Canadian fertility transitions: Quebec and Ontario at the turn of the twentieth century

Journal of Family History

Volumn 26, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 162-188

  Gauvreau, Danielle ^a   Gossage, Peter ^b  

^a Gina Cody School of Engineering and Computer Science   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITÉ DE SHERBROOKE   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035315247     PISSN: 03631990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/036319900102600202     Document Type: Article

References (111)

1. Interested readers might consult any number of general texts on Canadian, Quebec, and Ontario history for fuller details on the country's social and economic development in this period. Among the most useful are Paul-André Linteau, Jean-Claude Robert, and René Durocher, Histoire du Québec contemporain, 2 vols. (Montreal: Boréal compact, 1989); Jacques Paul Couturier, Wendy Johnston, and Réjean Ouellette, Un passé composé. Le Canada de 1850 à nos jours, 2d ed. (Moncton: Éditions d'Acadie, 2000); Margaret Conrad, Alvin Finkel, and Cornelius Jaenen, History of the Canadian Peoples, 2d ed., 2 vols. (Toronto: Copp Clark, 1998); and Brian Young and John Dickinson, A Short History of Quebec: A Socio-Economic Perspective (Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman, 1988).
2. Interested readers might consult any number of general texts on Canadian, Quebec, and Ontario history for fuller details on the country's social and economic development in this period. Among the most useful are Paul-André Linteau, Jean-Claude Robert, and René Durocher, Histoire du Québec contemporain, 2 vols. (Montreal: Boréal compact, 1989); Jacques Paul Couturier, Wendy Johnston, and Réjean Ouellette, Un passé composé. Le Canada de 1850 à nos jours, 2d ed. (Moncton: Éditions d'Acadie, 2000); Margaret Conrad, Alvin Finkel, and Cornelius Jaenen, History of the Canadian Peoples, 2d ed., 2 vols. (Toronto: Copp Clark, 1998); and Brian Young and John Dickinson, A Short History of Quebec: A Socio-Economic Perspective (Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman, 1988).
3. Interested readers might consult any number of general texts on Canadian, Quebec, and Ontario history for fuller details on the country's social and economic development in this period. Among the most useful are Paul-André Linteau, Jean-Claude Robert, and René Durocher, Histoire du Québec contemporain, 2 vols. (Montreal: Boréal compact, 1989); Jacques Paul Couturier, Wendy Johnston, and Réjean Ouellette, Un passé composé. Le Canada de 1850 à nos jours, 2d ed. (Moncton: Éditions d'Acadie, 2000); Margaret Conrad, Alvin Finkel, and Cornelius Jaenen, History of the Canadian Peoples, 2d ed., 2 vols. (Toronto: Copp Clark, 1998); and Brian Young and John Dickinson, A Short History of Quebec: A Socio-Economic Perspective (Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman, 1988).
4. Interested readers might consult any number of general texts on Canadian, Quebec, and Ontario history for fuller details on the country's social and economic development in this period. Among the most useful are Paul-André Linteau, Jean-Claude Robert, and René Durocher, Histoire du Québec contemporain, 2 vols. (Montreal: Boréal compact, 1989); Jacques Paul Couturier, Wendy Johnston, and Réjean Ouellette, Un passé composé. Le Canada de 1850 à nos jours, 2d ed. (Moncton: Éditions d'Acadie, 2000); Margaret Conrad, Alvin Finkel, and Cornelius Jaenen, History of the Canadian Peoples, 2d ed., 2 vols. (Toronto: Copp Clark, 1998); and Brian Young and John Dickinson, A Short History of Quebec: A Socio-Economic Perspective (Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman, 1988).
5. This was when Upper Canada (later Ontario) was founded as a specifically Protestant and English-speaking refuge for United Empire Loyalists and others who felt at home neither in the former British colonies to the south nor in the former French colony - conquered by the British in 1759 and rebaptized Lower Canada in 1791 - to the east.
6. As a description of the distance separating Canada's two major linguistic groups, French and English, the "two solitudes" metaphor, borrowed from a Rainer Maria Rilke poem about lovers, was first coined by Montreal novelist Hugh MacLennan. See Hugh MacLennan, Two Solitudes (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1945). It has since come into general usage, particularly in political circles. See, for example, Charles Taylor, Reconciling the Solitudes: Essays on Canadian Federalism and Nationalism, ed. Guy Laforest. (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1993).
7. As a description of the distance separating Canada's two major linguistic groups, French and English, the "two solitudes" metaphor, borrowed from a Rainer Maria Rilke poem about lovers, was first coined by Montreal novelist Hugh MacLennan. See Hugh MacLennan, Two Solitudes (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1945). It has since come into general usage, particularly in political circles. See, for example, Charles Taylor, Reconciling the Solitudes: Essays on Canadian Federalism and Nationalism, ed. Guy Laforest. (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1993).
8. Horace Miner, St. Denis: A French-Canadian Parish (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1939), 63-64. Although he made no explicit comparisons, Miner clearly situated rural Quebec somewhere between "the primitive peoples with whom the ethnologist is characteristically acquainted" and "that modern urbanized world which lies in the foreground of attention of most American sociologists." Ibid., xiii.
9. Horace Miner, St. Denis: A French-Canadian Parish (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1939), 63-64. Although he made no explicit comparisons, Miner clearly situated rural Quebec somewhere between "the primitive peoples with whom the ethnologist is characteristically acquainted" and "that modern urbanized world which lies in the foreground of attention of most American sociologists." Ibid., xiii.
10. Everett C. Hughes, French Canada in Transition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press and Toronto: W. J. Gage, 1944): iv. The author continued thus: "The English, for their part, sporadically and dramatically plant industries and new commercial enterprises in the very heart of the French-Canadian world. They thus relieve, without intending to do so, the pressure of population. Since they also upset the existing social and economic equilibrium of the French Canadians, they get little thanks."
11. "Par contraste peut-être avec le déclin de la natalité amorcé aux États-Unis et dans quelques provinces canadiennes." Denise Lemieux, Une culture de la nostalgie: l'enfant dans le roman québécois de ses origines à nos jours (Montreal: Boréal Express, 1984), 63.
12. Gabrielle Roy, The Tin Flute. Translation of Bonheur d'occasion (1945) by Hannah Josephson (New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1947), 71. The French original was as follows: "Vous trouvez pas qu'on est assez? . . . Qu'est-ce que tu veux. Florentine, on fait pas comme on veut dans la vie, on fait comme on peut." Quoted in Lemieux, Une culture de la nostalgie, 75.
13. Gabrielle Roy, The Tin Flute. Translation of Bonheur d'occasion (1945) by Hannah Josephson (New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1947), 71. The French original was as follows: "Vous trouvez pas qu'on est assez? . . . Qu'est-ce que tu veux. Florentine, on fait pas comme on veut dans la vie, on fait comme on peut." Quoted in Lemieux, Une culture de la nostalgie, 75.
14. See Jacques Henripin, Tendances et facteurs de la fécondité au Canada (monographie sur le recensement de 1961) (Ottawa: Bureau fédéral de la statistique, 1968); Jacques Henripin and Yves Péron, "La transition démographique de la Province de Québec," in La population du Québec: études rétrospectives, ed. Hubert Charbonneau (Montreal: Boréal Express, 1973), 23-44. First published as "The Demographic Transition of the Province of Quebec," in Population and Social Change, ed. D. V. Glass and Roger Revelle (London: Edward Arnold, 1972), 213-31.
15. See Jacques Henripin, Tendances et facteurs de la fécondité au Canada (monographie sur le recensement de 1961) (Ottawa: Bureau fédéral de la statistique, 1968); Jacques Henripin and Yves Péron, "La transition démographique de la Province de Québec," in La population du Québec: études rétrospectives, ed. Hubert Charbonneau (Montreal: Boréal Express, 1973), 23-44. First published as "The Demographic Transition of the Province of Quebec," in Population and Social Change, ed. D. V. Glass and Roger Revelle (London: Edward Arnold, 1972), 213-31.
16. See Jacques Henripin, Tendances et facteurs de la fécondité au Canada (monographie sur le recensement de 1961) (Ottawa: Bureau fédéral de la statistique, 1968); Jacques Henripin and Yves Péron, "La transition démographique de la Province de Québec," in La population du Québec: études rétrospectives, ed. Hubert Charbonneau (Montreal: Boréal Express, 1973), 23-44. First published as "The Demographic Transition of the Province of Quebec," in Population and Social Change, ed. D. V. Glass and Roger Revelle (London: Edward Arnold, 1972), 213-31.
17. However, the recognition of that distinctiveness has certainly been a sticking point in recent constitutional debates. For an interesting discussion of the current political impasse, see Taylor, Reconciling the Solitudes.
18. Gérard Bouchard and Richard Lalou, "La surfécondité des couples québécois depuis le XVIIe siècle, essai de mesure d'interprétation." Recherches sociographiques 34, no. 1 (1993): 24. Our translation of the following passage: "On décèle toutefois une période critique au cours de laquelle se creuse l'écart en faveur du Québec; elle se situe précisément entre 1871 et 1891. C'est au cours de cette période que la fécondité québécoise paraît rater son virage contraceptif, les variations ultérieures étant presque parfaitement alignées sur celle [sic] du Canada. En fait, on peut dire que la spécificité de la fécondité québécoise au XXe siècle (plus précisément jusqu'en 1955-1960) est un héritage de ces deux décennies." Their study also places Quebec's high-fertility regime in international perspective, acknowledges the reality of earlier fertility decline in certain sectors of the population, and debunks myths like the "revenge of the cradles" - the idea that Quebec's high fertility in the early twentieth century was an orchestrated effort, rooted in French-Canadian nationalism, to maintain the balance between French and English speakers within Canada.
19. See Ronald Rudin, "Revisionism and the Search for a Normal Society: A Critique of Recent Quebec Historical Writing," Canadian Historical Review 73, no. 1 (1992): 30-61, and Making History in Twentieth-Century Quebec (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997).
20. See Ronald Rudin, "Revisionism and the Search for a Normal Society: A Critique of Recent Quebec Historical Writing," Canadian Historical Review 73, no. 1 (1992): 30-61, and Making History in Twentieth-Century Quebec (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997).
21. See Marie Lavigne, "Réflexions féministes autour de la fertilité des Québécoises," in Maîtresses de maison, maîtresses d'école, ed. Nadia Fahmy-Eid and Micheline Dumont (Montreal: Boréal Express, 1983), 319-38; Danielle Gauvreau and Peter Gossage, " 'Empêcher la famille'. Fécondité et contraception au Québec, 1920-1960," Canadian Historical Review 78, no. 3 (1997): 478-510; Peter Gossage, Families in Transition: Industry and Population in Nineteenth-Century Saint-Hyacinthe (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1999).
22. See Marie Lavigne, "Réflexions féministes autour de la fertilité des Québécoises," in Maîtresses de maison, maîtresses d'école, ed. Nadia Fahmy-Eid and Micheline Dumont (Montreal: Boréal Express, 1983), 319-38; Danielle Gauvreau and Peter Gossage, " 'Empêcher la famille'. Fécondité et contraception au Québec, 1920-1960," Canadian Historical Review 78, no. 3 (1997): 478-510; Peter Gossage, Families in Transition: Industry and Population in Nineteenth-Century Saint-Hyacinthe (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1999).
23. See Marie Lavigne, "Réflexions féministes autour de la fertilité des Québécoises," in Maîtresses de maison, maîtresses d'école, ed. Nadia Fahmy-Eid and Micheline Dumont (Montreal: Boréal Express, 1983), 319-38; Danielle Gauvreau and Peter Gossage, " 'Empêcher la famille'. Fécondité et contraception au Québec, 1920-1960," Canadian Historical Review 78, no. 3 (1997): 478-510; Peter Gossage, Families in Transition: Industry and Population in Nineteenth-Century Saint-Hyacinthe (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1999).
24. f) for Ontario and Quebec between 1861 and 1931. See Marvin R. McInnis, "The Fall in Fertility in Nineteenth-Century Canada" (paper presented at the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population Conference, Mexico, 1992), and "Infant Mortality in Late Nineteenth-Century Canada," in Infant and Child Mortality in the Past, ed. Alain Bideau, Bertrand Desjardins, and Héctor Pérez Brignolli (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1997), 262-75.
25. f) for Ontario and Quebec between 1861 and 1931. See Marvin R. McInnis, "The Fall in Fertility in Nineteenth-Century Canada" (paper presented at the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population Conference, Mexico, 1992), and "Infant Mortality in Late Nineteenth-Century Canada," in Infant and Child Mortality in the Past, ed. Alain Bideau, Bertrand Desjardins, and Héctor Pérez Brignolli (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1997), 262-75.
26. f) for Ontario and Quebec between 1861 and 1931. See Marvin R. McInnis, "The Fall in Fertility in Nineteenth-Century Canada" (paper presented at the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population Conference, Mexico, 1992), and "Infant Mortality in Late Nineteenth-Century Canada," in Infant and Child Mortality in the Past, ed. Alain Bideau, Bertrand Desjardins, and Héctor Pérez Brignolli (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1997), 262-75.
27. f) for Ontario and Quebec between 1861 and 1931. See Marvin R. McInnis, "The Fall in Fertility in Nineteenth-Century Canada" (paper presented at the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population Conference, Mexico, 1992), and "Infant Mortality in Late Nineteenth-Century Canada," in Infant and Child Mortality in the Past, ed. Alain Bideau, Bertrand Desjardins, and Héctor Pérez Brignolli (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1997), 262-75.
28. On the design of the Canadian Families Project database, see Eric W. Sager, Douglas K. Thompson, and Marc Trottier, The National Sample of the 1901 Census of Canada: User Guide, Version 1.0 (Victoria: University of Victoria, the Canadian Families Project, 1997). See also Eric W. Sager, "The Canadian Families Project," History of the Family: An International Quarterly 3, no. 1 (1998): 117-23.
29. On the design of the Canadian Families Project database, see Eric W. Sager, Douglas K. Thompson, and Marc Trottier, The National Sample of the 1901 Census of Canada: User Guide, Version 1.0 (Victoria: University of Victoria, the Canadian Families Project, 1997). See also Eric W. Sager, "The Canadian Families Project," History of the Family: An International Quarterly 3, no. 1 (1998): 117-23.
30. Micro-level data are invaluable for comparative fertility analysis because they allow us to detect the influence of a range of personal and household characteristics (ethnicity, religion, employment, class position, literacy, urban vs. rural residence, etc.) on the reproductive behavior of individual couples. This is not true of studies based on aggregate-level analysis, which rely on correlations between different structural characteristics of populations. There are other micro-level studies of fertility in Quebec; see Gérard Bouchard and Raymond Roy, "Fécondité et alphabétisation au Saguenay et au Québec (19e-20e siècle)," Annales de démographie historique (1991): 173-201; Gérard Bouchard, Quelques arpents d'Amérique. Population, économie, famille au Saguenay, 1838-1971 (Montreal: Boréal, 1996); Gossage, Families in Transition; and Patricia Thornton and Sherry Olson, "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants 1860-1900" (forthcoming). For Ontario, see Eric G. Moore, "Fertility Decline in Three Ontario Cities, 1861-1881," Canadian Studies in Population 17, no. 1 (1990): 25-47. But there are none that combine the interprovincial comparison with data collected and analyzed at the level of the individual household or family.
31. Micro-level data are invaluable for comparative fertility analysis because they allow us to detect the influence of a range of personal and household characteristics (ethnicity, religion, employment, class position, literacy, urban vs. rural residence, etc.) on the reproductive behavior of individual couples. This is not true of studies based on aggregate-level analysis, which rely on correlations between different structural characteristics of populations. There are other micro-level studies of fertility in Quebec; see Gérard Bouchard and Raymond Roy, "Fécondité et alphabétisation au Saguenay et au Québec (19e-20e siècle)," Annales de démographie historique (1991): 173-201; Gérard Bouchard, Quelques arpents d'Amérique. Population, économie, famille au Saguenay, 1838-1971 (Montreal: Boréal, 1996); Gossage, Families in Transition; and Patricia Thornton and Sherry Olson, "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants 1860-1900" (forthcoming). For Ontario, see Eric G. Moore, "Fertility Decline in Three Ontario Cities, 1861-1881," Canadian Studies in Population 17, no. 1 (1990): 25-47. But there are none that combine the interprovincial comparison with data collected and analyzed at the level of the individual household or family.
32. Micro-level data are invaluable for comparative fertility analysis because they allow us to detect the influence of a range of personal and household characteristics (ethnicity, religion, employment, class position, literacy, urban vs. rural residence, etc.) on the reproductive behavior of individual couples. This is not true of studies based on aggregate-level analysis, which rely on correlations between different structural characteristics of populations. There are other micro-level studies of fertility in Quebec; see Gérard Bouchard and Raymond Roy, "Fécondité et alphabétisation au Saguenay et au Québec (19e-20e siècle)," Annales de démographie historique (1991): 173-201; Gérard Bouchard, Quelques arpents d'Amérique. Population, économie, famille au Saguenay, 1838-1971 (Montreal: Boréal, 1996); Gossage, Families in Transition; and Patricia Thornton and Sherry Olson, "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants 1860-1900" (forthcoming). For Ontario, see Eric G. Moore, "Fertility Decline in Three Ontario Cities, 1861-1881," Canadian Studies in Population 17, no. 1 (1990): 25-47. But there are none that combine the interprovincial comparison with data collected and analyzed at the level of the individual household or family.
33. Micro-level data are invaluable for comparative fertility analysis because they allow us to detect the influence of a range of personal and household characteristics (ethnicity, religion, employment, class position, literacy, urban vs. rural residence, etc.) on the reproductive behavior of individual couples. This is not true of studies based on aggregate-level analysis, which rely on correlations between different structural characteristics of populations. There are other micro-level studies of fertility in Quebec; see Gérard Bouchard and Raymond Roy, "Fécondité et alphabétisation au Saguenay et au Québec (19e-20e siècle)," Annales de démographie historique (1991): 173-201; Gérard Bouchard, Quelques arpents d'Amérique. Population, économie, famille au Saguenay, 1838-1971 (Montreal: Boréal, 1996); Gossage, Families in Transition; and Patricia Thornton and Sherry Olson, "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants 1860-1900" (forthcoming). For Ontario, see Eric G. Moore, "Fertility Decline in Three Ontario Cities, 1861-1881," Canadian Studies in Population 17, no. 1 (1990): 25-47. But there are none that combine the interprovincial comparison with data collected and analyzed at the level of the individual household or family.
34. Micro-level data are invaluable for comparative fertility analysis because they allow us to detect the influence of a range of personal and household characteristics (ethnicity, religion, employment, class position, literacy, urban vs. rural residence, etc.) on the reproductive behavior of individual couples. This is not true of studies based on aggregate-level analysis, which rely on correlations between different structural characteristics of populations. There are other micro-level studies of fertility in Quebec; see Gérard Bouchard and Raymond Roy, "Fécondité et alphabétisation au Saguenay et au Québec (19e-20e siècle)," Annales de démographie historique (1991): 173-201; Gérard Bouchard, Quelques arpents d'Amérique. Population, économie, famille au Saguenay, 1838-1971 (Montreal: Boréal, 1996); Gossage, Families in Transition; and Patricia Thornton and Sherry Olson, "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants 1860-1900" (forthcoming). For Ontario, see Eric G. Moore, "Fertility Decline in Three Ontario Cities, 1861-1881," Canadian Studies in Population 17, no. 1 (1990): 25-47. But there are none that combine the interprovincial comparison with data collected and analyzed at the level of the individual household or family.
35. See John R. Gillis, Louise A. Tilly, and David Levine, eds., The European Experience of Declining Fertility, 1850-1970: The Quiet Revolution (Cambridge and Oxford: Blackwell, 1992). The economic argument is, in essence, that people adapted their reproductive behavior to suit their material circumstances. Other scholars believe that childbearing was an essentially cultural phenomenon and relatively independent of material conditions. Shifts in reproductive behavior are therefore seen as the result of the diffusion of a lower-fertility model, and of contraceptive knowledge, from one group or area to another.
36. See John C. Caldwell, The Theory of Fertility Decline (New York: Academic Press, 1982); Nancy Folbre, "Of Patriarchy Born: The Political Economy of Fertility Decisions," Feminist Studies 9, no. 2 (1983): 261-83; Gillis et al., European Experience of Declining Fertility.
37. See John C. Caldwell, The Theory of Fertility Decline (New York: Academic Press, 1982); Nancy Folbre, "Of Patriarchy Born: The Political Economy of Fertility Decisions," Feminist Studies 9, no. 2 (1983): 261-83; Gillis et al., European Experience of Declining Fertility.
38. See John C. Caldwell, The Theory of Fertility Decline (New York: Academic Press, 1982); Nancy Folbre, "Of Patriarchy Born: The Political Economy of Fertility Decisions," Feminist Studies 9, no. 2 (1983): 261-83; Gillis et al., European Experience of Declining Fertility.
39. Kevin McQuillan, Culture, Religion, and Demographic Behaviour: Catholics and Lutherans in Alsace, 1750-1870 (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press and London: Liv" erpool University Press, 1999): 177-78.
40. We analyzed two sets of interviews that contained such accounts in Gauvreau and Gossage, " 'Empêcher la famille,' " 478-510, an article that also contains a fuller description of the project. Our analysis of natalist discourses and their development in the 1910s is found in Peter Gossage and Danielle Gauvreau, "Demography and Discourse in Transition: Quebec Fertility at the Turn of the Twentieth Century," History of the Family: An International Quarterly 4, no. 4 (1999): 375-95. Our ongoing interviews with Montreal doctors are currently funded by a grant from the Hannah Institute for the History of Medicine.
41. We analyzed two sets of interviews that contained such accounts in Gauvreau and Gossage, " 'Empêcher la famille,' " 478-510, an article that also contains a fuller description of the project. Our analysis of natalist discourses and their development in the 1910s is found in Peter Gossage and Danielle Gauvreau, "Demography and Discourse in Transition: Quebec Fertility at the Turn of the Twentieth Century," History of the Family: An International Quarterly 4, no. 4 (1999): 375-95. Our ongoing interviews with Montreal doctors are currently funded by a grant from the Hannah Institute for the History of Medicine.
42. Danielle Gauvreau, Peter Gossage, and Lucie Gingras, "Measuring Fertility with the 1901 Census: A Critical Assessment of Related Variables," Historical Methods (forthcoming).
43. The age categories chosen for both children and their mothers vary from one study to another. But the most common choices are the ones just described, which we have adopted to facilitate comparisons.
44. Although this may not be the case of many young women who may have married in the five years prior to the census. To avoid any such bias, our analyses do not include women below the age of twenty-five.
45. Gauvreau et al., "Measuring Fertility with the 1901 Census."
46. In preparing his fertility estimates for Quebec and Ontario, for example, McInnis assumed an infant mortality ratio of 190 per thousand in the former province and 115 per thousand in the latter. See McInnis, "Infant Mortality in Late Nineteenth-Century Canada," 262-75. For Quebec, the major contribution is that of Olson and Thornton, who have shown that rates of infant survival within the French Catholic, Irish Catholic, and British Protestant communities were very different indeed. See Patricia Thornton, Sherry Olson, and Quoch Thuy Thach, "Dimensions sociales de la mortalité infantile à Montréal au milieu du XIXe siècle," Annales de démographie historique (1988): 299-325; Patricia Thornton and Sherry Olson, "Infant Vulnerability in Three Cultural Settings in Montreal, 1880," in Bibeau et al., Infant and Child Mortality in the Past, 216-41; and Thornton and Olson, "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants."
47. In preparing his fertility estimates for Quebec and Ontario, for example, McInnis assumed an infant mortality ratio of 190 per thousand in the former province and 115 per thousand in the latter. See McInnis, "Infant Mortality in Late Nineteenth-Century Canada," 262-75. For Quebec, the major contribution is that of Olson and Thornton, who have shown that rates of infant survival within the French Catholic, Irish Catholic, and British Protestant communities were very different indeed. See Patricia Thornton, Sherry Olson, and Quoch Thuy Thach, "Dimensions sociales de la mortalité infantile à Montréal au milieu du XIXe siècle," Annales de démographie historique (1988): 299-325; Patricia Thornton and Sherry Olson, "Infant Vulnerability in Three Cultural Settings in Montreal, 1880," in Bibeau et al., Infant and Child Mortality in the Past, 216-41; and Thornton and Olson, "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants."
48. In preparing his fertility estimates for Quebec and Ontario, for example, McInnis assumed an infant mortality ratio of 190 per thousand in the former province and 115 per thousand in the latter. See McInnis, "Infant Mortality in Late Nineteenth-Century Canada," 262-75. For Quebec, the major contribution is that of Olson and Thornton, who have shown that rates of infant survival within the French Catholic, Irish Catholic, and British Protestant communities were very different indeed. See Patricia Thornton, Sherry Olson, and Quoch Thuy Thach, "Dimensions sociales de la mortalité infantile à Montréal au milieu du XIXe siècle," Annales de démographie historique (1988): 299-325; Patricia Thornton and Sherry Olson, "Infant Vulnerability in Three Cultural Settings in Montreal, 1880," in Bibeau et al., Infant and Child Mortality in the Past, 216-41; and Thornton and Olson, "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants."
49. In preparing his fertility estimates for Quebec and Ontario, for example, McInnis assumed an infant mortality ratio of 190 per thousand in the former province and 115 per thousand in the latter. See McInnis, "Infant Mortality in Late Nineteenth-Century Canada," 262-75. For Quebec, the major contribution is that of Olson and Thornton, who have shown that rates of infant survival within the French Catholic, Irish Catholic, and British Protestant communities were very different indeed. See Patricia Thornton, Sherry Olson, and Quoch Thuy Thach, "Dimensions sociales de la mortalité infantile à Montréal au milieu du XIXe siècle," Annales de démographie historique (1988): 299-325; Patricia Thornton and Sherry Olson, "Infant Vulnerability in Three Cultural Settings in Montreal, 1880," in Bibeau et al., Infant and Child Mortality in the Past, 216-41; and Thornton and Olson, "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants."
50. There are 137 Ontario women in the two samples for each 100 Quebec women. The equivalent figure for the general population of the two provinces is 132 percent (2,182,947 to 1,648,898). For married women of all ages, the ratio is higher, at 140 percent (383,667 to 273,387). In 1901, then, not only was Ontario's population about a third larger than Quebec's, but the proportion of married women within the general population was slightly greater: 17.6 percent as opposed to 16.6 percent.
51. See Danielle Gauvreau, "Nuptialité et industrialisation: éléments de comparaison entre l'Ancien et le Nouveau Monde," in Transmettre, hériter, succéder. La reproduction familiale en milieu rural, France-Québec, XVIIIe-XXe siècles, ed. Rolande Bonnain, Gérard Bouchard, and Joseph Goy (Lyon: École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales/Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 1992): 27-41; Gossage, Families in Transition; and Thornton and Olson, "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants 1860-1900." The general literature includes David Gagan, Hopeful Travellers: Families, Land, and Social Change in Mid-Victorian Peel County, Canada West (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981); Ellen M. (Thomas) Gee, "Marriage in Nineteenth-Century Canada," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 19, no. 3 (1982): 311-25; Christian Pouyez and Yolande Lavoie, eds., Les Saguenayens. Introduction à l'histoire des populations du Saguenay XVIe-XXe siècles (Sillery: Presses de l'Université du Québec, 1983); Peter Ward, Courtship, Love, and Marriage in Nineteenth-Century English Canada (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1990). But see also the contribution of anthropologist Stacie Burke to this special issue of the Journal of Family History.
52. See Danielle Gauvreau, "Nuptialité et industrialisation: éléments de comparaison entre l'Ancien et le Nouveau Monde," in Transmettre, hériter, succéder. La reproduction familiale en milieu rural, France-Québec, XVIIIe-XXe siècles, ed. Rolande Bonnain, Gérard Bouchard, and Joseph Goy (Lyon: École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales/Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 1992): 27-41; Gossage, Families in Transition; and Thornton and Olson, "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants 1860-1900." The general literature includes David Gagan, Hopeful Travellers: Families, Land, and Social Change in Mid-Victorian Peel County, Canada West (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981); Ellen M. (Thomas) Gee, "Marriage in Nineteenth-Century Canada," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 19, no. 3 (1982): 311-25; Christian Pouyez and Yolande Lavoie, eds., Les Saguenayens. Introduction à l'histoire des populations du Saguenay XVIe-XXe siècles (Sillery: Presses de l'Université du Québec, 1983); Peter Ward, Courtship, Love, and Marriage in Nineteenth-Century English Canada (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1990). But see also the contribution of anthropologist Stacie Burke to this special issue of the Journal of Family History.
53. See Danielle Gauvreau, "Nuptialité et industrialisation: éléments de comparaison entre l'Ancien et le Nouveau Monde," in Transmettre, hériter, succéder. La reproduction familiale en milieu rural, France-Québec, XVIIIe-XXe siècles, ed. Rolande Bonnain, Gérard Bouchard, and Joseph Goy (Lyon: École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales/Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 1992): 27-41; Gossage, Families in Transition; and Thornton and Olson, "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants 1860-1900." The general literature includes David Gagan, Hopeful Travellers: Families, Land, and Social Change in Mid-Victorian Peel County, Canada West (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981); Ellen M. (Thomas) Gee, "Marriage in Nineteenth-Century Canada," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 19, no. 3 (1982): 311-25; Christian Pouyez and Yolande Lavoie, eds., Les Saguenayens. Introduction à l'histoire des populations du Saguenay XVIe-XXe siècles (Sillery: Presses de l'Université du Québec, 1983); Peter Ward, Courtship, Love, and Marriage in Nineteenth-Century English Canada (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1990). But see also the contribution of anthropologist Stacie Burke to this special issue of the Journal of Family History.
54. See Danielle Gauvreau, "Nuptialité et industrialisation: éléments de comparaison entre l'Ancien et le Nouveau Monde," in Transmettre, hériter, succéder. La reproduction familiale en milieu rural, France-Québec, XVIIIe-XXe siècles, ed. Rolande Bonnain, Gérard Bouchard, and Joseph Goy (Lyon: École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales/Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 1992): 27-41; Gossage, Families in Transition; and Thornton and Olson, "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants 1860-1900." The general literature includes David Gagan, Hopeful Travellers: Families, Land, and Social Change in Mid-Victorian Peel County, Canada West (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981); Ellen M. (Thomas) Gee, "Marriage in Nineteenth-Century Canada," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 19, no. 3 (1982): 311-25; Christian Pouyez and Yolande Lavoie, eds., Les Saguenayens. Introduction à l'histoire des populations du Saguenay XVIe-XXe siècles (Sillery: Presses de l'Université du Québec, 1983); Peter Ward, Courtship, Love, and Marriage in Nineteenth-Century English Canada (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1990). But see also the contribution of anthropologist Stacie Burke to this special issue of the Journal of Family History.
55. See Danielle Gauvreau, "Nuptialité et industrialisation: éléments de comparaison entre l'Ancien et le Nouveau Monde," in Transmettre, hériter, succéder. La reproduction familiale en milieu rural, France-Québec, XVIIIe-XXe siècles, ed. Rolande Bonnain, Gérard Bouchard, and Joseph Goy (Lyon: École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales/Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 1992): 27-41; Gossage, Families in Transition; and Thornton and Olson, "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants 1860-1900." The general literature includes David Gagan, Hopeful Travellers: Families, Land, and Social Change in Mid-Victorian Peel County, Canada West (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981); Ellen M. (Thomas) Gee, "Marriage in Nineteenth-Century Canada," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 19, no. 3 (1982): 311-25; Christian Pouyez and Yolande Lavoie, eds., Les Saguenayens. Introduction à l'histoire des populations du Saguenay XVIe-XXe siècles (Sillery: Presses de l'Université du Québec, 1983); Peter Ward, Courtship, Love, and Marriage in Nineteenth-Century English Canada (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1990). But see also the contribution of anthropologist Stacie Burke to this special issue of the Journal of Family History.
56. See Danielle Gauvreau, "Nuptialité et industrialisation: éléments de comparaison entre l'Ancien et le Nouveau Monde," in Transmettre, hériter, succéder. La reproduction familiale en milieu rural, France-Québec, XVIIIe-XXe siècles, ed. Rolande Bonnain, Gérard Bouchard, and Joseph Goy (Lyon: École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales/Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 1992): 27-41; Gossage, Families in Transition; and Thornton and Olson, "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants 1860-1900." The general literature includes David Gagan, Hopeful Travellers: Families, Land, and Social Change in Mid-Victorian Peel County, Canada West (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981); Ellen M. (Thomas) Gee, "Marriage in Nineteenth-Century Canada," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 19, no. 3 (1982): 311-25; Christian Pouyez and Yolande Lavoie, eds., Les Saguenayens. Introduction à l'histoire des populations du Saguenay XVIe-XXe siècles (Sillery: Presses de l'Université du Québec, 1983); Peter Ward, Courtship, Love, and Marriage in Nineteenth-Century English Canada (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1990). But see also the contribution of anthropologist Stacie Burke to this special issue of the Journal of Family History.
57. See Danielle Gauvreau, "Nuptialité et industrialisation: éléments de comparaison entre l'Ancien et le Nouveau Monde," in Transmettre, hériter, succéder. La reproduction familiale en milieu rural, France-Québec, XVIIIe-XXe siècles, ed. Rolande Bonnain, Gérard Bouchard, and Joseph Goy (Lyon: École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales/Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 1992): 27-41; Gossage, Families in Transition; and Thornton and Olson, "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants 1860-1900." The general literature includes David Gagan, Hopeful Travellers: Families, Land, and Social Change in Mid-Victorian Peel County, Canada West (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981); Ellen M. (Thomas) Gee, "Marriage in Nineteenth-Century Canada," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 19, no. 3 (1982): 311-25; Christian Pouyez and Yolande Lavoie, eds., Les Saguenayens. Introduction à l'histoire des populations du Saguenay XVIe-XXe siècles (Sillery: Presses de l'Université du Québec, 1983); Peter Ward, Courtship, Love, and Marriage in Nineteenth-Century English Canada (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1990). But see also the contribution of anthropologist Stacie Burke to this special issue of the Journal of Family History.
58. See Danielle Gauvreau, "Nuptialité et industrialisation: éléments de comparaison entre l'Ancien et le Nouveau Monde," in Transmettre, hériter, succéder. La reproduction familiale en milieu rural, France-Québec, XVIIIe-XXe siècles, ed. Rolande Bonnain, Gérard Bouchard, and Joseph Goy (Lyon: École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales/Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 1992): 27-41; Gossage, Families in Transition; and Thornton and Olson, "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants 1860-1900." The general literature includes David Gagan, Hopeful Travellers: Families, Land, and Social Change in Mid-Victorian Peel County, Canada West (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981); Ellen M. (Thomas) Gee, "Marriage in Nineteenth-Century Canada," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 19, no. 3 (1982): 311-25; Christian Pouyez and Yolande Lavoie, eds., Les Saguenayens. Introduction à l'histoire des populations du Saguenay XVIe-XXe siècles (Sillery: Presses de l'Université du Québec, 1983); Peter Ward, Courtship, Love, and Marriage in Nineteenth-Century English Canada (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1990). But see also the contribution of anthropologist Stacie Burke to this special issue of the Journal of Family History.
59. A reflection of the proportions in the general population: 14.6 percent for Ontario and 5.3 percent for Quebec.
60. The numbers are 319,316 of 396,229 immigrants to Ontario and 45,248 of 87,521 immigrants to Quebec.
61. Allan Greer, "The Pattern of Literacy in Quebec, 1754-1899," Histoire sociale/Social History 11, no. 22 (1979): 293-335, and "L'alphabétisation et son histoire au Québec: Etat de la question," in L'imprimé au Québec; aspects historiques, XVIIIe-XXe siècles, ed. Yvan Lamonde (Quebec City: Institut québécois de recherche sur la culture, 1983): 25-51; Gérard Bouchard and Jeannette Larouche, "Nouvelle mesure de l'alphabétisation à l'aide de la reconstitution automatique des familles," Histoire sociale/Social History 22, no. 43 (1989): 91-119; and Gossage, Families in Transition.
62. Allan Greer, "The Pattern of Literacy in Quebec, 1754-1899," Histoire sociale/Social History 11, no. 22 (1979): 293-335, and "L'alphabétisation et son histoire au Québec: Etat de la question," in L'imprimé au Québec; aspects historiques, XVIIIe-XXe siècles, ed. Yvan Lamonde (Quebec City: Institut québécois de recherche sur la culture, 1983): 25-51; Gérard Bouchard and Jeannette Larouche, "Nouvelle mesure de l'alphabétisation à l'aide de la reconstitution automatique des familles," Histoire sociale/Social History 22, no. 43 (1989): 91-119; and Gossage, Families in Transition.
63. Allan Greer, "The Pattern of Literacy in Quebec, 1754-1899," Histoire sociale/Social History 11, no. 22 (1979): 293-335, and "L'alphabétisation et son histoire au Québec: Etat de la question," in L'imprimé au Québec; aspects historiques, XVIIIe-XXe siècles, ed. Yvan Lamonde (Quebec City: Institut québécois de recherche sur la culture, 1983): 25-51; Gérard Bouchard and Jeannette Larouche, "Nouvelle mesure de l'alphabétisation à l'aide de la reconstitution automatique des familles," Histoire sociale/Social History 22, no. 43 (1989): 91-119; and Gossage, Families in Transition.
64. Allan Greer, "The Pattern of Literacy in Quebec, 1754-1899," Histoire sociale/Social History 11, no. 22 (1979): 293-335, and "L'alphabétisation et son histoire au Québec: Etat de la question," in L'imprimé au Québec; aspects historiques, XVIIIe-XXe siècles, ed. Yvan Lamonde (Quebec City: Institut québécois de recherche sur la culture, 1983): 25-51; Gérard Bouchard and Jeannette Larouche, "Nouvelle mesure de l'alphabétisation à l'aide de la reconstitution automatique des familles," Histoire sociale/Social History 22, no. 43 (1989): 91-119; and Gossage, Families in Transition.
65. See, for example, Caldwell, Theory of Fertility Decline, and a huge literature pertaining to developing countries recently.
66. This information was provided in the census in the form of the number of months in the year that each child attended school, which ranges from a minimum of zero to a maximum of ten. Because school attendance reached its maximum between ages seven and fourteen, we focused on this age category in assessing the proportion of children attending school all year.
67. Because of this, we tend to view this variable as an economic factor as much as a cultural one, a position supported by its association with occupational class (discussed later). But, of course, this is a complex variable that may involve more than one causal mechanism.
68. Richard Lalou, "Quand l'école des femmes était une école des mères. Influence de l'instruction sur la fécondité des Québécoises (1850-1940)," Cahiers québécois de démographie 22, no. 2 (1993): 229-62.
69. Married women only rarely reported employment to the census takers, leaving us no choice but to group these families by the husbands' social and occupational characteristics. The occupational classification we employed is a slightly modified version of the one developed by Gordon Darroch and Michael Ornstein for use with Canadian census microdata from 1871 and subsequently adapted by Darroch and Lisa Dillon for the 1901 census. It is fully explained and evaluated in Lisa Y. Dillon, "Exploring Class in the 1901 Canadian Census" (paper presented at the Second Canadian Families Project Workshop, Victoria, August 1999).
70. Sager et al., National Sample of the 1901 Census of Canada, 30.
71. These are shorthand descriptions of the following pairings between the occupational and social class variables: (1) owners: manufacturers, merchants, agents, dealers, professionals, managerial, and supervisory occupations; employers and self-employed; (2) managers: manufacturers, merchants, agents, dealers, professionals, managerial, and supervisory occupations; employees; (3) white-collar workers: white-collar occupations; employees; (4) independent artisans: artisans, semiskilled, and unskilled workers; employers and self employed; (5) wage-earning manual workers: artisans, semiskilled, and unskilled workers: employees; (6) laborers: laborers; employees; (7) farmers: farmers; employers or self-employed.
72. Discussions of Quebec's economic lag or inferiority can be found in René Durocher and Paul-André Linteau, eds., Le "retard" du Québec et l'infériorité économique des Canadiens français (Quebec: Boréal Express, 1971); Albert Faucher, Québec en Amérique au 19e siècle: essai sur les caractères économiques de la Laurentie (Montreal: Fides, 1973); John McCallum, Unequal Beginnings: Agriculture and Economic Development in Quebec and Ontario until 1870 (Toronto: UTP, 1980). The revisionist view, that Quebec's transition to industrial capitalism was well advanced by the turn of the century and that its economic structure was entirely comparable to Ontario's, is best represented by two textbooks written by economic and social historians: Linteau et al., Histoire du Québec contemporain, and Young and Dickinson, Short History of Quebec.
73. Discussions of Quebec's economic lag or inferiority can be found in René Durocher and Paul-André Linteau, eds., Le "retard" du Québec et l'infériorité économique des Canadiens français (Quebec: Boréal Express, 1971); Albert Faucher, Québec en Amérique au 19e siècle: essai sur les caractères économiques de la Laurentie (Montreal: Fides, 1973); John McCallum, Unequal Beginnings: Agriculture and Economic Development in Quebec and Ontario until 1870 (Toronto: UTP, 1980). The revisionist view, that Quebec's transition to industrial capitalism was well advanced by the turn of the century and that its economic structure was entirely comparable to Ontario's, is best represented by two textbooks written by economic and social historians: Linteau et al., Histoire du Québec contemporain, and Young and Dickinson, Short History of Quebec.
74. Discussions of Quebec's economic lag or inferiority can be found in René Durocher and Paul-André Linteau, eds., Le "retard" du Québec et l'infériorité économique des Canadiens français (Quebec: Boréal Express, 1971); Albert Faucher, Québec en Amérique au 19e siècle: essai sur les caractères économiques de la Laurentie (Montreal: Fides, 1973); John McCallum, Unequal Beginnings: Agriculture and Economic Development in Quebec and Ontario until 1870 (Toronto: UTP, 1980). The revisionist view, that Quebec's transition to industrial capitalism was well advanced by the turn of the century and that its economic structure was entirely comparable to Ontario's, is best represented by two textbooks written by economic and social historians: Linteau et al., Histoire du Québec contemporain, and Young and Dickinson, Short History of Quebec.
75. Discussions of Quebec's economic lag or inferiority can be found in René Durocher and Paul-André Linteau, eds., Le "retard" du Québec et l'infériorité économique des Canadiens français (Quebec: Boréal Express, 1971); Albert Faucher, Québec en Amérique au 19e siècle: essai sur les caractères économiques de la Laurentie (Montreal: Fides, 1973); John McCallum, Unequal Beginnings: Agriculture and Economic Development in Quebec and Ontario until 1870 (Toronto: UTP, 1980). The revisionist view, that Quebec's transition to industrial capitalism was well advanced by the turn of the century and that its economic structure was entirely comparable to Ontario's, is best represented by two textbooks written by economic and social historians: Linteau et al., Histoire du Québec contemporain, and Young and Dickinson, Short History of Quebec.
76. Discussions of Quebec's economic lag or inferiority can be found in René Durocher and Paul-André Linteau, eds., Le "retard"
77. Urban categories are defined as follows: small = 1,000 to 4,999; intermediate = 5,000 to 19,999; large = 20,000 or more. Two cities fall in this last category in Quebec (Quebec City and Montreal) and four in Ontario (Toronto, Hamilton, London, and Ottawa).
78. That is, 10,227 compared with 11,184. It is worth noting that this represents a very high proportion of all children age zero to four in the two samples: 95 percent for Quebec and 94 percent for Ontario. The 5 to 6 percent shortfall is explained by the fact that certain young children did not live with their two parents. Most of these would be living with a widowed mother or father; some would also have been living with other kin or in institutional settings.
79. Eric G. Moore, "Fertility Decline in Three Ontario Cities, 1861-1881," Canadian Studies in Population 17, no. 1 (1990): 25-47; Stewart E. Tolnay, Stephen N. Graham, and Avery M. Guest, "Own-Child Estimates of U.S. White Fertility, 1886-99," Historical Methods 15, no. 3 (1982): 127-38; Mark J. Stern, Society and Family Strategy: Erie County, New York, 1850-1920 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987); Douglas C. Ewbank, "The Marital Fertility of American Whites before 1920," Historical Methods 24, no. 4 (1991): 141-70; Philip S. Morgan, Susan Cotts Watkins, and Douglas Ewbank, "Generating Americans: Ethnic Differences in Fertility," in After Ellis Island: Newcomers and Natives in the 1910 Census, ed. Susan Cotts Watkins (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1994): 83-124.
80. Eric G. Moore, "Fertility Decline in Three Ontario Cities, 1861-1881," Canadian Studies in Population 17, no. 1 (1990): 25-47; Stewart E. Tolnay, Stephen N. Graham, and Avery M. Guest, "Own-Child Estimates of U.S. White Fertility, 1886-99," Historical Methods 15, no. 3 (1982): 127-38; Mark J. Stern, Society and Family Strategy: Erie County, New York, 1850-1920 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987); Douglas C. Ewbank, "The Marital Fertility of American Whites before 1920," Historical Methods 24, no. 4 (1991): 141-70; Philip S. Morgan, Susan Cotts Watkins, and Douglas Ewbank, "Generating Americans: Ethnic Differences in Fertility," in After Ellis Island: Newcomers and Natives in the 1910 Census, ed. Susan Cotts Watkins (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1994): 83-124.
81. Eric G. Moore, "Fertility Decline in Three Ontario Cities, 1861-1881," Canadian Studies in Population 17, no. 1 (1990): 25-47; Stewart E. Tolnay, Stephen N. Graham, and Avery M. Guest, "Own-Child Estimates of U.S. White Fertility, 1886-99," Historical Methods 15, no. 3 (1982): 127-38; Mark J. Stern, Society and Family Strategy: Erie County, New York, 1850-1920 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987); Douglas C. Ewbank, "The Marital Fertility of American Whites before 1920," Historical Methods 24, no. 4 (1991): 141-70; Philip S. Morgan, Susan Cotts Watkins, and Douglas Ewbank, "Generating Americans: Ethnic Differences in Fertility," in After Ellis Island: Newcomers and Natives in the 1910 Census, ed. Susan Cotts Watkins (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1994): 83-124.
82. Eric G. Moore, "Fertility Decline in Three Ontario Cities, 1861-1881," Canadian Studies in Population 17, no. 1 (1990): 25-47; Stewart E. Tolnay, Stephen N. Graham, and Avery M. Guest, "Own-Child Estimates of U.S. White Fertility, 1886-99," Historical Methods 15, no. 3 (1982): 127-38; Mark J. Stern, Society and Family Strategy: Erie County, New York, 1850-1920 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987); Douglas C. Ewbank, "The Marital Fertility of American Whites before 1920," Historical Methods 24, no. 4 (1991): 141-70; Philip S. Morgan, Susan Cotts Watkins, and Douglas Ewbank, "Generating Americans: Ethnic Differences in Fertility," in After Ellis Island: Newcomers and Natives in the 1910 Census, ed. Susan Cotts Watkins (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1994): 83-124.
83. Eric G. Moore, "Fertility Decline in Three Ontario Cities, 1861-1881," Canadian Studies in Population 17, no. 1 (1990): 25-47; Stewart E. Tolnay, Stephen N. Graham, and Avery M. Guest, "Own-Child Estimates of U.S. White Fertility, 1886-99," Historical Methods 15, no. 3 (1982): 127-38; Mark J. Stern, Society and Family Strategy: Erie County, New York, 1850-1920 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987); Douglas C. Ewbank, "The Marital Fertility of American Whites before 1920," Historical Methods 24, no. 4 (1991): 141-70; Philip S. Morgan, Susan Cotts Watkins, and Douglas Ewbank, "Generating Americans: Ethnic Differences in Fertility," in After Ellis Island: Newcomers and Natives in the 1910 Census, ed. Susan Cotts Watkins (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1994): 83-124.
84. As stated above, for 1891 (see note 24) McInnis uses infant mortality ratios (deaths before one year) of 115 and 190 per thousand in Ontario and Quebec, respectively. We are inflating these levels to 125 and 200 per thousand to account for deaths between ages one and four years.
85. Further refinement of this methodological exercise may become appropriate at some point in the future. Still, our interpretive framework is based on the assumption that fertility strategies (if there were any) would have been geared toward a desired or expected number of surviving children rather than the total number of children ever born. This is why the present focus on nonadjusted fertility ratios - a measure of the number of children actually present in the household when the census takers came calling - makes a good deal of intuitive sense.
86. As population specialists will recognize, the curves shown in Figure 2 are very similar to those typically plotted for age-specific marital fertility rates.
87. Thornton et al., "Dimensions sociales de la mortalité infantile à Montréal"; Thornton and Olson, "Infant Vulnerability in Three Cultural Settings" and "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants"; and McInnis, "Infant Mortality in Late Nineteenth-Century Canada."
88. Thornton et al., "Dimensions sociales de la mortalité infantile à Montréal"; Thornton and Olson, "Infant Vulnerability in Three Cultural Settings" and "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants"; and McInnis, "Infant Mortality in Late Nineteenth-Century Canada."
89. Thornton et al., "Dimensions sociales de la mortalité infantile à Montréal"; Thornton and Olson, "Infant Vulnerability in Three Cultural Settings" and "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants"; and McInnis, "Infant Mortality in Late Nineteenth-Century Canada."
90. Gossage, Families in Transition, 160-65.
91. Note, however, that our initial look at immigrant women in the two samples does not seem to support this line of reasoning. See the following discussion of the relationship between place of birth and fertility.
92. It was decided to exclude the fifteen to twenty-four age category because fertility differences are minimal at that age and mainly reflect differentials in age at first marriage, which cannot be determined with the 1901 census.
93. We tentatively ran ordered logit models on the group of women age twenty-five to thirty-nine, but this did not yield different results. We thus preferred to use the more common technique of multiple regression.
94. Bouchard and Roy, "Fécondité et alphabétisation au Saguenay."
95. The relationship is almost significant for Quebec women age forty to forty-nine, however.
96. But the results are nearly significant for women living in large cities in Quebec.
97. For Montreal, see Thornton et al., "Dimensions sociales de la mortalité infantile à Montréal"; Thornton and Olson, "Infant Vulnerability in Three Cultural Settings" and "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants." In a small-town setting, Gossage gets 286 per thousand for Catholic families formed between 1884 and 1891 and who did not migrate away from Saint-Hyacinthe. Gossage, Families in Transition, Table 5.4.
98. For Montreal, see Thornton et al., "Dimensions sociales de la mortalité infantile à Montréal"; Thornton and Olson, "Infant Vulnerability in Three Cultural Settings" and "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants." In a small-town setting, Gossage gets 286 per thousand for Catholic families formed between 1884 and 1891 and who did not migrate away from Saint-Hyacinthe. Gossage, Families in Transition, Table 5.4.
99. For Montreal, see Thornton et al., "Dimensions sociales de la mortalité infantile à Montréal"; Thornton and Olson, "Infant Vulnerability in Three Cultural Settings" and "A Deadly Discrimination among Montreal Infants." In a small-town setting, Gossage gets 286 per thousand for Catholic families formed between 1884 and 1891 and who did not migrate away from Saint-Hyacinthe. Gossage, Families in Transition, Table 5.4.
100. This is what Bouchard and Roy report for the Saguenay region in "Fécondité et alphabétisation au Saguenay."
101. Although the coefficient for white-collar workers was close to being significant (p = .052).
102. See Charles, Changing Size of the Family in Canada; Henripin, Tendances et facteurs de la fécondité au Canada; and Henripin and Péron, "La transition démographique de la Province de Québec."
103. See Charles, Changing Size of the Family in Canada; Henripin, Tendances et facteurs de la fécondité au Canada; and Henripin and Péron, "La transition démographique de la Province de Québec."
104. See Charles, Changing Size of the Family in Canada; Henripin, Tendances et facteurs de la fécondité au Canada; and Henripin and Péron, "La transition démographique de la Province de Québec."
105. McInnis, "Fall in Fertility in Nineteenth-Century Canada."
106. Gossage, Families in Transition; Danielle Gauvreau and Peter Gossage, "Avoir moins d'enfants à la fin du siècle dernier: Une réalité même au Québec," Revue d'histoire de l'Amérique française 54, no. 1 (2000): 39-65.
107. Gossage, Families in Transition; Danielle Gauvreau and Peter Gossage, "Avoir moins d'enfants à la fin du siècle dernier: Une réalité même au Québec," Revue d'histoire de l'Amérique française 54, no. 1 (2000): 39-65.
108. See, for example, Ansley J. Coale and Susan Cotts Watkins, eds., The Decline of Fertility in Europe: The Revised Proceedings of a Conference on the Princeton European Fertility Project (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), or Morgan et al., "Generating Americans."
109. See, for example, Ansley J. Coale and Susan Cotts Watkins, eds., The Decline of Fertility in Europe: The Revised Proceedings of a Conference on the Princeton European Fertility Project (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), or Morgan et al., "Generating Americans."
110. McQuillan, Culture, Religion, and Demographic Behaviour.
111. Note also, however, that infant mortality levels would have been high in these centers, making it difficult to detect the independent effects of fertility and mortality on our measures of the numbers of surviving children age zero to four per married woman.