on p. 528.
98. This discussion is based on Michael R. Trimble, Post-Traumatic Neurosis: From Railway Spine to the Whiplash (New York: Wiley, 1981); Eric Caplan, Mind Games: American Culture and the Birth of Psychotherapy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), chap. 1. See also Thomas Keller, "Railway Spine Revisited: Traumatic Neurosis or Neurotrama?" J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci., 1995, 50: 507-24. For Erichsen's views, see John Eric Erichsen, The Science and Art of Surgery: Being a Treatise on Surgical Injuries, Diseases, and Operations, 7th ed. (Philadelphia: H. C. Lea, 1878), 1: 560-79. Broader discussions of the significance of railway spine are in Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), chap. 9; Ken Dornstein, Accidentally, on Purpose: The Making of a Personal Injury Underworld in America (New York: St. Martins, 1996), chap. 5
99. This discussion is based on Michael R. Trimble, Post-Traumatic Neurosis: From Railway Spine to the Whiplash (New York: Wiley, 1981); Eric Caplan, Mind Games: American Culture and the Birth of Psychotherapy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), chap. 1. See also Thomas Keller, "Railway Spine Revisited: Traumatic Neurosis or Neurotrama?" J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci., 1995, 50: 507-24. For Erichsen's views, see John Eric Erichsen, The Science and Art of Surgery: Being a Treatise on Surgical Injuries, Diseases, and Operations, 7th ed. (Philadelphia: H. C. Lea, 1878), 1: 560-79. Broader discussions of the significance of railway spine are in Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), chap. 9; Ken Dornstein, Accidentally, on Purpose: The Making of a Personal Injury Underworld in America (New York: St. Martins, 1996), chap. 5
100. This discussion is based on Michael R. Trimble, Post-Traumatic Neurosis: From Railway Spine to the Whiplash (New York: Wiley, 1981); Eric Caplan, Mind Games: American Culture and the Birth of Psychotherapy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), chap. 1. See also Thomas Keller, "Railway Spine Revisited: Traumatic Neurosis or Neurotrama?" J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci., 1995, 50: 507-24. For Erichsen's views, see John Eric Erichsen, The Science and Art of Surgery: Being a Treatise on Surgical Injuries, Diseases, and Operations, 7th ed. (Philadelphia: H. C. Lea, 1878), 1: 560-79. Broader discussions of the significance of railway spine are in Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), chap. 9; Ken Dornstein, Accidentally, on Purpose: The Making of a Personal Injury Underworld in America (New York: St. Martins, 1996), chap. 5
101. This discussion is based on Michael R. Trimble, Post-Traumatic Neurosis: From Railway Spine to the Whiplash (New York: Wiley, 1981); Eric Caplan, Mind Games: American Culture and the Birth of Psychotherapy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), chap. 1. See also Thomas Keller, "Railway Spine Revisited: Traumatic Neurosis or Neurotrama?" J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci., 1995, 50: 507-24. For Erichsen's views, see John Eric Erichsen, The Science and Art of Surgery: Being a Treatise on Surgical Injuries, Diseases, and Operations, 7th ed. (Philadelphia: H. C. Lea, 1878), 1: 560-79. Broader discussions of the significance of railway spine are in Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), chap. 9; Ken Dornstein, Accidentally, on Purpose: The Making of a Personal Injury Underworld in America (New York: St. Martins, 1996), chap. 5
102. This discussion is based on Michael R. Trimble, Post-Traumatic Neurosis: From Railway Spine to the Whiplash (New York: Wiley, 1981); Eric Caplan, Mind Games: American Culture and the Birth of Psychotherapy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), chap. 1. See also Thomas Keller, "Railway Spine Revisited: Traumatic Neurosis or Neurotrama?" J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci., 1995, 50: 507-24. For Erichsen's views, see John Eric Erichsen, The Science and Art of Surgery: Being a Treatise on Surgical Injuries, Diseases, and Operations, 7th ed. (Philadelphia: H. C. Lea, 1878), 1: 560-79. Broader discussions of the significance of railway spine are in Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), chap. 9; Ken Dornstein, Accidentally, on Purpose: The Making of a Personal Injury Underworld in America (New York: St. Martins, 1996), chap. 5
103. This discussion is based on Michael R. Trimble, Post-Traumatic Neurosis: From Railway Spine to the Whiplash (New York: Wiley, 1981); Eric Caplan, Mind Games: American Culture and the Birth of Psychotherapy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), chap. 1. See also Thomas Keller, "Railway Spine Revisited: Traumatic Neurosis or Neurotrama?" J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci., 1995, 50: 507-24. For Erichsen's views, see John Eric Erichsen, The Science and Art of Surgery: Being a Treatise on Surgical Injuries, Diseases, and Operations, 7th ed. (Philadelphia: H. C. Lea, 1878), 1: 560-79. Broader discussions of the significance of railway spine are in Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), chap. 9; Ken Dornstein, Accidentally, on Purpose: The Making of a Personal Injury Underworld in America (New York: St. Martins, 1996), chap. 5
104. "Surgical Department," Railw. Age, 1893, 18: 768-69, quotation on p. 768.
105. Reed, "Surgical Department" (n. 32), p. 521.
106. Arthur Dean Bevan, "Real and Alleged Injuries of the Spine," Railw. Surg., 1895, 2: 121-28.
107. Ibid., p. 124.
108. Ibid., p. 125.
109. Ibid.
110. For a similar interpretation see Caplan, Mind Games (n. 51). Bevan was articulating a widely shared view. SeeJ. H. Green, "Hypnotic Suggestion in Its Relation to the Traumatic Neuroses," NARS, Proceedings, 1892, 5: 106-13; "A Case That Ought to Have Been One of Railway Spine," Railw. Age, 1894, 19: 711. For Bevan's career see Nat. Cyc. Amer. Biog., 31: 282-83.
111. For a similar interpretation see Caplan, Mind Games (n. 51). Bevan was articulating a widely shared view. SeeJ. H. Green, "Hypnotic Suggestion in Its Relation to the Traumatic Neuroses," NARS, Proceedings, 1892, 5: 106-13; "A Case That Ought to Have Been One of Railway Spine," Railw. Age, 1894, 19: 711. For Bevan's career see Nat. Cyc. Amer. Biog., 31: 282-83.
112. For a similar interpretation see Caplan, Mind Games (n. 51). Bevan was articulating a widely shared view. SeeJ. H. Green, "Hypnotic Suggestion in Its Relation to the Traumatic Neuroses," NARS, Proceedings, 1892, 5: 106-13; "A Case That Ought to Have Been One of Railway Spine," Railw. Age, 1894, 19: 711. For Bevan's career see Nat. Cyc. Amer. Biog., 31: 282-83.
113. BOERA, Fourth Annual Report (Baltimore, 1884), p. 8
114. On the activities of manufacturing company medical departments, see National Industrial Conference Board, Health Services in Industry, Report 34 (New York: The Conference Board, 1921); idem, Medical Care of Industrial Workers (New York: The Conference Board, 1926); "Medical and Hospital Service for Industrial Employees," Monthly Labor Rev., 1927, 24: 7-19. Angela Nugent, "Fit for Work: The Introduction of Physical Examinations in Industry," Bull. Hist. Med., 1983, 57: 578-95, claims that these later examinations were rather perfunctory. Both she and Alan Derickson, "On the Dump Heap': Employee Medical Screening in the Tri-State Zinc Lead Industry, 1924-1932," Bus. Hist. Rev., 1988, 62: 656-77, argue that physicals benefited companies rather than workers.
115. On the activities of manufacturing company medical departments, see National Industrial Conference Board, Health Services in Industry, Report 34 (New York: The Conference Board, 1921); idem, Medical Care of Industrial Workers (New York: The Conference Board, 1926); "Medical and Hospital Service for Industrial Employees," Monthly Labor Rev., 1927, 24: 7-19. Angela Nugent, "Fit for Work: The Introduction of Physical Examinations in Industry," Bull. Hist. Med., 1983, 57: 578-95, claims that these later examinations were rather perfunctory. Both she and Alan Derickson, "On the Dump Heap': Employee Medical Screening in the Tri-State Zinc Lead Industry, 1924-1932," Bus. Hist. Rev., 1988, 62: 656-77, argue that physicals benefited companies rather than workers.
116. On the activities of manufacturing company medical departments, see National Industrial Conference Board, Health Services in Industry, Report 34 (New York: The Conference Board, 1921); idem, Medical Care of Industrial Workers (New York: The Conference Board, 1926); "Medical and Hospital Service for Industrial Employees," Monthly Labor Rev., 1927, 24: 7-19. Angela Nugent, "Fit for Work: The Introduction of Physical Examinations in Industry," Bull. Hist. Med., 1983, 57: 578-95, claims that these later examinations were rather perfunctory. Both she and Alan Derickson, "On the Dump Heap': Employee Medical Screening in the Tri-State Zinc Lead Industry, 1924-1932," Bus. Hist. Rev., 1988, 62: 656-77, argue that physicals benefited companies rather than workers.
117. On the activities of manufacturing company medical departments, see National Industrial Conference Board, Health Services in Industry, Report 34 (New York: The Conference Board, 1921); idem, Medical Care of Industrial Workers (New York: The Conference Board, 1926); "Medical and Hospital Service for Industrial Employees," Monthly Labor Rev., 1927, 24: 7-19. Angela Nugent, "Fit for Work: The Introduction of Physical Examinations in Industry," Bull. Hist. Med., 1983, 57: 578-95, claims that these later examinations were rather perfunctory. Both she and Alan Derickson, "On the Dump Heap': Employee Medical Screening in the Tri-State Zinc Lead Industry, 1924-1932," Bus. Hist. Rev., 1988, 62: 656-77, argue that physicals benefited companies rather than workers.
118. On the activities of manufacturing company medical departments, see National Industrial Conference Board, Health Services in Industry, Report 34 (New York: The Conference Board, 1921); idem, Medical Care of Industrial Workers (New York: The Conference Board, 1926); "Medical and Hospital Service for Industrial Employees," Monthly Labor Rev., 1927, 24: 7-19. Angela Nugent, "Fit for Work: The Introduction of Physical Examinations in Industry," Bull. Hist. Med., 1983, 57: 578-95, claims that these later examinations were rather perfunctory. Both she and Alan Derickson, "On the Dump Heap': Employee Medical Screening in the Tri-State Zinc Lead Industry, 1924-1932," Bus. Hist. Rev., 1988, 62: 656-77, argue that physicals benefited companies rather than workers.
119. For the Illinois Central, see Railw. Rev., 1880, 20: 439. A brief review of legislation is in "The Control of Defective Sight on Land and Sea," ibid., 1882, 22: 200, 213-14; and in American Railway Association (ARA), Proceedings, 1899-1902, 3: 678-86.
120. For the Illinois Central, see Railw. Rev., 1880, 20: 439. A brief review of legislation is in "The Control of Defective Sight on Land and Sea," ibid., 1882, 22: 200, 213-14; and in American Railway Association (ARA), Proceedings, 1899-1902, 3: 678-86.
121. For the Illinois Central, see Railw. Rev., 1880, 20: 439. A brief review of legislation is in "The Control of Defective Sight on Land and Sea," ibid., 1882, 22: 200, 213-14; and in American Railway Association (ARA), Proceedings, 1899-1902, 3: 678-86.
122. For Jeffries's role in Massachusetts, see "Tests for Color Blindness," Railw. Rev., 1883, 23: 153. His views are contained in B. Joy Jeffries, "Defective Vision among Railway Employees," Railw. Rev., 1883, 25: 518, 528. See also idem, Color-Blindness: Its Dangers and Its Detection (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1883). The broad public support is revealed by the hundreds of petitions sent to the board of health signed by men (but no women) from a broad range of occupations: see boxes 3 and 4, Health Department, RG 16, Connecticut State Library, Hartford, Conn. Box 3 also contains many letters of support for the men's position from superintendents and general managers.
123. William Carmalt to G. W. Chamberlin, 26 October 1880, box 3, Health Department, RG 16, Connecticut State Library (emphasis in original).
124. Jeffries's views of the Massachusetts and Connecticut laws, and his acceptance of Thomson's compromise, are from Jeffries, "Defective Vision" (n. 62). Thomson's test as administered on the Reading is outlined in William Thomson, "Color Blindness among Railroad Employees," Railw. Rev., 1887, 27: 511; idem, "The Sight and Hearing of Railway Employees," Pop. Sci. Monthly, 1885, 26: 433-41. By 1895 the Burlington was also using Thomson's methods: see "Surgical Department," Railw. Age, 1895, 20: 417. The use of tests is from ARA, Proceedings, 1899-1902, 3: 681-799.
125. Editorial, Railw. Age, 1910, 49: 383.
126. I have termed these "preemployment physicals" to differentiate them from periodic reexaminations; in fact, however, when first instituted they were given to existing employees as well. For the ARA-approved examination see ARA, Proceedings, 1903-6, 4: 361-64. On the origins of the Northwestern program see Richards, "Benefits of a Surgical Department" (n. 29). See also Ralph Richards, "Physical Fitness of Railway Employees," Medico-Legal J., 1899-1900, 17: 816-26. For the Burlington, see J. C. Bartlett to W. Hoffman, 21 May 1897, box 998, RRC. The Delaware & Hudson only instituted physicals for laborers in 1926 when it began to get large numbers of workmen's compensation claims: "Annual Report of Assistant to the General Manager for Personnel, 1926," box 4, Delaware & Hudson Collection, New York State Library, Albany, N.Y.
127. For the Missouri Pacific, see "News and Notes," Railw. Surg., 1896, 3: 91. For Mass. General, see George W. Gay, "Abuse of Medical Charity," reprinted in Caring for the Working Man: The Rise and Fall of the Dispensary: An Anthology of Sources, ed. Charles E. Rosenberg (New York: Garland, 1989), pp. 179-248.
128. BOERA, First Annual Report (Baltimore, 1881), "Statement Showing Nature of Disablement and Payments on Account Thereof by Department and Divisions," pp. 65-68.
129. Central Pacific Railroad, Statement of the Warkings of the Railroad Hospital at Sacramento, California for the Year 1883 (Sacramento, 1884).
130. The Union Pacific also exhorted its surgeons to adopt conservative surgery: see "Union Pacific Medical Department Circular No. 3," 2 February 1884, folder 195, box 5, Union Pacific Railroad Collection, Nebraska Historical Society, Lincoln, Neb.
131. H. T. Bahnson, "The Status of the Southern Railway Surgeon," Association of Surgeons of the Southern Railway Company, Twentieth Annual Meeting, 1915, pp. 5-15, quotation on p. 14.
132. Huntington's work is described in J. Roy Jones, Memories, Men and Medicine: A History of Medicine in Sacramento, California (Sacramento: Sacramento Society for Medical Improve-ment, 1950), pp. 140-43; Jones, Old Central Pacific Hospital (n. 4); Short, Railroad Doctors (n. 4).
133. Huntington's work is described in J. Roy Jones, Memories, Men and Medicine: A History of Medicine in Sacramento, California (Sacramento: Sacramento Society for Medical Improve-ment, 1950), pp. 140-43; Jones, Old Central Pacific Hospital (n. 4); Short, Railroad Doctors (n. 4).
134. Huntington's work is described in J. Roy Jones, Memories, Men and Medicine: A History of Medicine in Sacramento, California (Sacramento: Sacramento Society for Medical Improve-ment, 1950), pp. 140-43; Jones, Old Central Pacific Hospital (n. 4); Short, Railroad Doctors (n. 4).
135. "Professor Roentgen's Discovery," Railw. Surg., 1896, 2: 470-72, quotation on p. 470.
136. For the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, see Patricia Benoit, Men of Steel, Women of Spirit: History of the Santa Fe Hospital, 1891-1991 (Temple, Tex.: Scott & White Memorial Hospital, 1991), chap. 4. See also Emory Lamphere, "Why the Railroad Surgeon Should Not Try to Practice Aseptic Surgery," Railw. Surg., 1896, 3: 313-17; Joel D. Howell, Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), chap. 4. For a modern discussion of the reception of Listerism in the United States, see Thomas Gariepy, "The Introduction and Acceptance of Listerian Antisepsis in the United States," J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci., 1994, 49: 167-206.
137. For the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, see Patricia Benoit, Men of Steel, Women of Spirit: History of the Santa Fe Hospital, 1891-1991 (Temple, Tex.: Scott & White Memorial Hospital, 1991), chap. 4. See also Emory Lamphere, "Why the Railroad Surgeon Should Not Try to Practice Aseptic Surgery," Railw. Surg., 1896, 3: 313-17; Joel D. Howell, Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), chap. 4. For a modern discussion of the reception of Listerism in the United States, see Thomas Gariepy, "The Introduction and Acceptance of Listerian Antisepsis in the United States," J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci., 1994, 49: 167-206.
138. For the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, see Patricia Benoit, Men of Steel, Women of Spirit: History of the Santa Fe Hospital, 1891-1991 (Temple, Tex.: Scott & White Memorial Hospital, 1991), chap. 4. See also Emory Lamphere, "Why the Railroad Surgeon Should Not Try to Practice Aseptic Surgery," Railw. Surg., 1896, 3: 313-17; Joel D. Howell, Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), chap. 4. For a modern discussion of the reception of Listerism in the United States, see Thomas Gariepy, "The Introduction and Acceptance of Listerian Antisepsis in the United States," J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci., 1994, 49: 167-206.
139. For the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, see Patricia Benoit, Men of Steel, Women of Spirit: History of the Santa Fe Hospital, 1891-1991 (Temple, Tex.: Scott & White Memorial Hospital, 1991), chap. 4. See also Emory Lamphere, "Why the Railroad Surgeon Should Not Try to Practice Aseptic Surgery," Railw. Surg., 1896, 3: 313-17; Joel D. Howell, Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), chap. 4. For a modern discussion of the reception of Listerism in the United States, see Thomas Gariepy, "The Introduction and Acceptance of Listerian Antisepsis in the United States," J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci., 1994, 49: 167-206.
140. Benoit, Men of Steel (n. 74), chap. 4; Eib, "Pacific System's Big Human Repair Plant" (n. 4).
141. A. Tyroler, "The Santa Fe Hospital in Los Angeles Provides a Practical Cause for Thanksgiving," Santa Fe Mag., 1926, 20: 21-26, quotation on p. 24.
142. On welfare capitalism, see Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism (n. 4); and David Brody, Workers in Industrial America: Essays on the Twentieth Century Struggle, 2d ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), chap. 2, who argues that welfare capitalism had more worker support than most historians admit. For the rail unions' views of the benefit plans, see U.S. Industrial Commission, Report on Transportation (n. 16). Employees' views of the Santa Fe system are briefly noted in Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails (n. 4). The Burlington executive is N. T. Gurnsey, "The Relief Department of the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy Ry," Railw. Rev., 1905, 45: 544-46. Union Pacific General Manager S. R. Calloway claimed that "the whole hospital plan causes great dissatisfaction to the employees. In my judgment it is an unjustifiable extortion" (Callaway to [President] Charles Francis Adams, 8 November 1884, folder 195, box 5, Union Pacific Railroad Collection, Nebraska Historical Society).
143. "The Advisability of Calling a Special Conference on Railway Sanitation," in "Report of the Committee on Sanitation of Public Conveyances," Transactions of the Ninth Annual Conference of State and Territorial Health Officers with the USPHS, Public Health Bull., 1911, 46: 23-27. The speaker was H. M. Bracken, who was a member of the Minnesota State Board of Health and a surgeon employed by the Rock Island Railroad. Similar motives impelled public health work in the Michigan copper mines: see Lankton, Cradle to Grave (n.5).
144. BOERA, Second Annual Report (Baltimore, 1883), p. 10.
145. Ibid., p. 11
146. BOERA, Third Annual Report (Baltimore, 1884), p. 7.
147. See J. A. Anderson to Advisory Committee of Relief Fund, 2 February 1892, board file 91, microfilm roll 85, PRRC.
148. Herrick, "Railway Medical Service" (n. 10), p. 232.
149. "Northern Pacific Beneficial Association" (n. 12).
150. For the Pennsylvania's circular, see S. W. Latta, "Water Supply for Drinking Purposes and Water Closets on Railroads," American Public Health Association (APHA), Papers and Reports of the Seventeenth Annual Meeting, 1889, pp. 145-50. See also Charles B. Dudley, "The Ventilation of Passenger Cars on Railroads," J. Franklin Inst., 1897, 144: 1-16.
151. R. Harvey Reed, "Railway Surgery," Railw. Age, 1891, 16: 13.
152. Nancy Tomes, The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women, and the Microbe in American Life (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998), chaps. 1, 2.
153. Discussion by John Hurty of "Report of the Committee on Car Sanitation," APHA, Papers and Reports of the Twenty-Fifth Annual Meeting, 1897, pp. 245-61, on p. 261. For Hurty's career, see Nat. Cyc. Amer. Biog., 22: 370-71; Ralph Chester Williams, The United States Public Health Service, 1798-1950 (Washington, D.C.: Commissioned Officers Association of the U.S. Public Health Service, 1951), pp. 137-38.
154. Railw. Surg., 2, special issue, 24 March 1896; "Report of the Committee on Car Sanitation," APHA, Papers and Reports of the Twenty-Seventh Annual Meeting, 1899, pp. 395-409.
155. "Sanitation of Passenger Cars," Amer. Railr. J., 1897, 77: 428-30, quotation on p. 430.
156. For both the Big Four and the Illinois Central, see "Sanitation of Passenger Cars" (n. 90). For the Pennsylvania, see "Department of Physical and Chemical Tests (Historical)," box 661; "Report of the Association of Transportation Officers, 31 October 1913," box 408, PRRC.
157. Charles B. Dudley, "The Dissemination of Tuberculosis as Affected by Railway Travel," APHA, Papers and Reports of the Thirty-Third Annual Meeting, 1905, pp. 187-97; Thomas Crowder, "The Problem of Car Sanitation," APHA, Papers and Reports of the Thirty-Fourth Annual Meeting, 1906, pp. 278-93; Tomes, Gospel of Germs (n. 87), chap. 4.
158. "Report of the Committee on Hygiene and Sanitation," Railw. Surg., 1912, 18: 329-32, quotation on p. 329.
159. "Report of the Committee on Hygiene and Sanitation," Railw. Surg., 1913, 19: 201-8, quotation on p. 201.
160. "Report of the Committee on Sanitation of Public Conveyances," Transactions of the Eleventh Annual Conference of State and Territorial Health Officers with the USPHS, Public Health Bull., 1913, 63: 51-54; USRA, Survey and Recommendations (n. 35). The four railroad surgeons were A. Z. Dunott, of the Western Maryland; George Cale, of the St. Louis & San Francisco; Thomas R. Crowder, from Pullman; and Henry M. Bracken, of the Rock Island. For the code, see "Standard Railway Sanitary Code," USPHS, Public Health Rep., 1920, 35: 1749-61.
161. For the survey, see "Report of the Committee on Car Sanitation" (n. 88). See also A. J. McCannel, "Drinking Water for the General Public on Railway Trains," Railw. Surg., 1912, 18: 213-19; R. H. Mullin, H. A. Whittaker, and B. M. Mohler, "Railroad Water Supplies in Minnesota," USPHS, Public Health Rep., 1914, 29: 1222-15.
162. "Control of Water Supplies Used in Interstate Traffic," Transactions of the Seven-teenth Annual Conference of State and Territorial Health Officers with the USPHS, Public Health Bull., 1920, 105: 68-85; Arthur Gorman, "Drinking Water Supplied to Trains," Railw. Surg., 1924, 30: 89-93.
163. "Problems in Interstate Health Work," Transactions of the Seventeenth Annual Conference (n. 97), pp. 68-71, quotation on p. 69.
164. Arthur Collins, "Antityphoid Prophylaxis among Railway Employees," Railw. Surg., 1916, 22: 265-69; I. F. Crosby, "Preventive Medicine for Our Employees," ibid., 1914, 20: 283-85; T. B. Bradford, "Hookworm Disease," ibid., pp. 333-37. See also " Anti-Typhoid Inoculation," Engin. News, 1916, 75: 530; "Typhoid as an Accident under Compensation Law," ibid., pp. 426-27.
165. Arthur Collins, "Antityphoid Prophylaxis among Railway Employees," Railw. Surg., 1916, 22: 265-69; I. F. Crosby, "Preventive Medicine for Our Employees," ibid., 1914, 20: 283-85; T. B. Bradford, "Hookworm Disease," ibid., pp. 333-37. See also " Anti-Typhoid Inoculation," Engin. News, 1916, 75: 530; "Typhoid as an Accident under Compensation Law," ibid., pp. 426-27.
166. Arthur Collins, "Antityphoid Prophylaxis among Railway Employees," Railw. Surg., 1916, 22: 265-69; I. F. Crosby, "Preventive Medicine for Our Employees," ibid., 1914, 20: 283-85; T. B. Bradford, "Hookworm Disease," ibid., pp. 333-37. See also " Anti-Typhoid Inoculation," Engin. News, 1916, 75: 530; "Typhoid as an Accident under Compensation Law," ibid., pp. 426-27.
167. Arthur Collins, "Antityphoid Prophylaxis among Railway Employees," Railw. Surg., 1916, 22: 265-69; I. F. Crosby, "Preventive Medicine for Our Employees," ibid., 1914, 20: 283-85; T. B. Bradford, "Hookworm Disease," ibid., pp. 333-37. See also " Anti-Typhoid Inoculation," Engin. News, 1916, 75: 530; "Typhoid as an Accident under Compensation Law," ibid., pp. 426-27.
168. Arthur Collins, "Antityphoid Prophylaxis among Railway Employees," Railw. Surg., 1916, 22: 265-69; I. F. Crosby, "Preventive Medicine for Our Employees," ibid., 1914, 20: 283-85; T. B. Bradford, "Hookworm Disease," ibid., pp. 333-37. See also " Anti-Typhoid Inoculation," Engin. News, 1916, 75: 530; "Typhoid as an Accident under Compensation Law," ibid., pp. 426-27.
169. Lloyd Noland, "Problems of Administration in Industrial Surgery," JAMA, 1932, 99: 1215-18.
170. H. W. Van Hovenberg, "How Cotton Belt Cut Malaria Rate 97 Per Cent in Nine Years," Railw. Engin. & Maint., 1926, 22: 382-90. See also Transactions of the Fifteenth Annual Conference of State and Territorial Health Offices with the U.S. Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service, Public Health Bull., 1918, 93: 74; H. N. Old, "Malaria Control on the Central of Georgia Railway," Transactions of the Third Annual Conference of Malaria Field Workers, ibid., 1922, 125: 89-93.
171. W. E. Estes, "Two Hundred and Sixty-four Amputations with Deductions," NARS, Proceedings, 1892, 5: 149-51.
172. W. E. Estes to A. A. McLeod, 3 September 1892, box 998, RRC.
173. This history is based on Charles R. Dickson, "The Progress of the First Aid Movement," Railw. Surg., 1902, 9: 156-57, discussion 157-62. The manual is idem, First Aid in Accidents (Chicago: F. H. Revell, 1901).
174. "A Hospital Car for the Southern Pacific Ry," Engin. News, 1906, 55: 32-33; "Lehigh Valley Hospital Car," Railr. Gaz., 1906, 40: 42-43.
175. "A Hospital Car for the Southern Pacific Ry," Engin. News, 1906, 55: 32-33; "Lehigh Valley Hospital Car," Railr. Gaz., 1906, 40: 42-43.
176. A. F. Jonas, "Method of Instruction of First Aid to the Injured," Railw. Surg., 1902, 8: 221-26, quotation on p. 222. See also idem, "Union Pacific Emergency Association," ibid., 1901, 8: 97-99.
177. Dickson, "Progress of the First Aid Movement" (n. 104), discussion, p. 158. Significantly, Dickson subtitled his manual "What to Do and What Not to Do in Case of Injury."
178. Dickson, "Progress of the First Aid Movement" (n. 104), discussion, p. 159.
179. Ibid.
180. Ibid.
181. Ibid., p. 160.
182. For the review of the Pennsylvania program, see J. A. Bower and others to E. B. Hunt, 6 June 1916, box 408, PRRC.
183. "First Aid and Emergency," Railw. Surg., 1903, 9: 319-20, 349-50; "Pennsylvania's Plan for First Aid to the Injured," Railw. Age, 1904, 37: 725. A survey of first aid on two hundred carriers is reported in " Emergency Surgical Boxes," Railr. Gaz., 1901, 33: 280. For the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburgh see "First Aid to the Injured in Railroad Service," Railw. Surg., 1901, 8: 114-18.
184. "First Aid and Emergency," Railw. Surg., 1903, 9: 319-20, 349-50; "Pennsylvania's Plan for First Aid to the Injured," Railw. Age, 1904, 37: 725. A survey of first aid on two hundred carriers is reported in " Emergency Surgical Boxes," Railr. Gaz., 1901, 33: 280. For the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburgh see "First Aid to the Injured in Railroad Service," Railw. Surg., 1901, 8: 114-18.
185. "First Aid and Emergency," Railw. Surg., 1903, 9: 319-20, 349-50; "Pennsylvania's Plan for First Aid to the Injured," Railw. Age, 1904, 37: 725. A survey of first aid on two hundred carriers is reported in " Emergency Surgical Boxes," Railr. Gaz., 1901, 33: 280. For the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburgh see "First Aid to the Injured in Railroad Service," Railw. Surg., 1901, 8: 114-18.
186. "First Aid and Emergency," Railw. Surg., 1903, 9: 319-20, 349-50; "Pennsylvania's Plan for First Aid to the Injured," Railw. Age, 1904, 37: 725. A survey of first aid on two hundred carriers is reported in " Emergency Surgical Boxes," Railr. Gaz., 1901, 33: 280. For the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburgh see "First Aid to the Injured in Railroad Service," Railw. Surg., 1901, 8: 114-18.