The importance of physical activity in the prevention of overweight and obesity in childhood: A review and an opinion

Obesity Reviews

Volumn 2, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 117-130

  Steinbeck, K S ^a  

^a ROYAL PRINCE ALFRED HOSPITAL   (Australia)

Author keywords

Children; Obesity; Physical activity; Prevention

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; BODY WEIGHT; CHILD; ENERGY METABOLISM; EXERCISE; GENETICS; HEALTH PROMOTION; HUMAN; INFANT; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; NEWBORN; OBESITY; PRESCHOOL CHILD; REVIEW;

ADOLESCENT; BODY WEIGHT; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; ENERGY METABOLISM; EXERCISE; HEALTH PROMOTION; HUMANS; INFANT; INFANT, NEWBORN; MORBIDITY; OBESITY;

EID: 0035342123     PISSN: 14677881     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1046/j.1467-789x.2001.00033.x     Document Type: Review

References (147)

1. World Health Organization. Obesity. Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic: Report of a WHO Consultation on Obesity WHO/NUT/NCD/98.1. WHO: Geneva, 1998.
2. Stunkard A, McLaren-Hume M. The results of treatment for obesity: a review of the literature and report of a series. Arch Int Med 1959; 103: 79-85.
3. Klem ML, Wing RR, McGuire MT, Seagle HM, Hill JO. A descriptive study of individuals successful at long term maintenance of substantial weight loss. Am J Clin Nutr 1997; 66: 239-246.
4. Hill AJ, Silver EK. Fat, friendless and unhealthy: 9-year old children's perception of body shape stereotypes. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1995; 19: 423-430.
5. Ravelli G-P, Stein ZA, Susser MW. Obesity in young men after famine exposure in utero and early infancy. N Engl J Med 1976; 295: 349-353.
6. Barker DJ, Osmond C, Golding J, Kuh D, Wadsworth ME. Growth in utero, blood pressure in childhood and adult life and mortality from cardiovascular disease. BMJ 1987; 298: 564-567.
7. Rolland-Cachera M-F, Deheeger M, Bellislef, Sempe M, Guilloud-Bataille M, Patois E. Adiposity rebound in children; a simple measure for predicting obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 1984; 39: 129-135.
8. Whitaker RC, Pepe MS, Wright JA, Seidel KD, Dietz WH. Early adiposity rebound and the risk of adult obesity. Pediatrics 1998; 101: e5.
9. Dietz WH. Critical periods in childhood for the development of obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 1994; 59: 955-959.
10. Whitaker RC, Wright JA, Pepe MS, Seidel KD, Dietz WH. Predicting obesity in young adulthood from childhood and parental obesity. N Engl J Med 1997; 337: 869-873.
11. Power C, Lake JK, Cole TJ. Body mass index and height from childhood to adulthood in the 1958 British birth cohort. Am J Clin Nutr 1997; 66: 1094-1101.
12. Freedman DS, Shear CL, Burke GL, Srinivasan SR, Webber LS, Harsha DW, Berenson GS. Persistence of juvenile onset obesity over eight years. The Bogalusa Heart Study. Am J Public Health 1987; 77: 588-592.
13. Kelly JL, Stanton WR, McGee R, Silva PA. Tracking relative weight in subjects studied longitudinally from ages 3-13 years. J Paediatr Child Health 1992; 28: 158-161.
14. Guo SS, Roche AF, Chumlea WC, Gardner JD, Siervogel RM. The predictive value of childhood body mass index values for overweight at age 35y. Am J Clin Nutr 1994; 59: 810-819.
15. Stark O, Atkins E, Wolff OH, Douglas JWB. Longitudinal study of obesity in the National Survey of Growth and Development. BMJ 1981; 283: 13-17.
16. Peckham CS, Stark O, Simonite V, Wolff OH. Prevalence of obesity in British children born in 1946 and 1958. BMJ 1983; 286: 1237-1242.
17. Bao W, Srinivasan SR, Valdez R, Greenlund KJ, Wattigney WA, Berenson GS. Longitudinal changes in cardiovascular risk from childhood to young adulthood in offspring of parents with coronary artery disease. JAMA 1997; 278: 1749-1754.
18. Berenson GS, Srinivasan SR, Bao W, Newman WP, Tracy RE, Wattigney WA. Association between multiple cardiovascular risk factors and atherosclerosis in children and young adults. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 1650-1656.
19. Pinhas-Hamiel O, Dolan LM, Daniels SR, Standiford D, Khoury PR, Zeitler P. Increased incidence of non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus among adolescents. J Pediatr 1996; 128: 608-615.
20. Mossberg H-O. 40 year follow up of overweight children. Lancet 2 1989; 491-493.
21. Must A, Jacques PF, Dallai GE, Bajema CJ, Dietz WH. Long-term morbidity and mortality of overweight adolescents. A follow up of the Harvard Growth Study. N Engl J Med 1992; 327: 1350-1355.
22. Nieto FJ, Szklo M, Comstock GW. Childhood weight and growth rate as predictors of adult mortality. Am J Epidemiol 1992; 136: 201-213.
23. Guillaume M, Lapidus L, Beckers F, Lambert A, Bjorntorp P. Familial trends of obesity through three generations: the Belgian-Luxembourg child study. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord (Suppl.) 1995; 3: S5-S9.
24. Bouchard C, Savard R, Despres JP, Tremblay A, Leblanc C. Body composition in adopted and biological siblings. Hum Biol 1985; 57: 61-75.
25. Stunkard AJ, Harris JR, Pedersen NL, McClearn GE. The body mass index of twins who have been reared apart. N Engl J Med 1990; 322: 1483-1487.
26. Sorenson TIA, Price RA, Stunkard AJ, Schulsinger F. Genetics of obesity in adult adoptees and their biological siblings. BMJ 1989; 298: 87-90.
27. Garn SM, Clark DC. Trends in fatness and the origins of obesity. Pediatrics 1976; 57: 443-456.
28. Von Kries R, Koletzo B, Sauerwald T, von Mutius E, Barnert D, Grunert V, von Hoss H. Breast feeding and obesity: cross sectional study. BMJ 1999; 319: 147-150.
29. Klesges RC, Klesges LM, Eck LH, Shelton ML. A longitudinal analysis of accelerated weight gain in preschool children. Pediatrics 1995; 95: 126-130.
30. Moore LL, Nguyen U-S DT, Rothman KJ, Cupples LA, Ellison RC. Pre-school physical activity and changes in body fatness in young children. Am J Epidemiol 1995; 142: 982-988.
31. Byrnes SE, Baur LA, Bermingham M, Brock K, Steinbeck K. Leptin and total cholesterol are predictors of weight gain in prepubertal children. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1999; 23: 146-150.
32. Odeleye OE, de Courten M, Pettit DJ, Ravussin E. Fasting hyperinsulinemia is a predictor of increased body weight gain and obesity in Pima Indian children. Diabetes 1997; 46: 1341-1345.
33. Cole TJ, Bellizi MC, Flegal KM, Dietz WH. Establishing a standard definition for child overweight and obesity worldwide: international survey BMJ 2000; 320: 1-6.
34. Hammer L, Kraemer H, Wilson DM, Ritter PL, Dornbusch SM. Standardised percentile curves of body-mass index for children and adolescents. Am J Dis Child 1991; 145: 259-263.
35. Troiano RP, Flegal KM. Overweight children and adolescents: description, epidemiology and demographics. Pediatrics 1998; 101: 497-504.
36. Freedman DS, Srinivasan SR, Valdez RA, Williamson DF, Berenson GS. Secular increases in relative weight and adiposity among children over two decades: the Bogalusa heart study. Pediatrics 1997; 99: 420-426.
37. Flegal KM, Troiano RP. Changes in the distribution of body mass index of adults and children in the US population. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000; 24: 807-818.
38. Lazarus R, Wake M, Hesketh K, Waters E. Change in body mass index in Australian primary school children 1985-1997. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000; 24: 679-684.
39. Moreno LA, Sarria A, Fleta J, Rodriguez G, Bueno M. Trends in body mass index and overweight prevalence among children and adolescents in the region of Aragon (Spain) from 1985 to 1995. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000; 24: 925-931.
40. Soares-Wynter SY, Walker SP. Resting metabolic rate and body composition in stunted and non-stunted children. Am J Clin Nutr 1996; 64: 137-141.
41. Prentice AM, Lucas A, Vasquez-Velasquez L, Davies PSW, Whitehead RG. Are current dietary guidelines for young children a prescription for overfeeding? Lancet 2 1988; 1066-1069.
42. Schoeller DA, Ravussin E, Schutz Y, Acheson KJ, Baertschi P, Jequier E. Energy expenditure by doubly labelled water: validation in humans and proposed calculation. Am J Physiol 1986; 250: R823-R830.
43. Seale JL, Conway JM, Canary JJ. Seven-day validation of doubly labelled water method using indirect room calorimetry. J Appl Physiol 1993; 74: 402-409.
44. World Health Organisation. Measuring Change in Nutritional Status. WHO: Geneva, 1983 pp 61-101.
45. Baur LA, Ball EJ, O'Connor J, Steinbeck KS, Gaskin KJ, Wishart C, Davies PSW. Physical activity, energy expenditure and body fatness in 6-8 year old children. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000; 24: S30.
46. Goran MI, Carpenter WH, Poehlman ET. Total energy expenditure in 4-6-year old children. Am J Physiol 1993; 264: E706-E711.
47. Davies PSW, Gregory J, White A. Physical activity and body fatness in pre-school children. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1995; 19: 6-10.
48. Davies PSW, Livingstone MBE, Prentice AM, Coward WA, Jagger SE, Stewart C, Strain JJ, Whitehead RG. Total energy expenditure during childhood and adolescence. Proc Nutr Soc 1991; 50: 14A.
49. Saris WHM, Emons HJG, Groenenboom DC, Westerterp KR. Discrepancy Between FAO/WHO Energy Requirements and Actual Energy Expenditure in Healthy 7-11 Year Old Children [Abstract]. 14th International Seminar on Pediatric Work Physiology: Leuven, Belgium, 1989.
50. Ku LC, Shapiro LR, Crawford PB, Huenemann RL. Body composition and physical activity in 8 year old children. Am J Clin Nutr 1981; 34: 2770-2775.
51. Westerterp KR, Goran MI. Relationship between physical activity related energy expenditure and body composition: a gender difference. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1997; 21: 184-188.
52. James BS. Travel and health policy: what role could transport policies play in increasing physical activity? Proc Pre-Olympic Congress 2000, pp 33.[wwwtravelsmarttransportwagovau]
53. Zurlo F, Ferraro RT, Fonteveille AM, Rising R, Bogardus C, Ravussin E. Spontaneous physical activity and obesity: cross-sectional and longitudinal studies in Pima Indians. Am J Physiol 1992; 263: E296-E300.
54. Ainsworth BE, Haskell WL, Leon AS, Jacobs DR, Montoye HJ, Sallis JF, Paffenbarger RS. Compendium of physical activities: classification of energy costs of human physical activities. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1993; 25: 71-80.
55. Pellegrini AD, Smith PK. Physical activity play: the nature and function of a neglected aspect of play. Child Dev 1998; 69: 577-598.
56. McKenzie TL, Sallis JF, Elder JP, Berry CC, Hoy PL, Nader PR, Zive MM, Broyles SL. Physical activity levels and prompts in young children at recess: a two year study of a bi-ethnic sample. Res Q Exer Sport 1997; 68: 195-202.
57. Anonymous. NSW Schools and Physical Activity Survey. ISBN 1 86451 325 X. NSW Department of Education and Training: Sydney NSW, 1997.
58. Goran MI, Gower BA, Nagy TR, Johnson R. Developmental changes in energy expenditure and physical activity in children: evidence for a decline in physical activity in girls prior to puberty. Pediatrics 1998; 101: 887-891.
59. Riddoch C, Savage JM, Murphy N, Cran GW, Boreham C. Long-term health implications of fitness and physical activity patterns. Arch Dis Child 1991; 66: 1426-1433.
60. Bouchard C, Tremblay A, Leblanc C, Lortie G, Savard R, Thericault G. A method to assess energy expenditure in children and adults. Am J Clin Nutr 1983; 37: 461-467.
61. Ball EJ, Steinbeck KS, Gaskin KJ, Baur LA. Measurement of children's physical activity using an activity monitor and diary. Proceedings of the Australasian Society for the Study of Obesity Annual Scientific Meeting, 1999.
62. Nichols JF, Morgan CG, Sarkin JA, Sallis JF, Calfas KJ. Validity, reliability and calibration of the Tritrac accelerometer as a measure of physical activity. Med Sci Sport Exer 1999; 31: 908-912.
63. Freedson PS. Electronic motion sensors and heart rate as a measure of physical activity in children. J Sch Health 1991; 61: 220-223.
64. Saris WHM. Habitual physical activity in children: methodology and findings in health and disease. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1986; 18: 253-263.
65. ACHPER. The Australian Fitness Education Award. Users Manual and Curriculum Ideas. Australian Council for Health, Physical Education and Recreation: Hindmarsh, SA, Australia, 1996.
66. Dwyer T, Coonan W, Worsley A, Leitch D. Sex, social status and ethnic origin in relation to coronary heart disease risk factors in Adelaide school children Med J Aust 1980; 2: 331-334.
67. Bailey DA. Exercise, fitness and physical education for the growing child: a concern. Can J Public Health 1973; 64: 241-430.
68. Eliakim A, Barstow TJ, Brasel JA, Aije H, Lee W-NP, Rensio R, Berman N, Cooper DM. Effect of exercise training on energy expenditure, muscle volume and maximal oxygen uptake in female adolescents. J Pediatr 1996; 129: 537-543.
69. Brunner D, Manelis G, Modan M, Levin S. Physical activity at work and the incidence of myocardial infarction, angina pectoris and death due to ischaemic heart disease: an epidemiological study in Israeli collective settlements (kibbutzim). J Chron Dis 1974; 27: 217-233.
70. Blair SN, Kohl HW III, Paffenberger RS, Clark DG, Cooper KH, Gibbons LW. Physical fitness and all cause mortality: a prospective study of healthy men and women. JAMA 1989; 262: 2395-2401.
71. Lee I-M, Paffenberger RS, Hsieh C-C. Physical activity and risk of developing colorectal cancer among college alumni. J Natl Canc Inst 1991; 83: 1324-1329.
72. Paffenburger RS, Hyde RT, Wing AL, Steinmetz CH. A natural history of athleticism and cardiovascular health. JAMA 1984; 252: 491-495.
73. Seccareccia F, Menotti A. Physical activity, physical fitness and mortality in a sample of middle aged men followed up for 25 years. J Sports Med Phys Fit 1992; 32: 206-213.
74. Dennison BA, Straus JH, Mellits ED, Charney E. Childhood physical fitness test: predictor of adult physical activity levels? Pediatrics 1988; 82: 325-330.
75. Durant RH, Baranowski T, Davis H, Thompson WO, Puhl J, Greaves KA, Rhodes T. Reliability and variability of heart rate monitoring in 3-, 4- or, 5-yr old children. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24: 265-271.
76. Malina R. Tracking of physical activity and physical fitness across the lifespan. Res Q Exerc Sport 1996; 67: S48-S57.
77. Pate RR, Baranowski T, Dowda M, Trost SG. Tracking of physical activity in young children. Med Sci Sport Exer 1996; 28: 92-96.
78. Sallis JF, Berry CC, Broyles SL, Mckenzie TL, Nader PR. Variability and tracking of physical activity over 2 yr in young children. Med Sci Sport Exer 1995; 27: 1042-1049.
79. Twisk JW, Kemper HC, van Mechelen W, Post GB. Tracking of risk factors for coronary heart disease over a 14-year period: a comparison between lifestyle and biological risk factors with data from the Amsterdam Growth and Health Study. Am J Epidemiol 1997; 145: 888-898.
80. Moore LL, Lombardi DA, White MJ, Campbell JL, Oliviera SA, Ellison RC. Influence of parents' physical activity levels on activity levels of young children. J Pediatr 1991; 118: 215-219.
81. Sallis JF, Patterson TL, McKenzie Nader PR. Family variables and physical activity in preschool children. J Dev Behav Pediatr 1988; 9: 57-61.
82. Aarnio M, Winter T, Kujala UM, Kaprio J. Familial aggregation of leisure-time physical activity -a three generation study. Int J Sports Med 1997; 18: 549-556.
83. Gordon-Larsen P, McMurray RG, Popkin BM. Determinants of adolescent physical activity and inactivity patterns. Pediatrics 2000; 105: e83.
84. Trost SG, Pate RR, Saunders R, Ward DS, Dowda M, Felton G. A prospective study of the determinants of physical activity in rural fifth-grade children. Prev Med 1997; 26: 257-263.
85. Willerman L. Activity level and hyperactivity in twins. Child Dev 1973; 4: 288-293.
86. Elder JP, Broyles SL, McKenzie TL, Sallis JF, Berry CC, Davis TB, Hoy PL, Nader PR. Direct observations of the prompting of physical activity in sedentary and active Mexican- and Anglo-American children. J Dev Behav Pediatr 1998; 19: 26-30.
87. Fogelholm M, Nuutinen O, Pasanen M, Myohanen E, Saatela T. Parent-child relationship of physical activity patterns and obesity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1999; 23: 1262-1268.
88. Sallis JF, Zakarian JM, Hovell MF, Hofsetter CR. Ethnic, socioeconomic and sex differences in physical activity among adolescents. J Clin Epidemiol 1996; 49: 124-134.
89. Keil JE, Sutherland SE, Knapp RG, Tyroler HA. Does equal socioeconomic status in black and white men equal risk of mortality? Am J Public Health 1992; 82: 1133-1136.
90. Shea S, Stein AD, Basch CE, Lantigua R, Maylahn C, Strogatz DS, Novick L. Independent associations of educational attainment and ethnicity with behavioural risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Am J Epidemiol 1991; 134: 567-582.
91. Epstein LH, Paluch RA, Coleman KJ, Vito D, Anderson K. Determinants of physical activity in obese children assessed by accelerometer and self report. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996; 28: 1157-1164.
92. Gottlieb NH, Chen M. Sociocultural correlates of childhood sporting activities: their implications for heart health. Soc Sci Med 1985; 21: 533-539.
93. Guillaume M, Lapidus L, Bjorntorp P, Lambert A. Physical activity, obesity and cardiovascular risk factors in children. The Belgian Luxembourg Child Study II. Obes Res 1997; 5: 549-556.
94. Sunnegardh J, Bratteby LE, Hagman U, Samuelson G, Sjolin S. Physical activity in relation to energy intake and body fat in 8-and 13-year old children in Sweden. Acta Paediatr Scand 1986; 75: 955-963.
95. Marti B, Vartianen E. Relations between leisure time exercise and cardiovascular risk factors among 15 year olds in eastern Finland. J Epidemiol Community Health 1989; 43: 228-233.
96. Mayer J. Obesity during childhood. Curr Concepts Nutr 1975; 3: 73-80.
97. Fontvielle AM, Kriska A, Ravussin E. Decreased physical activity in Pima children compared with Caucasian children. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1993; 17: 445-452.
98. Maffeis C, Zaffanello M, Schutz Y. Relationship between physical inactivity and adiposity in pre-pubertal boys. J Pediatr 1997; 131: 288-292.
99. Huttunen N-P, Knip M, Paavilainen T. Physical activity and fitness in obese children. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1986; 10: 519-525.
100. Riddiford-Harland DL, Steele JR, Storlien LH. Does obesity influence foot structure in prepubescent children? Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000; 24: 541-544.
101. Maffeis C, Schutz Y, Schena F, Zaffaniello M, Pinelli L. Energy expenditure during walking and running in obese and non-obese pre-pubertal children. J Pediatr 1993; 123: 193-199.
102. Ponjee GA, Janssen EM, Hermans J, van Wersch JW. Regular physical activity and changes in risk factors for coronary heart disease: a nine months prospective study. Eur J Clin Chem Clin Biochem 1996; 34: 477-483.
103. Lehmann R, Vokac A, Niedermann K, Agosti K, Spinas GA. Loss of abdominal fat and improvement of the cardiovascular risk profile by regular moderate exercise training in patients with NIDDM. Diabetologia 1995; 28: 1313-1319.
104. Ivy JL. Role of exercise training in the prevention and treatment of insulin resistance and non-insulin dependent diabetes. Sports Med 1997; 24: 321-336.
105. Lind L, Lithell H. decreased peripheral blood flow in the pathogenesis of the metabolic syndrome comprising hypertension, hyperlipidemia and hyperinsulinemia. Am Heart J 1993; 125: 1494-1497.
106. Raitakari OT, Taimela S, Porkka KV, Telama R, Valimaki I, Akerblom HK, Viikari JS. Associations between physical activity and risk factors for coronary heart disease: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. Med Sci Sports Exer 1997; 29: 1055-1061.
107. Schmidt GJ, Stensel DJ, Walkuski JJ. Blood pressure, lipids, lipoproteins, body fat and physical activity in Singapore children. J Paed Child Health 1997; 33: 484-490.
108. Simons-Morton BG, Parcel GS, O'Hara NM, Blair SN, Pate RR. Health related physical fitness in childhood: status and recommendations. Annu Rev Public Health 1988; 9: 403-425.
109. Despres JP, Bouchard C, Malina RM. Physical activity and coronary heart disease risk factors during childhood and adolescence. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1990; 18: 243-261.
110. Montoye HJ. Physical activity physical fitness and heart disease risk factors in children. In: Stull GA, Eckert HM (eds). The Effect of Physical Activity in Children. Human Kinetic Books: Champaign, IL, 1986 pp 127-152.
111. Arbeit ML, Johnson CC, Mott DS, Harsha DW, Nicklas TA, Webber LS, Berenson GS. The Heart Smart cardio-vascular school health promotion: behaviour correlates of risk factor change. Prev Med 1992; 21: 18-32.
112. Raftopoulos C, Bermingham MB. Steinbeck Coronary heart disease risk factors in male adolescents, with particular reference to smoking and blood lipids. J Adolesc Health 1999; 25: 68-74.
113. Bergstrom E, Hernell O, Persson LA. Cardiovascular risk inducators cluster in girls from families of low socio-economic status. Acta Paediatr 1996; 85: 1083-1090.
114. Raitakari OT, Taimela S, Porkka KV, Leino M, Telama R, Dahl M, Viikari JS. Patterns of intense physical activity among 15-to 30-year old Finns: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. Scand J Med SCI Sport 1996; 6: 36-39.
115. Andersen RE, Wadden TA, Bartlett SJ, Zemel B, Verde TJ, Franckowiak SC. Effects of lifestyle activity vs structured aerobic exercise in obese women: a randomized trial. JAMA 1999; 281: 375-376.
116. Twisk JWR, Kemper HCG, van Mechelen W, Post GB. Which lifestyle parameters discriminate high- from low-risk participants for coronary heart disease risk factors. Longitudinal analysis covering adolescence and young adulthood. J Cardiovasc Risk 1997; 4: 393-400.
117. Goran MI, Shewchuk R, Gower BA, Nagy TR, Carpenter WH, Johnson RK. Longitudinal changes in fatness in white children: no effect of childhood energy expenditure. Am J Clin Nutr 1998; 67: 309-316.
118. Luepker RV, Perry CL, McKinlay SM, Nader PR, Parcel GS, Stone EJ, Webber LS, Elder JP, Feldman HA, Johnson CC, Kelder SH, Wu M. Outcomes of a field trial to improve children's dietary patterns and physical activity. JAMA 1996; 275: 768-776.
119. Dwyer JT, Stone EJ, Yang M, Feldman H, Webber LS, Must A, Perry CL, Nader PR, Parcel GS. Predictors of overweight and over fatness in a multiethnic pediatric population. Am J Clin Nutr 1998; 67: 602-610.
120. Berkey CS, Rockett HRH, Field AE, Gillman MW, Frazier AL, Camargo CA, Colditz GA. Activity, dietary intake and weight changes in a one year longitudinal study of preadolescent and adolescent boys and girls. Pediatrics 2000; 104: e56.
121. Mamalakis G, Kafatos A, Manios Y, Anagnostopoulou T, Apostolaki I. Obesity indices in a cohort of primary school children in Crete: a six year prospective study. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000; 24: 765-771.
122. Dietz WH, Gortmaker SL. Do we fatten our children at the television set? Obesity and television viewing in children and adolescents. Pediatrics 1985; 75: 807-811.
123. Gortmaker SL, Must A, Sobol AM, Peterson K, Colditz GA, Dietz WH. Television viewing as a cause of increasing obesity among children in the United States. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1996; 150: 356-362.
124. Robinson TN, Hammer LD, Killen JD, Kraemer HC, Wilson DM, Hayward C, Taylor CB. Does television viewing increase obesity and reduce physical activity? Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses among adolescents girls. Pediatrics 1993; 91: 273-280.
125. Andersen RE, Crespo CJ, Bartlett SJ, Cheskin LJ, Pratt M. Relationship of physical activity and television watching with body weight and level of fatness among children. JAMA 1998; 279: 938-942.
126. Taras HL, Sallis JF, Patterson TL, Nader PR, Nelson JA. Television's influence on children's diet and physical activity. J Dev Behav Pediatr 1989; 10: 176-180.
127. Dietz WH, Bandini LG, Morelli JA, Peers KF, Ching PL. Effect of sedentary activities on resting metabolic rate. Am J Clin Nutr 1994; 59: 556-559.
128. Klesges RC, Shelton ML, Klesges LM. Effects of television on metabolic rate: potential implications for childhood obesity. Pediatrics 1993; 91: 281-286.
129. Roberts SB, Savage J, Coward WA, Chew B, Lucas A. Energy expenditure and intake in infants born to lean and overweight mothers. N Engl J Med 1988; 318: 461-466.
130. Griffiths M, Payne PR, Stunkard AJ, Rivers JPWW, Cox M. Metabolic rate and physical development in children at risk of obesity. Lancet 1990; 336: 76-78.
131. Levine JA, Eberhardt NL, Jensen MD. Role of non-exercise activity thermogenesis in resistance to weight gain in humans. Science 1999; 283: 212-214.
132. Ross R, Dagnone D, Jones PJ, Smith H, Paddags A, Hudsen R, Jabssen I. Reduction in obesity and related comorbid conditions after diet induced weight loss or exercise induced weight loss in men. A randomised controlled trial. Ann Int Med 2000; 133: 92-103.
133. Glenny AM, O'Meara S, Sheldon TA, Wilson C. The treatment and prevention of obesity: a systemic review of the literature. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1997; 21: 715-737.
134. Epstein LH. Family based behavioural intervention for obese children. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1996; 29: S14-S21.
135. Epstein LH, Valoski AM, Kalarchian MA, McCurley J. Do children lose and maintain weight easier than adults: a comparison of child and parent weight changes from six months to ten years. Obes Res 1995; 3: 411-417.
136. Epstein LH, Paluch RA, Gordy CC, Dern J. Decreasing sedentary behaviors in treating pediatric obesity. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2000; 154: 220-226.
137. Golan M, Fainaru M, Weizman A. Role of behaviour modification in the treatment of childhood obesity with the parents as the exclusive agents of change. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1998; 22: 1217-1224.
138. Golan M, Weizman A, Apter A, Fainaru M. Parents as the exclusive agents of change in the treatment of childhood obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 1998; 67: 1130-1135.
139. Campbell K, Waters E, Summerbell C, O'meara S. Prevention of Obesity in Childhood (protocol), issue 4. Cochrane Library, Oxford, 1999. [Update Software. Updated quarterly]
140. Mo-suwan L, Pongprapai S, Junjana C, Puetpaiboon A. Effects of a controlled trial of a school based exercise program on the obesity indexes of pre-school children. Am J Clin Nutr 1998; 68: 1006-1011.
141. Flores R. Dance for health: improving fitness in African American and Hispanic adolescents. Public Health Rep 1995; 110: 189-193.
142. Robinson TN. Reducing children's television viewing to prevent obesity. A randomised controlled trial. JAMA 1999; 282: 1561-1567.
143. Gortmaker SL, Petersen K, Wiecha J, Sobol AM, Dixit S, Fox MK, Laird N. Reducing obesity via a school-based interdisciplinary intervention among youth. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1999; 153: 409-418.
144. Vandongen R, Jenner DA, Thompson C, Taggart AC, Spickett EE, Burke V, Beilin LJ, Milligan RA, Dunbar DL. A controlled evaluation of a fitness and nutrition intervention on cardiovascular health in 10-12 year old children. Prev Med 1995; 24: 9-22.
145. Owen N, Bauman A. The descriptive epidemiology of a sedentary lifestyle in adult Australians. Int J Epidemiol 1992; 21: 1193-1195.
146. Rissanen AM, Hekiovaara M, Knekt P, Reunanen A, Ammaa A. Determinants of weight gain and overweight in adult Finns. Eur J Clin Nutr 1991; 45: 419-439.
147. Prentice AM, Jebb SA. Obesity in Britain: gluttony or sloth? BMJ 1995; 311: 437-439.