Fostering the next generation of socialists: Patronirovanie in the fledgling Soviet State

Journal of Family History

Volumn 26, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 66-89

  Bernstein, Laurie ^a  

^a RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CHILD; CHILD ABUSE; CHILD CARE; CHILD HEALTH CARE; CHILD PSYCHOLOGY; CHILD WELFARE; ECONOMICS; EDUCATION; ETHNOLOGY; FAMILY HEALTH; FAMILY SIZE; FOSTER CARE; HISTORY; HUMAN; HUMAN RELATION; IDEOLOGY; LEGAL ASPECT; ORPHANED CHILD; POLICY; POLITICAL SYSTEM; PRESCHOOL CHILD; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PUBLIC HEALTH; SOCIAL CHANGE; SOCIAL PROBLEM; SOCIAL WELFARE; USSR;

CHILD; CHILD ABUSE; CHILD CARE; CHILD HEALTH SERVICES; CHILD PSYCHOLOGY; CHILD WELFARE; CHILD, ORPHANED; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; COMMUNISM; FAMILY CHARACTERISTICS; FAMILY HEALTH; FOSTER HOME CARE; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; INTERGENERATIONAL RELATIONS; PUBLIC HEALTH; PUBLIC POLICY; SOCIAL CHANGE; SOCIAL PROBLEMS; SOCIAL WELFARE; SOCIALISM; USSR;

EID: 0035218996     PISSN: 03631990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/036319900102600104     Document Type: Article

References (213)

1. See, for example, Aleksandra Kollontai, Semia i kommunisticheskoe gosudarstvo (Moscow, 1918); N. Bukharin and E. Preobrazhensky, The ABC of Communism: A Popular Explanation of the Program of the Communist Party of Russia (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1966), 233. On debates over collectivized child rearing, see Wendy Z. Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution: Soviet Family Policy and Social Life, 1917-1936 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 8-11.
2. See, for example, Aleksandra Kollontai, Semia i kommunisticheskoe gosudarstvo (Moscow, 1918); N. Bukharin and E. Preobrazhensky, The ABC of Communism: A Popular Explanation of the Program of the Communist Party of Russia (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1966), 233. On debates over collectivized child rearing, see Wendy Z. Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution: Soviet Family Policy and Social Life, 1917-1936 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 8-11.
3. See, for example, Aleksandra Kollontai, Semia i kommunisticheskoe gosudarstvo (Moscow, 1918); N. Bukharin and E. Preobrazhensky, The ABC of Communism: A Popular Explanation of the Program of the Communist Party of Russia (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1966), 233. On debates over collectivized child rearing, see Wendy Z. Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution: Soviet Family Policy and Social Life, 1917-1936 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 8-11.
4. Fears that citizens would adopt children in order to circumvent restrictive labor and inheritance laws also influenced the Bolshevik ban on adoption, as did an optimistic belief that a law abolishing the distinction between legitimate and illegitimate children would render legal adoption superfluous. See Laurie Bernstein, "The Evolution of Soviet Adoption Law, "Journal of Family History 22, no. 1 (1997): 206-7.
5. Ironically, this echoed Ivan Betskoi's mid-eighteenth-century plans to create in Russia a free urban third estate "from the raw material of the foundling population." David L. Ransel, Mothers of Misery: Child Abandonment in Russia (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988), 34-35.
6. See Alan M. Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened: Abandoned Children in Soviet Russia, 1918-1930 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 4, 7-12, 45-46, 198; Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 67-71; Margaret K. Stolee, "Homeless Children in the USSR, 1917-1957, "Soviet Studies 40, no. 1 (1988): 65; Jennie A. Stevens, "Children of the Revolution: Soviet Russia's Homeless Children (Besprizorniki) in the 1920s, "Russian History/Histoire Russe 9, pts. 2-3 (1982): 250-52.
7. See Alan M. Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened: Abandoned Children in Soviet Russia, 1918-1930 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 4, 7-12, 45-46, 198; Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 67-71; Margaret K. Stolee, "Homeless Children in the USSR, 1917-1957, "Soviet Studies 40, no. 1 (1988): 65; Jennie A. Stevens, "Children of the Revolution: Soviet Russia's Homeless Children (Besprizorniki) in the 1920s, "Russian History/Histoire Russe 9, pts. 2-3 (1982): 250-52.
8. See Alan M. Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened: Abandoned Children in Soviet Russia, 1918-1930 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 4, 7-12, 45-46, 198; Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 67-71; Margaret K. Stolee, "Homeless Children in the USSR, 1917-1957, "Soviet Studies 40, no. 1 (1988): 65; Jennie A. Stevens, "Children of the Revolution: Soviet Russia's Homeless Children (Besprizorniki) in the 1920s, "Russian History/Histoire Russe 9, pts. 2-3 (1982): 250-52.
9. See Alan M. Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened: Abandoned Children in Soviet Russia, 1918-1930 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 4, 7-12, 45-46, 198; Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 67-71; Margaret K. Stolee, "Homeless Children in the USSR, 1917-1957, "Soviet Studies 40, no. 1 (1988): 65; Jennie A. Stevens, "Children of the Revolution: Soviet Russia's Homeless Children (Besprizorniki) in the 1920s, "Russian History/Histoire Russe 9, pts. 2-3 (1982): 250-52.
10. On the deplorable conditions in children's homes, see Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened, 108-26. Quotation from Itogi bor'by s golodom v 1921-22 g.g. Sbornik statei i otchetov (Moscow: Izdanie TsK Pomgol VTsIK, 1922), 31.
11. On the deplorable conditions in children's homes, see Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened, 108-26. Quotation from Itogi bor'by s golodom v 1921-22 g.g. Sbornik statei i otchetov (Moscow: Izdanie TsK Pomgol VTsIK, 1922), 31.
12. M. Ustvol'skii, "K voprosu o peredache besprizornykh v.krest'ianskie sem'i, "Leningradskaia oblast' no. 4 (1928): 112.
13. On foster care in the USSR, see Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened, 105, 144-49, 154-55; Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 97-100, 306-8; Bernice Q. Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1968), 37, 156-57.
14. On foster care in the USSR, see Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened, 105, 144-49, 154-55; Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 97-100, 306-8; Bernice Q. Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1968), 37, 156-57.
15. On foster care in the USSR, see Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened, 105, 144-49, 154-55; Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 97-100, 306-8; Bernice Q. Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1968), 37, 156-57.
16. As Alan Ball has argued, the advent of foster care in Soviet Russia "signaled a retreat from the goal of collective, institutional upbringing and promised to expose some children to religion and other influences scarcely compatible with [the Commissariat of Enlightenment's] curriculum." In Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened, 146.
17. On foster care in tsarist Russia, see Bernice Madison, "Russia's Illegitimate Children before and after the Revolution, "Slavic Review 22, no. 1 (1963): 82-88; Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union, 8-12; Ransel, Mothers of Misery, 176-292. According to Ransel, in Late Imperial Russia, infants sent to foster care served as "a perishable commodity in a system of exchange between the city and the village" (198).
18. On foster care in tsarist Russia, see Bernice Madison, "Russia's Illegitimate Children before and after the Revolution, "Slavic Review 22, no. 1 (1963): 82-88; Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union, 8-12; Ransel, Mothers of Misery, 176-292. According to Ransel, in Late Imperial Russia, infants sent to foster care served as "a perishable commodity in a system of exchange between the city and the village" (198).
19. On foster care in tsarist Russia, see Bernice Madison, "Russia's Illegitimate Children before and after the Revolution, "Slavic Review 22, no. 1 (1963): 82-88; Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union, 8-12; Ransel, Mothers of Misery, 176-292. According to Ransel, in Late Imperial Russia, infants sent to foster care served as "a perishable commodity in a system of exchange between the city and the village" (198).
20. For descriptions of Russian peasants, see, for example, Esther Kingston-Mann and Timothy Mixter, eds., Peasant Economy, Culture, and Politics of European Russia, 1800-1921 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991); Beatrice Farnsworth and Lynne Viola, eds., Russian Peasant Women (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
21. For descriptions of Russian peasants, see, for example, Esther Kingston-Mann and Timothy Mixter, eds., Peasant Economy, Culture, and Politics of European Russia, 1800-1921 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991); Beatrice Farnsworth and Lynne Viola, eds., Russian Peasant Women (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
22. See David L. Ransel, "Infant-Care Cultures in the Russian Empire, "in Russia's Women: Accommodation, Resistance, Transformation, ed. Barbara Evans Clements, Barbara Alpern Engel, and Christine D. Worobec (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), 113-32.
23. Olga Semyonova Tian-Shanskaia, Village Life in Late Tsarist Russia, ed. David L. Ransel (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993), 6-8.
24. Ibid., 27-31.
25. War Communism is the name of the radical policy launched by the party in May 1918 to mobilize for fighting the war against anti-Bolshevik forces. It involved nationalizing the means of production and seizing grain in the countryside.
26. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto (New York: Penguin, 1967), 84.
27. It is not clear whether homes were actually found for these children, but in 1922 Irkutsk declared itself ready to receive another 3, 000 young refugees. Spasennye revoliutsiei. Bor'ba s besprizornost'iu v Irkutskoi gubernii i okruge (Irkutsk: Vostochno-sibirskoe knizhnoe izdatel'stvo, 1977), 39-40, 43.
28. Ustvol'skii, "K voprosu o peredache besprizornykh, "112.
29. G. Cherkezov, "Vospitanie sirot i besprizornykh v krest'ianskikh sem'iakh (k postanovleniiam Mossoveta), "Vestnik prosveshcheniia no. 1 (January 1926): 3-4.
30. I. I. Daniushevskii and V. M. Vasil'eva, "Sostoianie detskoi besprizornosti i detuchrezhdenii SPON i ocherednye zadachi v etoi oblasti, "in Detskaia besprizornost' i detskii dom, ed. S. S. Tizanov, V. L. Shveitser, and V. M. Vasil'eva (Moscow: Otdel SPON, 1926), 176. See also Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened, 144; Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii, "Drug detei [Kharkov version] no. 1 (January 1925): 9.
31. I. I. Daniushevskii and V. M. Vasil'eva, "Sostoianie detskoi besprizornosti i detuchrezhdenii SPON i ocherednye zadachi v etoi oblasti, "in Detskaia besprizornost' i detskii dom, ed. S. S. Tizanov, V. L. Shveitser, and V. M. Vasil'eva (Moscow: Otdel SPON, 1926), 176. See also Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened, 144; Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii, "Drug detei [Kharkov version] no. 1 (January 1925): 9.
32. I. I. Daniushevskii and V. M. Vasil'eva, "Sostoianie detskoi besprizornosti i detuchrezhdenii SPON i ocherednye zadachi v etoi oblasti, "in Detskaia besprizornost' i detskii dom, ed. S. S. Tizanov, V. L. Shveitser, and V. M. Vasil'eva (Moscow: Otdel SPON, 1926), 176. See also Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened, 144; Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii, "Drug detei [Kharkov version] no. 1 (January 1925): 9.
33. Cited in Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii, "9.
34. Daniushevskii and Vasil'eva, "Sostoianie detskoi besprizornosti, "176.
35. Itogi bor'by s golodom, 33.
36. Daniushevskii and Vasil'eva, "Sostoianie detskoi besprizornosti, "181.
37. Ustvol'skii, "K voprosu o peredache besprizornykh, "112.
38. Narodnoe prosveshchenie v RSFSR k 1924/25 uchebnomu godu (Moscow, 1925), 91. Prior to the revolution, a similar practice existed, with some villages caring for orphans on a rotating basis and leaving them no choice but to beg for food. From Christine D. Worobec, Peasant Russia: Family and Community in the Post-Emancipation Period (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 73-74.
39. Narodnoe prosveshchenie v RSFSR k 1924/25 uchebnomu godu (Moscow, 1925), 91. Prior to the revolution, a similar practice existed, with some villages caring for orphans on a rotating basis and leaving them no choice but to beg for food. From Christine D. Worobec, Peasant Russia: Family and Community in the Post-Emancipation Period (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 73-74.
40. Narodnoe prosveshchenie v RSFSR k 1924/25, 91.
41. See, for example, Daniushevskii and Vasil'eva, "Sostoianie detskoi besprizornosti, "176-77.
42. In Russian, the saying is "Ne ta mat', kotoraia rodila, a ta kotoraia vospitala." From Grigorii Ryndziunskii, "Voprosy deistvuiushchego semeinogo prava, "Ezhenedel'nik sovetskoi iustitsii nos. 29-30 (August 10-17, 1922): 7-8.
43. For example, while there were 1, 495 foster children in Orlov province as of January 1, 1924, only 336 remained a year and a half later. Narodnoe prosveshchenie v RSFSR k 1924/25, 91. Bernice Madison claimed that the number of children in foster care dropped from nearly 100, 000 in 1921 to less than 7, 500 in 1927. Unfortunately, she did not provide a reference for this statistic. Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union, 42.
44. For example, while there were 1, 495 foster children in Orlov province as of January 1, 1924, only 336 remained a year and a half later. Narodnoe prosveshchenie v RSFSR k 1924/25, 91. Bernice Madison claimed that the number of children in foster care dropped from nearly 100, 000 in 1921 to less than 7, 500 in 1927. Unfortunately, she did not provide a reference for this statistic. Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union, 42.
45. Ol'ga Nogina put the mortality rate in Moscow institutions at between 20 and 25 percent in her article "Kak my boremsia s podkidyvaniem, "Drug detei no. 1 (January 1927): 12. Another author estimated that between 30 and 50 percent of infants in Soviet institutions perished. See E. Rozenblium, "O podkidyshakh, "Drug detei no. 2 (1926): 4-5.
46. Ol'ga Nogina put the mortality rate in Moscow institutions at between 20 and 25 percent in her article "Kak my boremsia s podkidyvaniem, "Drug detei no. 1 (January 1927): 12. Another author estimated that between 30 and 50 percent of infants in Soviet institutions perished. See E. Rozenblium, "O podkidyshakh, "Drug detei no. 2 (1926): 4-5.
47. Drug detei [Kharkov version] no. 2 (1926): 10. Nogina admitted that it was in order "to reduce [udeshevit'] expenditures" that Moscow organized its infant foster care program: "Kak my boremsia, "12. For another statement on how patronirovanie cost much less than institutionalization, see M. Popov, Detskaia besprizornost' i patronirovanie (Ivanovo-Voznesensk: Izdanie oblastnoi Detkomissii, 1929), 17.
48. Drug detei [Kharkov version] no. 2 (1926): 10. Nogina admitted that it was in order "to reduce [udeshevit'] expenditures" that Moscow organized its infant foster care program: "Kak my boremsia, "12. For another statement on how patronirovanie cost much less than institutionalization, see M. Popov, Detskaia besprizornost' i patronirovanie (Ivanovo-Voznesensk: Izdanie oblastnoi Detkomissii, 1929), 17.
49. It is possible that infants sent into foster care had a greater chance of survival than the peasants' own offspring because of threats of inspections by the authorities and promises of payments for survivors. I am indebted to Janet Golden, author of A Social History of Wet Nursing in America: From Breast to Bottle (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996), for this insight.
50. S. Zarechnaia, "Vtoraia sem'ia, "Drug detei no. 4 (April 1928): 14-15.
51. Drug detei [Kharkov version] no. 2 (1926): 10.
52. Nogina, "Kak my boremsia, "12. For more on foster care for Moscow infants, see V. A. Pavlovskii, "Opyt otdachi detei v patronat v gor. Moskve, "Okhrana materinstva i mladenchestva no. 2 (1925): 118-24. For a sanitized description, see O. P. Nogina, Mother and Child Care in the USSR (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1950), 30.
53. Nogina, "Kak my boremsia, "12. For more on foster care for Moscow infants, see V. A. Pavlovskii, "Opyt otdachi detei v patronat v gor. Moskve, "Okhrana materinstva i mladenchestva no. 2 (1925): 118-24. For a sanitized description, see O. P. Nogina, Mother and Child Care in the USSR (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1950), 30.
54. Nogina, "Kak my boremsia, "12. For more on foster care for Moscow infants, see V. A. Pavlovskii, "Opyt otdachi detei v patronat v gor. Moskve, "Okhrana materinstva i mladenchestva no. 2 (1925): 118-24. For a sanitized description, see O. P. Nogina, Mother and Child Care in the USSR (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1950), 30.
55. Circular of May 22, 1924, cited in Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii, "10. See also Rozenblium, "O podkidyshakh, "5. When Commissar of Justice Dmitrii Kurskii was arguing in favor of overturning the ban on adoption, he asserted that many more peasants would take in homeless children if they knew they had the opportunity to adopt them legally. From "Stenograficheskii otchet zasedanii 2 sessii Vserossiiskogo Tsentral'nogo Ispolnitel'nogo Komiteta XII sozyva 17 i 19 oktiabria 1925 goda po proektu kodeksa o brake, sem'e i opeka, "in Sbornik statei i materialov po brachnomu i semeinomu pravu, ed. D. I. Kurskii (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo Narkomiusta RSFSR, 1926), 121.
56. Circular of May 22, 1924, cited in Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii, "10. See also Rozenblium, "O podkidyshakh, "5. When Commissar of Justice Dmitrii Kurskii was arguing in favor of overturning the ban on adoption, he asserted that many more peasants would take in homeless children if they knew they had the opportunity to adopt them legally. From "Stenograficheskii otchet zasedanii 2 sessii Vserossiiskogo Tsentral'nogo Ispolnitel'nogo Komiteta XII sozyva 17 i 19 oktiabria 1925 goda po proektu kodeksa o brake, sem'e i opeka, "in Sbornik statei i materialov po brachnomu i semeinomu pravu, ed. D. I. Kurskii (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo Narkomiusta RSFSR, 1926), 121.
57. Circular of May 22, 1924, cited in Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii, "10. See also Rozenblium, "O podkidyshakh, "5. When Commissar of Justice Dmitrii Kurskii was arguing in favor of overturning the ban on adoption, he asserted that many more peasants would take in homeless children if they knew they had the opportunity to adopt them legally. From "Stenograficheskii otchet zasedanii 2 sessii Vserossiiskogo Tsentral'nogo Ispolnitel'nogo Komiteta XII sozyva 17 i 19 oktiabria 1925 goda po proektu kodeksa o brake, sem'e i opeka, "in Sbornik statei i materialov po brachnomu i semeinomu pravu, ed. D. I. Kurskii (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo Narkomiusta RSFSR, 1926), 121.
58. "Ob otdache pokinutykh detei na vospitanie iz uchrezhdenii okhrany materinstva i mladenchestva, "August 25, 1925, in Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu IV, ed. Ia. A. Perel' and A. A. Liubimova (Moscow and Leningrad: Narkompros RSFSR, Gosudarstvennoe uchebno-pedagogicheskoe izdatel'stvo, 1932), 94. A three-year plan drawn up for the Department for the Protection of Maternity and Childhood in 1927 stipulated that 5, 000 abandoned infants be distributed to families. See Obzor raboty po bor'be s detskoi besprizornost'iu v RSFSR za 1927/28 g. (Moscow: Izdanie Detkomissii pri VTsIK, 1928), 19. For 1929 Commissariat of Health rules, see Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu, 104-7. There is some confusion between this program and adoption in Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 97-98.
59. "Ob otdache pokinutykh detei na vospitanie iz uchrezhdenii okhrany materinstva i mladenchestva, "August 25, 1925, in Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu IV, ed. Ia. A. Perel' and A. A. Liubimova (Moscow and Leningrad: Narkompros RSFSR, Gosudarstvennoe uchebno-pedagogicheskoe izdatel'stvo, 1932), 94. A three-year plan drawn up for the Department for the Protection of Maternity and Childhood in 1927 stipulated that 5, 000 abandoned infants be distributed to families. See Obzor raboty po bor'be s detskoi besprizornost'iu v RSFSR za 1927/28 g. (Moscow: Izdanie Detkomissii pri VTsIK, 1928), 19. For 1929 Commissariat of Health rules, see Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu, 104-7. There is some confusion between this program and adoption in Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 97-98.
60. "Ob otdache pokinutykh detei na vospitanie iz uchrezhdenii okhrany materinstva i mladenchestva, "August 25, 1925, in Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu IV, ed. Ia. A. Perel' and A. A. Liubimova (Moscow and Leningrad: Narkompros RSFSR, Gosudarstvennoe uchebno-pedagogicheskoe izdatel'stvo, 1932), 94. A three-year plan drawn up for the Department for the Protection of Maternity and Childhood in 1927 stipulated that 5, 000 abandoned infants be distributed to families. See Obzor raboty po bor'be s detskoi besprizornost'iu v RSFSR za 1927/28 g. (Moscow: Izdanie Detkomissii pri VTsIK, 1928), 19. For 1929 Commissariat of Health rules, see Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu, 104-7. There is some confusion between this program and adoption in Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 97-98.
61. "Ob otdache pokinutykh detei na vospitanie iz uchrezhdenii okhrany materinstva i mladenchestva, "August 25, 1925, in Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu IV, ed. Ia. A. Perel' and A. A. Liubimova (Moscow and Leningrad: Narkompros RSFSR, Gosudarstvennoe uchebno-pedagogicheskoe izdatel'stvo, 1932), 94. A three-year plan drawn up for the Department for the Protection of Maternity and Childhood in 1927 stipulated that 5, 000 abandoned infants be distributed to families. See Obzor raboty po bor'be s detskoi besprizornost'iu v RSFSR za 1927/28 g. (Moscow: Izdanie Detkomissii pri VTsIK, 1928), 19. For 1929 Commissariat of Health rules, see Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu, 104-7. There is some confusion between this program and adoption in Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 97-98.
62. In 1922, in order to include the republics of Ukraine, Byelorussia, and the Transcaucasus, the party changed the name of what had been the Russian Soviet Federation Socialist Republic (RSFSR) to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
63. Goldman identifies 1924 as the year that attitudes toward street children shifted, with the term "chronic besprizornost"' signaling the perception that a "subculture" had been created, "stubbornly entrenched and inimical to the ideals of the state." Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 89.
64. Between June 1, 1925, and October 1, 1925, the number of children's homes in the USSR was reduced by 541, with 11, 649 less children. Narodnoe prosveshchenie v RSFSR k 1925/26 uchebnomu godu (Moscow, 1926), 68.
65. Quoted in Narodnoe prosveshchenie v RSFSR k 1924/25, 78.
66. Quoted in Narodnoe prosveshchenie v RSFSR k 1925/26, 63.
67. Ibid., 64.
68. For an article weighing the advantages and disadvantages of foster care, see Iu. Orestova, "O chastnom patronale, "Ural'skii uchitel' nos. 5-6 (1925): 41-42.
69. Bor'ba s besprizornost'iu. Materialy 1-oi Moskovskoi konferentsii po bor'be s besprizornost'iu 16-17 marta 1924 g. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo "Rabotnik prosveshcheniia, "1924), 38-45.
70. Narodnoe prosveshchenie v RSFSR k 1925/26, 64-65.
71. Ibid., 71.
72. Narodnoe prosveshchenie v RSFSR k 1926/27 uchebnomu godu (Moscow and Leningrad: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo, 1927), 59, 62.
73. Also contributing to adoption's reintroduction into law was pressure from caregivers who wished to formalize relationships with children they had taken in and the abrogation of restrictive inheritance laws and laws forbidding hired labor. Bernstein, "The Evolution of Soviet Adoption Law, "207-8.
74. "Polozhenie o meropriiatiiakh po bor'be s detskoi besprizornost'iu v RSFSR, "March 8, 1926, in Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu, 18.
75. "O poriadke i usloviiakh peredachi vospitannikov detskikh domov v krest'ianskie sem'i dlia podgotovki k sel'skokhoziaistvennomu trudu, "April 5, 1926, in ibid., 101-2.
76. "O plane bor'by s detskoi besprizornost'iu, "June 20, 1927, in ibid., 23-27.
77. Trekhletnii plan bor'by s detskoi besprizornost'iu (Moscow: Rabochii Leninets, 1927), 11-12.
78. A. D. Kalinina, Desiat' let raboty po bor'be s detskoi besprizornost'iu (Moscow and Leningrad: Moskovskii rabochii, 1928), 24; Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened, 144.
79. A. D. Kalinina, Desiat' let raboty po bor'be s detskoi besprizornost'iu (Moscow and Leningrad: Moskovskii rabochii, 1928), 24; Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened, 144.
80. A. Kalinina, "Patronirovanie, "Drug detei no. 5 (August-September 1926): 12.
81. B. Orlovskii and A. Okun'kov, "O patronirovanii (peredacha vospitannikov detdomov na vospitanie v trudovye sem'i), "Shkola i zhizn' nos. 6-7 (1926): 29.
82. M. Epshtein, "O detskom dome, "Pravda no. 78 (April 7, 1927): 3.
83. M. Serebrianyi, L'goty krest'ianam za vospitanie besprizornykh (Moscow and Leningrad: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo, 1927).
84. Ibid., 3.
85. Zlata I. Lilina, "Detskaia besprizornost' i detskii dom, "in Detskie doma. Praktika raboty po materialam LGONO. Sbornik (Moscow and Leningrad: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo, 1927), 4-7.
86. Kalinina asserted that peasants preferred the cash subsidy to the "insignificant" additional land. Kalinina, "Patronirovanie, "12-13. Not all regions were able to compensate households with land; for example, Leningrad province could proffer cash only, and this apparently discouraged peasants from participating. As an alternative, the Commissariat of Finance provided a tax break. Ustvol'skii, "K voprosu o peredache besprizornykh, "113-14; "Ol'gotakh po sel'skokhoziaistvennomu nalogu khoziaistvam, priniavshim k sebe vospitannikov detskikh domov, "Vestnik prosveshchentsa no. 4 (1927): 69-70.
87. Kalinina asserted that peasants preferred the cash subsidy to the "insignificant" additional land. Kalinina, "Patronirovanie, "12-13. Not all regions were able to compensate households with land; for example, Leningrad province could proffer cash only, and this apparently discouraged peasants from participating. As an alternative, the Commissariat of Finance provided a tax break. Ustvol'skii, "K voprosu o peredache besprizornykh, "113-14; "Ol'gotakh po sel'skokhoziaistvennomu nalogu khoziaistvam, priniavshim k sebe vospitannikov detskikh domov, "Vestnik prosveshchentsa no. 4 (1927): 69-70.
88. Kalinina asserted that peasants preferred the cash subsidy to the "insignificant" additional land. Kalinina, "Patronirovanie, "12-13. Not all regions were able to compensate households with land; for example, Leningrad province could proffer cash only, and this apparently discouraged peasants from participating. As an alternative, the Commissariat of Finance provided a tax break. Ustvol'skii, "K voprosu o peredache besprizornykh, "113-14; "Ol'gotakh po sel'skokhoziaistvennomu nalogu khoziaistvam, priniavshim k sebe vospitannikov detskikh domov, "Vestnik prosveshchentsa no. 4 (1927): 69-70.
89. Cherkezov, "Vospitanie sirot i besprizornykh, "7-10.
90. Kalinina, "Patronirovanie, "13.
91. G. Cherkezov, "V krest'ianskoi sem'e, "Drug detei no. 4 (April 1928): 8.
92. L. Azov, "Kak brat' detei na vospitanie, "Krest'ianskii iurist no. 11 (1928): 6. When adoption was reintroduced into law in 1926, foster families who wanted to change their status could adopt their wards without any further investigation or red tape. They could also keep any land and privileges conferred on them through the foster situation. "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii', "in Ob usynovlenii detei i podrostkov (Moscow: Izdanie Detkomissii VTsIK, 1926), 77-78.
93. L. Azov, "Kak brat' detei na vospitanie, "Krest'ianskii iurist no. 11 (1928): 6. When adoption was reintroduced into law in 1926, foster families who wanted to change their status could adopt their wards without any further investigation or red tape. They could also keep any land and privileges conferred on them through the foster situation. "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii', "in Ob usynovlenii detei i podrostkov (Moscow: Izdanie Detkomissii VTsIK, 1926), 77-78.
94. Kalinina, "Patronirovanie, "12.
95. Cherkezov, "V krest'ianskoi sem'e, "8.
96. "Na vospitanii u zemli, "Drug detei nos. 5-6 (1927): 32-33.
97. Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR. Obshcheobrazovatel'naia shkola. Sbornik dokumentov, 1917-1973 g.g. (Moscow: Pedagogika, 1974), 348-49.
98. "O poriadke i usloviiakh peredachi vospitannikov detskikh domov i drugikh nesovershennoletnikh trudiashchimsia v gorodakh i rabochikh poselkakh, "May 28, 1928, in Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu, 102-4.
99. See, for example, Kak peredavat' besprizornykh i vospitannikov detdomov v trudovye khoziaistva (Viatka: Izdanie Viatskoi GubDetkomissii i GubONO, 1928), 4; A. Kondrat'ev, "Nachalo dlitel'noi i upornoi raboty (k dvukhnedel'niku po bor'be s besprizornost'iu), "Prosveshchenie Sibiri no. 12 (December 1929): 9-11.
100. See, for example, Kak peredavat' besprizornykh i vospitannikov detdomov v trudovye khoziaistva (Viatka: Izdanie Viatskoi GubDetkomissii i GubONO, 1928), 4; A. Kondrat'ev, "Nachalo dlitel'noi i upornoi raboty (k dvukhnedel'niku po bor'be s besprizornost'iu), "Prosveshchenie Sibiri no. 12 (December 1929): 9-11.
101. Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened, 147. For criticisms of this nature, see Obzor raboty po bor'be s detskoi besprizornost'iu, 16; F. Iakovenko, "Na bor'bu s detskoi besprizornost'iu" Izvestiia Severo-kavkazskogo kraevogo ispolnitel'nogo komiteta no. 3 (May 25, 1926): 8-9; Iakovenko, "Detskaia besprizornost' i sostoianie detdomov v sev.-kavk. krae, "Severo-kavkazskii krai no. 5 (May 1926): 23-27; Drug detei nos. 6-7 (June-July 1927): 36; V. Pokrovskii, "O peredache detei detskikh domov v krest'iankie sem'i, "Leningradskaia oblast' no. 2 (1928): 103; Kondrat'ev, "Nachalo dlitel'noi i upornoi raboty, "10.
102. Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened, 147. For criticisms of this nature, see Obzor raboty po bor'be s detskoi besprizornost'iu, 16; F. Iakovenko, "Na bor'bu s detskoi besprizornost'iu" Izvestiia Severo-kavkazskogo kraevogo ispolnitel'nogo komiteta no. 3 (May 25, 1926): 8-9; Iakovenko, "Detskaia besprizornost' i sostoianie detdomov v sev.-kavk. krae, "Severo-kavkazskii krai no. 5 (May 1926): 23-27; Drug detei nos. 6-7 (June-July 1927): 36; V. Pokrovskii, "O peredache detei detskikh domov v krest'iankie sem'i, "Leningradskaia oblast' no. 2 (1928): 103; Kondrat'ev, "Nachalo dlitel'noi i upornoi raboty, "10.
103. Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened, 147. For criticisms of this nature, see Obzor raboty po bor'be s detskoi besprizornost'iu, 16; F. Iakovenko, "Na bor'bu s detskoi besprizornost'iu" Izvestiia Severo-kavkazskogo kraevogo ispolnitel'nogo komiteta no. 3 (May 25, 1926): 8-9; Iakovenko, "Detskaia besprizornost' i sostoianie detdomov v sev.-kavk. krae, "Severo-kavkazskii krai no. 5 (May 1926): 23-27; Drug detei nos. 6-7 (June-July 1927): 36; V. Pokrovskii, "O peredache detei detskikh domov v krest'iankie sem'i, "Leningradskaia oblast' no. 2 (1928): 103; Kondrat'ev, "Nachalo dlitel'noi i upornoi raboty, "10.
104. Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened, 147. For criticisms of this nature, see Obzor raboty po bor'be s detskoi besprizornost'iu, 16; F. Iakovenko, "Na bor'bu s detskoi besprizornost'iu" Izvestiia Severo-kavkazskogo kraevogo ispolnitel'nogo komiteta no. 3 (May 25, 1926): 8-9; Iakovenko, "Detskaia besprizornost' i sostoianie detdomov v sev.-kavk. krae, "Severo-kavkazskii krai no. 5 (May 1926): 23-27; Drug detei nos. 6-7 (June-July 1927): 36; V. Pokrovskii, "O peredache detei detskikh domov v krest'iankie sem'i, "Leningradskaia oblast' no. 2 (1928): 103; Kondrat'ev, "Nachalo dlitel'noi i upornoi raboty, "10.
105. Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened, 147. For criticisms of this nature, see Obzor raboty po bor'be s detskoi besprizornost'iu, 16; F. Iakovenko, "Na bor'bu s detskoi besprizornost'iu" Izvestiia Severo-kavkazskogo kraevogo ispolnitel'nogo komiteta no. 3 (May 25, 1926): 8-9; Iakovenko, "Detskaia besprizornost' i sostoianie detdomov v sev.-kavk. krae, "Severo-kavkazskii krai no. 5 (May 1926): 23-27; Drug detei nos. 6-7 (June-July 1927): 36; V. Pokrovskii, "O peredache detei detskikh domov v krest'iankie sem'i, "Leningradskaia oblast' no. 2 (1928): 103; Kondrat'ev, "Nachalo dlitel'noi i upornoi raboty, "10.
106. Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened, 147. For criticisms of this nature, see Obzor raboty po bor'be s detskoi besprizornost'iu, 16; F. Iakovenko, "Na bor'bu s detskoi besprizornost'iu" Izvestiia Severo-kavkazskogo kraevogo ispolnitel'nogo komiteta no. 3 (May 25, 1926): 8-9; Iakovenko, "Detskaia besprizornost' i sostoianie detdomov v sev.-kavk. krae, "Severo-kavkazskii krai no. 5 (May 1926): 23-27; Drug detei nos. 6-7 (June-July 1927): 36; V. Pokrovskii, "O peredache detei detskikh domov v krest'iankie sem'i, "Leningradskaia oblast' no. 2 (1928): 103; Kondrat'ev, "Nachalo dlitel'noi i upornoi raboty, "10.
107. Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened, 147. For criticisms of this nature, see Obzor raboty po bor'be s detskoi besprizornost'iu, 16; F. Iakovenko, "Na bor'bu s detskoi besprizornost'iu" Izvestiia Severo-kavkazskogo kraevogo ispolnitel'nogo komiteta no. 3 (May 25, 1926): 8-9; Iakovenko, "Detskaia besprizornost' i sostoianie detdomov v sev.-kavk. krae, "Severo-kavkazskii krai no. 5 (May 1926): 23-27; Drug detei nos. 6-7 (June-July 1927): 36; V. Pokrovskii, "O peredache detei detskikh domov v krest'iankie sem'i, "Leningradskaia oblast' no. 2 (1928): 103; Kondrat'ev, "Nachalo dlitel'noi i upornoi raboty, "10.
108. Azov, "Kak brat' detei na vospitanie, "5-6; Uvarov, "O patronate, "Vestnik prosveshchentsa nos. 7-8 (July-August 1926): 29.
109. Azov, "Kak brat' detei na vospitanie, "5-6; Uvarov, "O patronate, "Vestnik prosveshchentsa nos. 7-8 (July-August 1926): 29.
110. See, for example, Cherkezov, "V krest'ianskoi sem'e, "8.
111. On the association between besprizornost' and crime, see Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 76-84.
112. An author identified by the initials G. S. used this word in "O patronirovanii (v poriadke obsuzhdeniia), "Shkola i zhizn' no. 12 (December 1928): 18-19.
113. Quoted in Uvarov, "O patronate, "30.
114. One obstacle to education was the fact that some households lacked the clothes and shoes necessary for sending a child to school. Even an advocate of Moscow's program admitted that children placed with peasants essentially ceased to attend school. See "Na vospitanii u zemli, "32-33.
115. Numbers cited by A. Novikov, "Shpitaty, "Za kommunisticheskoe vospitanie no. 7 (1930): 97.
116. E. Solovov, "Usil'te obshchestvennyi kontrol' nad det'mi, otdannymi vderevniu, "Drug detei no. 1 (1929): 9.
117. Novikov, "Shpitaty, "97.
118. For example, see Drug detei nos. 6-7 (June-July 1927): 36; Cherkezov, "Chto daet patronirovanie, "Drug detei no. 2 (February 1928): 14-15; A. Poliakov, "Bor'ba s besprizornost'iu i sovetskaia obshchestvennost', "Prosveshchenie Sibiri no. 9 (September 1928): 68.
119. For example, see Drug detei nos. 6-7 (June-July 1927): 36; Cherkezov, "Chto daet patronirovanie, "Drug detei no. 2 (February 1928): 14-15; A. Poliakov, "Bor'ba s besprizornost'iu i sovetskaia obshchestvennost', "Prosveshchenie Sibiri no. 9 (September 1928): 68.
120. For example, see Drug detei nos. 6-7 (June-July 1927): 36; Cherkezov, "Chto daet patronirovanie, "Drug detei no. 2 (February 1928): 14-15; A. Poliakov, "Bor'ba s besprizornost'iu i sovetskaia obshchestvennost', "Prosveshchenie Sibiri no. 9 (September 1928): 68.
121. Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 76-77.
122. Cherkezov, "Chto daet patronirovanie, "14-15.
123. Letter from Sofiia M-va to "Nasha iuridicheskaia konsul'tatsiia, "in Drug detei no. 10 (October 1927).
124. One article with this warning appeared in 1924: E. S. Livshits, Detskaia besprizornost' i novye formy bor'by s neiu (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo "Rabotnik prosveshcheniia, "1924), 19. Others appeared with increasing frequency after 1926: Cherkezov, "Vospitanie sirot i besprizornykh, "18; Kalinina, "Patronirovanie, "13; "Ob uchastii VLKSM v bor'be s besprizornost'iu, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 12 (December 1927): 81-85; I. El'kin, "O peredache besprizornykh detei v krest'ianskie khoziaistva dlia obucheniia sel'skokhoziaistvennomu trudu, "Komi prosveshchenets no. 3 (March-April 1928): 3-6; Cherkezov, "V krest'ianskoi sem'e, "8; K. Vil'tsin, Drug detei no. 5 (May 1928): 21; P. S. Gilev, Detskaia besprizornost' i bor'ba s nei v Buriatii za poslednie piat' let (Verkhneudinsk: Izdanie Detskoi komissii pri BurTsIK'e, 1928), 13; Solovov, "Usil'te obshchestvennyi kontrol' nad det'mi, "9; Kondrat'ev, "Nachalo dlitel'noi i upornoi raboty, "10-11.
125. One article with this warning appeared in 1924: E. S. Livshits, Detskaia besprizornost' i novye formy bor'by s neiu (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo "Rabotnik prosveshcheniia, "1924), 19. Others appeared with increasing frequency after 1926: Cherkezov, "Vospitanie sirot i besprizornykh, "18; Kalinina, "Patronirovanie, "13; "Ob uchastii VLKSM v bor'be s besprizornost'iu, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 12 (December 1927): 81-85; I. El'kin, "O peredache besprizornykh detei v krest'ianskie khoziaistva dlia obucheniia sel'skokhoziaistvennomu trudu, "Komi prosveshchenets no. 3 (March-April 1928): 3-6; Cherkezov, "V krest'ianskoi sem'e, "8; K. Vil'tsin, Drug detei no. 5 (May 1928): 21; P. S. Gilev, Detskaia besprizornost' i bor'ba s nei v Buriatii za poslednie piat' let (Verkhneudinsk: Izdanie Detskoi komissii pri BurTsIK'e, 1928), 13; Solovov, "Usil'te obshchestvennyi kontrol' nad det'mi, "9; Kondrat'ev, "Nachalo dlitel'noi i upornoi raboty, "10-11.
126. One article with this warning appeared in 1924: E. S. Livshits, Detskaia besprizornost' i novye formy bor'by s neiu (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo "Rabotnik prosveshcheniia, "1924), 19. Others appeared with increasing frequency after 1926: Cherkezov, "Vospitanie sirot i besprizornykh, "18; Kalinina, "Patronirovanie, "13; "Ob uchastii VLKSM v bor'be s besprizornost'iu, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 12 (December 1927): 81-85; I. El'kin, "O peredache besprizornykh detei v krest'ianskie khoziaistva dlia obucheniia sel'skokhoziaistvennomu trudu, "Komi prosveshchenets no. 3 (March-April 1928): 3-6; Cherkezov, "V krest'ianskoi sem'e, "8; K. Vil'tsin, Drug detei no. 5 (May 1928): 21; P. S. Gilev, Detskaia besprizornost' i bor'ba s nei v Buriatii za poslednie piat' let (Verkhneudinsk: Izdanie Detskoi komissii pri BurTsIK'e, 1928), 13; Solovov, "Usil'te obshchestvennyi kontrol' nad det'mi, "9; Kondrat'ev, "Nachalo dlitel'noi i upornoi raboty, "10-11.
127. One article with this warning appeared in 1924: E. S. Livshits, Detskaia besprizornost' i novye formy bor'by s neiu (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo "Rabotnik prosveshcheniia, "1924), 19. Others appeared with increasing frequency after 1926: Cherkezov, "Vospitanie sirot i besprizornykh, "18; Kalinina, "Patronirovanie, "13; "Ob uchastii VLKSM v bor'be s besprizornost'iu, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 12 (December 1927): 81-85; I. El'kin, "O peredache besprizornykh detei v krest'ianskie khoziaistva dlia obucheniia sel'skokhoziaistvennomu trudu, "Komi prosveshchenets no. 3 (March-April 1928): 3-6; Cherkezov, "V krest'ianskoi sem'e, "8; K. Vil'tsin, Drug detei no. 5 (May 1928): 21; P. S. Gilev, Detskaia besprizornost' i bor'ba s nei v Buriatii za poslednie piat' let (Verkhneudinsk: Izdanie Detskoi komissii pri BurTsIK'e, 1928), 13; Solovov, "Usil'te obshchestvennyi kontrol' nad det'mi, "9; Kondrat'ev, "Nachalo dlitel'noi i upornoi raboty, "10-11.
128. One article with this warning appeared in 1924: E. S. Livshits, Detskaia besprizornost' i novye formy bor'by s neiu (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo "Rabotnik prosveshcheniia, "1924), 19. Others appeared with increasing frequency after 1926: Cherkezov, "Vospitanie sirot i besprizornykh, "18; Kalinina, "Patronirovanie, "13; "Ob uchastii VLKSM v bor'be s besprizornost'iu, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 12 (December 1927): 81-85; I. El'kin, "O peredache besprizornykh detei v krest'ianskie khoziaistva dlia obucheniia sel'skokhoziaistvennomu trudu, "Komi prosveshchenets no. 3 (March-April 1928): 3-6; Cherkezov, "V krest'ianskoi sem'e, "8; K. Vil'tsin, Drug detei no. 5 (May 1928): 21; P. S. Gilev, Detskaia besprizornost' i bor'ba s nei v Buriatii za poslednie piat' let (Verkhneudinsk: Izdanie Detskoi komissii pri BurTsIK'e, 1928), 13; Solovov, "Usil'te obshchestvennyi kontrol' nad det'mi, "9; Kondrat'ev, "Nachalo dlitel'noi i upornoi raboty, "10-11.
129. One article with this warning appeared in 1924: E. S. Livshits, Detskaia besprizornost' i novye formy bor'by s neiu (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo "Rabotnik prosveshcheniia, "1924), 19. Others appeared with increasing frequency after 1926: Cherkezov, "Vospitanie sirot i besprizornykh, "18; Kalinina, "Patronirovanie, "13; "Ob uchastii VLKSM v bor'be s besprizornost'iu, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 12 (December 1927): 81-85; I. El'kin, "O peredache besprizornykh detei v krest'ianskie khoziaistva dlia obucheniia sel'skokhoziaistvennomu trudu, "Komi prosveshchenets no. 3 (March-April 1928): 3-6; Cherkezov, "V krest'ianskoi sem'e, "8; K. Vil'tsin, Drug detei no. 5 (May 1928): 21; P. S. Gilev, Detskaia besprizornost' i bor'ba s nei v Buriatii za poslednie piat' let (Verkhneudinsk: Izdanie Detskoi komissii pri BurTsIK'e, 1928), 13; Solovov, "Usil'te obshchestvennyi kontrol' nad det'mi, "9; Kondrat'ev, "Nachalo dlitel'noi i upornoi raboty, "10-11.
130. One article with this warning appeared in 1924: E. S. Livshits, Detskaia besprizornost' i novye formy bor'by s neiu (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo "Rabotnik prosveshcheniia, "1924), 19. Others appeared with increasing frequency after 1926: Cherkezov, "Vospitanie sirot i besprizornykh, "18; Kalinina, "Patronirovanie, "13; "Ob uchastii VLKSM v bor'be s besprizornost'iu, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 12 (December 1927): 81-85; I. El'kin, "O peredache besprizornykh detei v krest'ianskie khoziaistva dlia obucheniia sel'skokhoziaistvennomu trudu, "Komi prosveshchenets no. 3 (March-April 1928): 3-6; Cherkezov, "V krest'ianskoi sem'e, "8; K. Vil'tsin, Drug detei no. 5 (May 1928): 21; P. S. Gilev, Detskaia besprizornost' i bor'ba s nei v Buriatii za poslednie piat' let (Verkhneudinsk: Izdanie Detskoi komissii pri BurTsIK'e, 1928), 13; Solovov, "Usil'te obshchestvennyi kontrol' nad det'mi, "9; Kondrat'ev, "Nachalo dlitel'noi i upornoi raboty, "10-11.
131. One article with this warning appeared in 1924: E. S. Livshits, Detskaia besprizornost' i novye formy bor'by s neiu (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo "Rabotnik prosveshcheniia, "1924), 19. Others appeared with increasing frequency after 1926: Cherkezov, "Vospitanie sirot i besprizornykh, "18; Kalinina, "Patronirovanie, "13; "Ob uchastii VLKSM v bor'be s besprizornost'iu, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 12 (December 1927): 81-85; I. El'kin, "O peredache besprizornykh detei v krest'ianskie khoziaistva dlia obucheniia sel'skokhoziaistvennomu trudu, "Komi prosveshchenets no. 3 (March-April 1928): 3-6; Cherkezov, "V krest'ianskoi sem'e, "8; K. Vil'tsin, Drug detei no. 5 (May 1928): 21; P. S. Gilev, Detskaia besprizornost' i bor'ba s nei v Buriatii za poslednie piat' let (Verkhneudinsk: Izdanie Detskoi komissii pri BurTsIK'e, 1928), 13; Solovov, "Usil'te obshchestvennyi kontrol' nad det'mi, "9; Kondrat'ev, "Nachalo dlitel'noi i upornoi raboty, "10-11.
132. One article with this warning appeared in 1924: E. S. Livshits, Detskaia besprizornost' i novye formy bor'by s neiu (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo "Rabotnik prosveshcheniia, "1924), 19. Others appeared with increasing frequency after 1926: Cherkezov, "Vospitanie sirot i besprizornykh, "18; Kalinina, "Patronirovanie, "13; "Ob uchastii VLKSM v bor'be s besprizornost'iu, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 12 (December 1927): 81-85; I. El'kin, "O peredache besprizornykh detei v krest'ianskie khoziaistva dlia obucheniia sel'skokhoziaistvennomu trudu, "Komi prosveshchenets no. 3 (March-April 1928): 3-6; Cherkezov, "V krest'ianskoi sem'e, "8; K. Vil'tsin, Drug detei no. 5 (May 1928): 21; P. S. Gilev, Detskaia besprizornost' i bor'ba s nei v Buriatii za poslednie piat' let (Verkhneudinsk: Izdanie Detskoi komissii pri BurTsIK'e, 1928), 13; Solovov, "Usil'te obshchestvennyi kontrol' nad det'mi, "9; Kondrat'ev, "Nachalo dlitel'noi i upornoi raboty, "10-11.
133. One article with this warning appeared in 1924: E. S. Livshits, Detskaia besprizornost' i novye formy bor'by s neiu (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo "Rabotnik prosveshcheniia, "1924), 19. Others appeared with increasing frequency after 1926: Cherkezov, "Vospitanie sirot i besprizornykh, "18; Kalinina, "Patronirovanie, "13; "Ob uchastii VLKSM v bor'be s besprizornost'iu, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 12 (December 1927): 81-85; I. El'kin, "O peredache besprizornykh detei v krest'ianskie khoziaistva dlia obucheniia sel'skokhoziaistvennomu trudu, "Komi prosveshchenets no. 3 (March-April 1928): 3-6; Cherkezov, "V krest'ianskoi sem'e, "8; K. Vil'tsin, Drug detei no. 5 (May 1928): 21; P. S. Gilev, Detskaia besprizornost' i bor'ba s nei v Buriatii za poslednie piat' let (Verkhneudinsk: Izdanie Detskoi komissii pri BurTsIK'e, 1928), 13; Solovov, "Usil'te obshchestvennyi kontrol' nad det'mi, "9; Kondrat'ev, "Nachalo dlitel'noi i upornoi raboty, "10-11.
134. Narodnoe prosveshchenie v RSFSR k 1925/26, 71.
135. E. M. Vurgaft, "K voprosu o patronirovanii, "in Gosudarstvo i obshchestvennost' v bor'be s detskoi besprizornost'iu. Sbornik statei i pravitel'stvennykh rasporiazhenii, eds. S. S. Tizanov and M. S. Epshtein (Moscow and Leningrad: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo, 1927), 17-18.
136. Komsomol'skaia pravda no. 109 (May 14, 1926): 4.
137. Azov, "Kak brat' detei na vospitanie, "5.
138. Statsenko, "Peredacha vospitannikov detskikh domov v krest'ianskie sem'i, "Ezhenedel'nik sovetskoi iustitsii no. 31 (August 13, 1929): 731-32. A fourteen-year-old girl who sued her foster parents is mentioned in Uvarov, "O patronate, "29.
139. Statsenko, "Peredacha vospitannikov detskikh domov v krest'ianskie sem'i, "Ezhenedel'nik sovetskoi iustitsii no. 31 (August 13, 1929): 731-32. A fourteen-year-old girl who sued her foster parents is mentioned in Uvarov, "O patronate, "29.
140. Anna Restas's jail sentence was commuted to forced labor after she presented proof from a doctor that she was ill. A higher court excused her from the labor in exchange for community service. Sudebnaia praktika RSFSR no. 21 (November 15, 1928): 13-14.
141. Narodnoe prosveshchenie v RSFSR k 1927/28 uchebnomu godu (Moscow and Leningrad: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo, 1928), 60.
142. Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu, 15-16.
143. Decrees of July 11, 1928, July 17, 1929, May 30, 1930, and November 20, 1930 in ibid., 28-35.
144. Narodnoe prosveshchenie v SSSR k 1928/29 uchebnomu godu (Moscow/Leningrad: Gosudarstvnennoe izdatel'stvo, 1929), 92.
145. Of 1, 100 besprizorniki surveyed by Narkompros in 1928 and 1929, 9.3 percent were back on the streets after having fled foster households. Ibid., 90-91.
146. Joseph Stalin, Works, vol. 10 (Moscow, 1953-55), 196, quoted in David MacKenzie and Michael W. Curran, A History of the Soviet Union (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1986), 200.
147. Joseph Stalin, Works, vol. 10 (Moscow, 1953-55), 196, quoted in David MacKenzie and Michael W. Curran, A History of the Soviet Union (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1986), 200.
148. On the cultural revolution, see Sheila Fitzpatrick, ed., Cultural Revolution in Russia, 1928-1931 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978).
149. The local "Society of Worker-Peasant Aid to the Homeless Child" (Obshchestvo raboche-krest'ianskoi pomoshchi besprizornomu rebenku) requested monthly three-ruble contributions from its members to pay for this plan. "Bor'ba s besprizornost'iu v derevne: Shkoly na fronte bor'by s besprizornost'iu, "Put' prosveshchentsa nos. 6-7 (March-May 1925): 145-46. A contributor to the same journal affirmed later in 1925 the need for collective forms of patronirovanie. See Naryshkin, "Organizatsiia bor'by s besprizornost'iu v volosti, "Put' prosveshchentsa nos. 8-9 (December 1925): 44. On another homeless child housed in a school, see V. Naumov, "Kak nasha shkola vziala besprizornika, "Voprosy prosveshcheniia na severnom kavkaze no. 10 (May 1928): 21-23.
150. The local "Society of Worker-Peasant Aid to the Homeless Child" (Obshchestvo raboche-krest'ianskoi pomoshchi besprizornomu rebenku) requested monthly three-ruble contributions from its members to pay for this plan. "Bor'ba s besprizornost'iu v derevne: Shkoly na fronte bor'by s besprizornost'iu, "Put' prosveshchentsa nos. 6-7 (March-May 1925): 145-46. A contributor to the same journal affirmed later in 1925 the need for collective forms of patronirovanie. See Naryshkin, "Organizatsiia bor'by s besprizornost'iu v volosti, "Put' prosveshchentsa nos. 8-9 (December 1925): 44. On another homeless child housed in a school, see V. Naumov, "Kak nasha shkola vziala besprizornika, "Voprosy prosveshcheniia na severnom kavkaze no. 10 (May 1928): 21-23.
151. The local "Society of Worker-Peasant Aid to the Homeless Child" (Obshchestvo raboche-krest'ianskoi pomoshchi besprizornomu rebenku) requested monthly three-ruble contributions from its members to pay for this plan. "Bor'ba s besprizornost'iu v derevne: Shkoly na fronte bor'by s besprizornost'iu, "Put' prosveshchentsa nos. 6-7 (March-May 1925): 145-46. A contributor to the same journal affirmed later in 1925 the need for collective forms of patronirovanie. See Naryshkin, "Organizatsiia bor'by s besprizornost'iu v volosti, "Put' prosveshchentsa nos. 8-9 (December 1925): 44. On another homeless child housed in a school, see V. Naumov, "Kak nasha shkola vziala besprizornika, "Voprosy prosveshcheniia na severnom kavkaze no. 10 (May 1928): 21-23.
152. Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu, 38-41.
153. Resolution in ibid., 41.
154. Obzor raboty po bor'be s detskoi besprizornost'iu, 16-17.
155. As of the beginning of 1928, the Moscow department of education sent more than 500 children to peasant families, but 500 or so to artels and individual artisans, some 150 to a consumers' cooperative, and 250 to military musical squads. Cherkezov, "Chto daet patronirovanie, "14-15. On other
156. As of the beginning of 1928, the Moscow department of education sent more than 500 children to peasant families, but 500 or so to artels and individual artisans, some 150 to a consumers' cooperative, and 250 to military musical squads. Cherkezov, "Chto daet patronirovanie, "14-15. On other institutional placements, see Gilev, Detskaia besprizornost' i bor'ba s nei, 4; T. Ivlev, "O detdomakh Stavropol'skogo okruga, "Detskii dom nos. 8-9 (1929): 92-94. The government of Boris Yeltsin's successor, Vladimir Putin, recently revived this practice, urging military detachments "to adopt" orphaned boys and the sons of single mothers over the age of fourteen. Reported by Masha Gessen, "Lockstep to Putin's New Military Order, "New York Times, February 29, 2000, A-21.
157. As of the beginning of 1928, the Moscow department of education sent more than 500 children to peasant families, but 500 or so to artels and individual artisans, some 150 to a consumers' cooperative, and 250 to military musical squads. Cherkezov, "Chto daet patronirovanie, "14-15. On other institutional placements, see Gilev, Detskaia besprizornost' i bor'ba s nei, 4; T. Ivlev, "O detdomakh Stavropol'skogo okruga, "Detskii dom nos. 8-9 (1929): 92-94. The government of Boris Yeltsin's successor, Vladimir Putin, recently revived this practice, urging military detachments "to adopt" orphaned boys and the sons of single mothers over the age of fourteen. Reported by Masha Gessen, "Lockstep to Putin's New Military Order, "New York Times, February 29, 2000, A-21.
158. As of the beginning of 1928, the Moscow department of education sent more than 500 children to peasant families, but 500 or so to artels and individual artisans, some 150 to a consumers' cooperative, and 250 to military musical squads. Cherkezov, "Chto daet patronirovanie, "14-15. On other institutional placements, see Gilev, Detskaia besprizornost' i bor'ba s nei, 4; T. Ivlev, "O detdomakh Stavropol'skogo okruga, "Detskii dom nos. 8-9 (1929): 92-94. The government of Boris Yeltsin's successor, Vladimir Putin, recently revived this practice, urging military detachments "to adopt" orphaned boys and the sons of single mothers over the age of fourteen. Reported by Masha Gessen, "Lockstep to Putin's New Military Order, "New York Times, February 29, 2000, A-21.
159. Solovov, "Usil'te obshchestvennyi kontrol' nad det'mi, "9. For other articles favoring kolkhozes as foster parents, see also E. Solovov, "Bol'she vnimaniia detiam, otdavaemym na vospitanie krest'ianam, "Vestnik prosveshcheniia no. 1 (1929): 165; S. Shupov, "O vypuske detei iz detdomov, "Prosveshchenie Sibiri no. 9 (September 1928): 73-75; Stasenko, "Peredacha vospitannikov detskikh domov, "732.
160. Solovov, "Usil'te obshchestvennyi kontrol' nad det'mi, "9. For other articles favoring kolkhozes as foster parents, see also E. Solovov, "Bol'she vnimaniia detiam, otdavaemym na vospitanie krest'ianam, "Vestnik prosveshcheniia no. 1 (1929): 165; S. Shupov, "O vypuske detei iz detdomov, "Prosveshchenie Sibiri no. 9 (September 1928): 73-75; Stasenko, "Peredacha vospitannikov detskikh domov, "732.
161. Solovov, "Usil'te obshchestvennyi kontrol' nad det'mi, "9. For other articles favoring kolkhozes as foster parents, see also E. Solovov, "Bol'she vnimaniia detiam, otdavaemym na vospitanie krest'ianam, "Vestnik prosveshcheniia no. 1 (1929): 165; S. Shupov, "O vypuske detei iz detdomov, "Prosveshchenie Sibiri no. 9 (September 1928): 73-75; Stasenko, "Peredacha vospitannikov detskikh domov, "732.
162. Solovov, "Usil'te obshchestvennyi kontrol' nad det'mi, "9. For other articles favoring kolkhozes as foster parents, see also E. Solovov, "Bol'she vnimaniia detiam, otdavaemym na vospitanie krest'ianam, "Vestnik prosveshcheniia no. 1 (1929): 165; S. Shupov, "O vypuske detei iz detdomov, "Prosveshchenie Sibiri no. 9 (September 1928): 73-75; Stasenko, "Peredacha vospitannikov detskikh domov, "732.
163. B. Orlovskii, "Nizhegorodskoe kraevoe soveshchanie po okhrane detstva 3-7 iiulia 1929 g., "Detskii dom nos. 8-9 (1929): 88. See also B. Orlovskii, "Besprizornost' neobkhodimo izzhit', "Nizhegorodskii prosveshchenets nos. 1-2 (October-November 1929): 45-49. Earlier articles by this author advocating foster care include Orlovskii and Okun'kov, "O patronirovanii, "28-31; B. Orlovskii, "Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu v Nizhegorodskoi gubernii, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 11 (November 1926): 30-40; B. Orlovskii, "Desiat' let bor'by s detskoi besprizornost'iu, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 10 (October 1927): 54-63; B. Orlovskii, "Patronirovanie besprizornykh, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 7 (July 1929): 76-78. By the end of 1929, he recommended placing orphans only with legal guardians (opekuny) and in institutions. See B. Orlovskii, "V pokhod na besprizornost', "Nizhegorodskii prosveshchenets no. 3 (December 1929): 9-12.
164. B. Orlovskii, "Nizhegorodskoe kraevoe soveshchanie po okhrane detstva 3-7 iiulia 1929 g., "Detskii dom nos. 8-9 (1929): 88. See also B. Orlovskii, "Besprizornost' neobkhodimo izzhit', "Nizhegorodskii prosveshchenets nos. 1-2 (October-November 1929): 45-49. Earlier articles by this author advocating foster care include Orlovskii and Okun'kov, "O patronirovanii, "28-31; B. Orlovskii, "Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu v Nizhegorodskoi gubernii, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 11 (November 1926): 30-40; B. Orlovskii, "Desiat' let bor'by s detskoi besprizornost'iu, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 10 (October 1927): 54-63; B. Orlovskii, "Patronirovanie besprizornykh, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 7 (July 1929): 76-78. By the end of 1929, he recommended placing orphans only with legal guardians (opekuny) and in institutions. See B. Orlovskii, "V pokhod na besprizornost', "Nizhegorodskii prosveshchenets no. 3 (December 1929): 9-12.
165. B. Orlovskii, "Nizhegorodskoe kraevoe soveshchanie po okhrane detstva 3-7 iiulia 1929 g., "Detskii dom nos. 8-9 (1929): 88. See also B. Orlovskii, "Besprizornost' neobkhodimo izzhit', "Nizhegorodskii prosveshchenets nos. 1-2 (October-November 1929): 45-49. Earlier articles by this author advocating foster care include Orlovskii and Okun'kov, "O patronirovanii, "28-31; B. Orlovskii, "Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu v Nizhegorodskoi gubernii, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 11 (November 1926): 30-40; B. Orlovskii, "Desiat' let bor'by s detskoi besprizornost'iu, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 10 (October 1927): 54-63; B. Orlovskii, "Patronirovanie besprizornykh, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 7 (July 1929): 76-78. By the end of 1929, he recommended placing orphans only with legal guardians (opekuny) and in institutions. See B. Orlovskii, "V pokhod na besprizornost', "Nizhegorodskii prosveshchenets no. 3 (December 1929): 9-12.
166. B. Orlovskii, "Nizhegorodskoe kraevoe soveshchanie po okhrane detstva 3-7 iiulia 1929 g., "Detskii dom nos. 8-9 (1929): 88. See also B. Orlovskii, "Besprizornost' neobkhodimo izzhit', "Nizhegorodskii prosveshchenets nos. 1-2 (October-November 1929): 45-49. Earlier articles by this author advocating foster care include Orlovskii and Okun'kov, "O patronirovanii, "28-31; B. Orlovskii, "Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu v Nizhegorodskoi gubernii, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 11 (November 1926): 30-40; B. Orlovskii, "Desiat' let bor'by s detskoi besprizornost'iu, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 10 (October 1927): 54-63; B. Orlovskii, "Patronirovanie besprizornykh, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 7 (July 1929): 76-78. By the end of 1929, he recommended placing orphans only with legal guardians (opekuny) and in institutions. See B. Orlovskii, "V pokhod na besprizornost', "Nizhegorodskii prosveshchenets no. 3 (December 1929): 9-12.
167. B. Orlovskii, "Nizhegorodskoe kraevoe soveshchanie po okhrane detstva 3-7 iiulia 1929 g., "Detskii dom nos. 8-9 (1929): 88. See also B. Orlovskii, "Besprizornost' neobkhodimo izzhit', "Nizhegorodskii prosveshchenets nos. 1-2 (October-November 1929): 45-49. Earlier articles by this author advocating foster care include Orlovskii and Okun'kov, "O patronirovanii, "28-31; B. Orlovskii, "Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu v Nizhegorodskoi gubernii, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 11 (November 1926): 30-40; B. Orlovskii, "Desiat' let bor'by s detskoi besprizornost'iu, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 10 (October 1927): 54-63; B. Orlovskii, "Patronirovanie besprizornykh, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 7 (July 1929): 76-78. By the end of 1929, he recommended placing orphans only with legal guardians (opekuny) and in institutions. See B. Orlovskii, "V pokhod na besprizornost', "Nizhegorodskii prosveshchenets no. 3 (December 1929): 9-12.
168. B. Orlovskii, "Nizhegorodskoe kraevoe soveshchanie po okhrane detstva 3-7 iiulia 1929 g., "Detskii dom nos. 8-9 (1929): 88. See also B. Orlovskii, "Besprizornost' neobkhodimo izzhit', "Nizhegorodskii prosveshchenets nos. 1-2 (October-November 1929): 45-49. Earlier articles by this author advocating foster care include Orlovskii and Okun'kov, "O patronirovanii, "28-31; B. Orlovskii, "Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu v Nizhegorodskoi gubernii, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 11 (November 1926): 30-40; B. Orlovskii, "Desiat' let bor'by s detskoi besprizornost'iu, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 10 (October 1927): 54-63; B. Orlovskii, "Patronirovanie besprizornykh, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 7 (July 1929): 76-78. By the end of 1929, he recommended placing orphans only with legal guardians (opekuny) and in institutions. See B. Orlovskii, "V pokhod na besprizornost', "Nizhegorodskii prosveshchenets no. 3 (December 1929): 9-12.
169. B. Orlovskii, "Nizhegorodskoe kraevoe soveshchanie po okhrane detstva 3-7 iiulia 1929 g., "Detskii dom nos. 8-9 (1929): 88. See also B. Orlovskii, "Besprizornost' neobkhodimo izzhit', "Nizhegorodskii prosveshchenets nos. 1-2 (October-November 1929): 45-49. Earlier articles by this author advocating foster care include Orlovskii and Okun'kov, "O patronirovanii, "28-31; B. Orlovskii, "Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu v Nizhegorodskoi gubernii, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 11 (November 1926): 30-40; B. Orlovskii, "Desiat' let bor'by s detskoi besprizornost'iu, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 10 (October 1927): 54-63; B. Orlovskii, "Patronirovanie besprizornykh, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 7 (July 1929): 76-78. By the end of 1929, he recommended placing orphans only with legal guardians (opekuny) and in institutions. See B. Orlovskii, "V pokhod na besprizornost', "Nizhegorodskii prosveshchenets no. 3 (December 1929): 9-12.
170. Lukinskii, "Kolkhozy i kommuny dolzhno byt' patronatami dlia besprizornykh, "Drug detei no. 11 (1929): 8.
171. Gl. Protasov, "Detdomovtsy v kolkhozakh, "Prosveshchenie Sibiri no. 11 (November 1929): 51. See also his similar, albeit shorter article in Detskii dom nos. 8-9 (1929): 108-109. When Nizhnii Novgorod allocated additional funding for patronirovanie in 1929, it exhorted local collective farms to accept foster children. "O merakh bor'by s besprizornost'iu, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 4 (April 1929): 103. In 1930, only 120 children in the region of Nizhnii Novgorod were placed in private households. By contrast, 900 were placed in kolkhozes, 100 in sovkhozes, and 120 in artels. From B. Orlovskii, "Opyt vovlecheniia sovetskoi obshchestvennosti v rabotu po bor'be s besprizornost'iu, "Detskii dom no. 6 (1930): 24.
172. Gl. Protasov, "Detdomovtsy v kolkhozakh, "Prosveshchenie Sibiri no. 11 (November 1929): 51. See also his similar, albeit shorter article in Detskii dom nos. 8-9 (1929): 108-109. When Nizhnii Novgorod allocated additional funding for patronirovanie in 1929, it exhorted local collective farms to accept foster children. "O merakh bor'by s besprizornost'iu, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 4 (April 1929): 103. In 1930, only 120 children in the region of Nizhnii Novgorod were placed in private households. By contrast, 900 were placed in kolkhozes, 100 in sovkhozes, and 120 in artels. From B. Orlovskii, "Opyt vovlecheniia sovetskoi obshchestvennosti v rabotu po bor'be s besprizornost'iu, "Detskii dom no. 6 (1930): 24.
173. Gl. Protasov, "Detdomovtsy v kolkhozakh, "Prosveshchenie Sibiri no. 11 (November 1929): 51. See also his similar, albeit shorter article in Detskii dom nos. 8-9 (1929): 108-109. When Nizhnii Novgorod allocated additional funding for patronirovanie in 1929, it exhorted local collective farms to accept foster children. "O merakh bor'by s besprizornost'iu, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 4 (April 1929): 103. In 1930, only 120 children in the region of Nizhnii Novgorod were placed in private households. By contrast, 900 were placed in kolkhozes, 100 in sovkhozes, and 120 in artels. From B. Orlovskii, "Opyt vovlecheniia sovetskoi obshchestvennosti v rabotu po bor'be s besprizornost'iu, "Detskii dom no. 6 (1930): 24.
174. Gl. Protasov, "Detdomovtsy v kolkhozakh, "Prosveshchenie Sibiri no. 11 (November 1929): 51. See also his similar, albeit shorter article in Detskii dom nos. 8-9 (1929): 108-109. When Nizhnii Novgorod allocated additional funding for patronirovanie in 1929, it exhorted local collective farms to accept foster children. "O merakh bor'by s besprizornost'iu, "Shkola i zhizn' no. 4 (April 1929): 103. In 1930, only 120 children in the region of Nizhnii Novgorod were placed in private households. By contrast, 900 were placed in kolkhozes, 100 in sovkhozes, and 120 in artels. From B. Orlovskii, "Opyt vovlecheniia sovetskoi obshchestvennosti v rabotu po bor'be s besprizornost'iu, "Detskii dom no. 6 (1930): 24.
175. Novikov, "Shpitaty, "96-98.
176. "Ob usloviiakh peredachi vospitannikov detuchrezhenii v kolkhozy na patronirovanie, "January 16, 1930, in Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu, 108-9. See also Temkin and Epshtein, "O razmeshchenii podrostkov s.-kh kolonii v kolkhozy, "Detskii dom no. 1 (1930): 52-53.
177. "Ob usloviiakh peredachi vospitannikov detuchrezhenii v kolkhozy na patronirovanie, "January 16, 1930, in Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu, 108-9. See also Temkin and Epshtein, "O razmeshchenii podrostkov s.-kh kolonii v kolkhozy, "Detskii dom no. 1 (1930): 52-53.
178. N. Krupskaia, "Eshche ob odnom peregibe, "Na putiakh o novoi shkole nos. 4-5 (1930): 15-16. On the desperation of orphans in a recently collectivized village, see Rapports Secrets Soviétiques: La société russe dans les documents confidentiels, 1921-1991 (Paris: Éditions Gallimard, 1994), 148-49. A 1936 law made kolkhoz officials responsible for orphans within the collective farm. See Sheila Fitzpatrick, Stalin's Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village Afler Collectivization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 220.
179. N. Krupskaia, "Eshche ob odnom peregibe, "Na putiakh o novoi shkole nos. 4-5 (1930): 15-16. On the desperation of orphans in a recently collectivized village, see Rapports Secrets Soviétiques: La société russe dans les documents confidentiels, 1921-1991 (Paris: Éditions Gallimard, 1994), 148-49. A 1936 law made kolkhoz officials responsible for orphans within the collective farm. See Sheila Fitzpatrick, Stalin's Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village Afler Collectivization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 220.
180. N. Krupskaia, "Eshche ob odnom peregibe, "Na putiakh o novoi shkole nos. 4-5 (1930): 15-16. On the desperation of orphans in a recently collectivized village, see Rapports Secrets Soviétiques: La société russe dans les documents confidentiels, 1921-1991 (Paris: Éditions Gallimard, 1994), 148-49. A 1936 law made kolkhoz officials responsible for orphans within the collective farm. See Sheila Fitzpatrick, Stalin's Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village Afler Collectivization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 220.
181. Ivlev, "O detdomakh Stavropol'skogo okruga, "92-94.
182. In his words, foster children encountered "a peculiar 'collective farm Domostroevshchina.' "Novikov, "Shpitaty, "98.
183. Ibid., 98.
184. Resolutions in Narodnoe prosveshchenie v SSSR k 1928/29, 41-45, 65-73.
185. P. L., "Rano konchat' s patronirovaniem (v poriadke obsuzhdeniia)" Za kommunisticheskoe vospitanie nos. 12-13 (1930): 63.
186. Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu, 100.
187. Ustvol'skii, "K voprosu o peredache besprizornykh, "115.
188. March 17, 1934, directive from Semashko preserved in Tsentral'nyi gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Sankt-Peterburga (hereafter TsGAS-P), fond 7412, Gorodskaia komissiia po uluchsheniiu zhizni detei, opis' 1, delo 157, "Materialy obsledovaniia raboty po patronirovaniiu v oblasti, 14.II-31.XII.34, "listy 4-5.
189. Ibid., 1. 14.
190. Ibid., 1. 31.
191. That year, investigators discovered that a household that received forty rubles for foster care and another thirty-seven rubles from the pension of the eleven-year-old foster daughter's parents had her sleeping on the floor and was failing to feed her breakfast. TsGAS-P, f. 7412, op. 1, d. 228, "Materialy obsledovaniia sostoianii patronirovaniia i sotspomoshchi, 16.II-4. XI.35, "11. 1-12.
192. TsGAS-P, f. 7412, op. 1, d. 17, "Ankety pervichnogo i kontrol'nogo obsledovaniia, peredano na patronirovanii vospitannika detdoma ili sirota, 1936, "ll. 1-3.
193. See John N. Hazard, "The Child under Soviet Law, "in University of Chicago Law Review 5 (1937-38): 432; Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union, 43. For a Soviet article praising foster care in the 1930s, see B. R. Rodman, "O patronate, "Voprosy materinstva i mladenchestva no. 1 (1939): 58. Children under five months could be given to foster families if the foster mother could breast-feed the baby. In Sof'ia E. Kopelianskaia, Prava materi i rebenka v SSSR (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo meditsinskoi literatury Medgiz, 1960), 81. These instructions were issued not long after Soviet law started trying as adults children over the age of twelve who committed serious crimes and around the same time that it cracked down on parents who left their children without adult supervision. See Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 322-36.
194. See John N. Hazard, "The Child under Soviet Law, "in University of Chicago Law Review 5 (1937-38): 432; Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union, 43. For a Soviet article praising foster care in the 1930s, see B. R. Rodman, "O patronate, "Voprosy materinstva i mladenchestva no. 1 (1939): 58. Children under five months could be given to foster families if the foster mother could breast-feed the baby. In Sof'ia E. Kopelianskaia, Prava materi i rebenka v SSSR (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo meditsinskoi literatury Medgiz, 1960), 81. These instructions were issued not long after Soviet law started trying as adults children over the age of twelve who committed serious crimes and around the same time that it cracked down on parents who left their children without adult supervision. See Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 322-36.
195. See John N. Hazard, "The Child under Soviet Law, "in University of Chicago Law Review 5 (1937-38): 432; Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union, 43. For a Soviet article praising foster care in the 1930s, see B. R. Rodman, "O patronate, "Voprosy materinstva i mladenchestva no. 1 (1939): 58. Children under five months could be given to foster families if the foster mother could breast-feed the baby. In Sof'ia E. Kopelianskaia, Prava materi i rebenka v SSSR (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo meditsinskoi literatury Medgiz, 1960), 81. These instructions were issued not long after Soviet law started trying as adults children over the age of twelve who committed serious crimes and around the same time that it cracked down on parents who left their children without adult supervision. See Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 322-36.
196. See John N. Hazard, "The Child under Soviet Law, "in University of Chicago Law Review 5 (1937-38): 432; Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union, 43. For a Soviet article praising foster care in the 1930s, see B. R. Rodman, "O patronate, "Voprosy materinstva i mladenchestva no. 1 (1939): 58. Children under five months could be given to foster families if the foster mother could breast-feed the baby. In Sof'ia E. Kopelianskaia, Prava materi i rebenka v SSSR (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo meditsinskoi literatury Medgiz, 1960), 81. These instructions were issued not long after Soviet law started trying as adults children over the age of twelve who committed serious crimes and around the same time that it cracked down on parents who left their children without adult supervision. See Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 322-36.
197. See John N. Hazard, "The Child under Soviet Law, "in University of Chicago Law Review 5 (1937-38): 432; Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union, 43. For a Soviet article praising foster care in the 1930s, see B. R. Rodman, "O patronate, "Voprosy materinstva i mladenchestva no. 1 (1939): 58. Children under five months could be given to foster families if the foster mother could breast-feed the baby. In Sof'ia E. Kopelianskaia, Prava materi i rebenka v SSSR (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo meditsinskoi literatury Medgiz, 1960), 81. These instructions were issued not long after Soviet law started trying as adults children over the age of twelve who committed serious crimes and around the same time that it cracked down on parents who left their children without adult supervision. See Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 322-36.
198. In November 1941, authorities in Uzbekistan placed thousands of orphans evacuated from children's homes in the occupied and besieged regions with private families. In Vladimir I. Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava (Kiev: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo politicheskoi literatury USSR, 1952), 322. See also Nathan Herman, "The Place of the Child in Present-Day Russia, "Social Forces 21, no. 4 (May 1943): 451; Anna I. Dovgalevskaia, Semeinoe vospitanie priemnykh detei (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe uchebno-pedagogicheskoe izdatel'stvo, 1948), 45-63; V. Bulgakov, "Obshchestvennyi inspektor, "Sem'ia i shkola no. 9 (September 1948): 19-21.
199. In November 1941, authorities in Uzbekistan placed thousands of orphans evacuated from children's homes in the occupied and besieged regions with private families. In Vladimir I. Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava (Kiev: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo politicheskoi literatury USSR, 1952), 322. See also Nathan Herman, "The Place of the Child in Present-Day Russia, "Social Forces 21, no. 4 (May 1943): 451; Anna I. Dovgalevskaia, Semeinoe vospitanie priemnykh detei (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe uchebno-pedagogicheskoe izdatel'stvo, 1948), 45-63; V. Bulgakov, "Obshchestvennyi inspektor, "Sem'ia i shkola no. 9 (September 1948): 19-21.
200. In November 1941, authorities in Uzbekistan placed thousands of orphans evacuated from children's homes in the occupied and besieged regions with private families. In Vladimir I. Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava (Kiev: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo politicheskoi literatury USSR, 1952), 322. See also Nathan Herman, "The Place of the Child in Present-Day Russia, "Social Forces 21, no. 4 (May 1943): 451; Anna I. Dovgalevskaia, Semeinoe vospitanie priemnykh detei (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe uchebno-pedagogicheskoe izdatel'stvo, 1948), 45-63; V. Bulgakov, "Obshchestvennyi inspektor, "Sem'ia i shkola no. 9 (September 1948): 19-21.
201. In November 1941, authorities in Uzbekistan placed thousands of orphans evacuated from children's homes in the occupied and besieged regions with private families. In Vladimir I. Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava (Kiev: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo politicheskoi literatury USSR, 1952), 322. See also Nathan Herman, "The Place of the Child in Present-Day Russia, "Social Forces 21, no. 4 (May 1943): 451; Anna I. Dovgalevskaia, Semeinoe vospitanie priemnykh detei (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe uchebno-pedagogicheskoe izdatel'stvo, 1948), 45-63; V. Bulgakov, "Obshchestvennyi inspektor, "Sem'ia i shkola no. 9 (September 1948): 19-21.
202. See "Ob ustroistve detei, ostavshikhsia bez roditelei, "Uchebno-vospitatel'naia rabota v detskikh domakh nos. 1-2 (1942): 107-109; ibid., nos. 1-2 (1943): 76-78; Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR, 353-54; Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava, 321; Em. laroslavskii, "Chto ty sdelal dlia detei vo vremia voiny?" Komsomol'skaia pravda, February 18, 1943, 3; "Siroty vospityvaiutsia v sem'iakh trudiashchikhsia, "Pravda no. 256 (October 26, 1945): 1. Specific statistics for foster care in Leningrad are in TsGAS-P, f. 5039, Leningradskii gorodskii otdel narodnogo obrazovaniia Lengorispolkoma, op. 3, d. 663, "Statisticheskie otchety o detskikh domakh na pervogo ianvaria 1945 goda, "ll. 1-2; d. 993, "Otchet gorodskogo otdela narodnogo obrazovaniia goroda Leningrada po okhrane detstva s 1-go ianvaria po 1-e iiulia 1947 goda, "l. 5.
203. See "Ob ustroistve detei, ostavshikhsia bez roditelei, "Uchebno-vospitatel'naia rabota v detskikh domakh nos. 1-2 (1942): 107-109; ibid., nos. 1-2 (1943): 76-78; Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR, 353-54; Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava, 321; Em. laroslavskii, "Chto ty sdelal dlia detei vo vremia voiny?" Komsomol'skaia pravda, February 18, 1943, 3; "Siroty vospityvaiutsia v sem'iakh trudiashchikhsia, "Pravda no. 256 (October 26, 1945): 1. Specific statistics for foster care in Leningrad are in TsGAS-P, f. 5039, Leningradskii gorodskii otdel narodnogo obrazovaniia Lengorispolkoma, op. 3, d. 663, "Statisticheskie otchety o detskikh domakh na pervogo ianvaria 1945 goda, "ll. 1-2; d. 993, "Otchet gorodskogo otdela narodnogo obrazovaniia goroda Leningrada po okhrane detstva s 1-go ianvaria po 1-e iiulia 1947 goda, "l. 5.
204. See "Ob ustroistve detei, ostavshikhsia bez roditelei, "Uchebno-vospitatel'naia rabota v detskikh domakh nos. 1-2 (1942): 107-109; ibid., nos. 1-2 (1943): 76-78; Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR, 353-54; Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava, 321; Em. laroslavskii, "Chto ty sdelal dlia detei vo vremia voiny?" Komsomol'skaia pravda, February 18, 1943, 3; "Siroty vospityvaiutsia v sem'iakh trudiashchikhsia, "Pravda no. 256 (October 26, 1945): 1. Specific statistics for foster care in Leningrad are in TsGAS-P, f. 5039, Leningradskii gorodskii otdel narodnogo obrazovaniia Lengorispolkoma, op. 3, d. 663, "Statisticheskie otchety o detskikh domakh na pervogo ianvaria 1945 goda, "ll. 1-2; d. 993, "Otchet gorodskogo otdela narodnogo obrazovaniia goroda Leningrada po okhrane detstva s 1-go ianvaria po 1-e iiulia 1947 goda, "l. 5.
205. See "Ob ustroistve detei, ostavshikhsia bez roditelei, "Uchebno-vospitatel'naia rabota v detskikh domakh nos. 1-2 (1942): 107-109; ibid., nos. 1-2 (1943): 76-78; Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR, 353-54; Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava, 321; Em. laroslavskii, "Chto ty sdelal dlia detei vo vremia voiny?" Komsomol'skaia pravda, February 18, 1943, 3; "Siroty vospityvaiutsia v sem'iakh trudiashchikhsia, "Pravda no. 256 (October 26, 1945): 1. Specific statistics for foster care in Leningrad are in TsGAS-P, f. 5039, Leningradskii gorodskii otdel narodnogo obrazovaniia Lengorispolkoma, op. 3, d. 663, "Statisticheskie otchety o detskikh domakh na pervogo ianvaria 1945 goda, "ll. 1-2; d. 993, "Otchet gorodskogo otdela narodnogo obrazovaniia goroda Leningrada po okhrane detstva s 1-go ianvaria po 1-e iiulia 1947 goda, "l. 5.
206. See "Ob ustroistve detei, ostavshikhsia bez roditelei, "Uchebno-vospitatel'naia rabota v detskikh domakh nos. 1-2 (1942): 107-109; ibid., nos. 1-2 (1943): 76-78; Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR, 353-54; Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava, 321; Em. laroslavskii, "Chto ty sdelal dlia detei vo vremia voiny?" Komsomol'skaia pravda, February 18, 1943, 3; "Siroty vospityvaiutsia v sem'iakh trudiashchikhsia, "Pravda no. 256 (October 26, 1945): 1. Specific statistics for foster care in Leningrad are in TsGAS-P, f. 5039, Leningradskii gorodskii otdel narodnogo obrazovaniia Lengorispolkoma, op. 3, d. 663, "Statisticheskie otchety o detskikh domakh na pervogo ianvaria 1945 goda, "ll. 1-2; d. 993, "Otchet gorodskogo otdela narodnogo obrazovaniia goroda Leningrada po okhrane detstva s 1-go ianvaria po 1-e iiulia 1947 goda, "l. 5.
207. See "Ob ustroistve detei, ostavshikhsia bez roditelei, "Uchebno-vospitatel'naia rabota v detskikh domakh nos. 1-2 (1942): 107-109; ibid., nos. 1-2 (1943): 76-78; Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR, 353-54; Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava, 321; Em. laroslavskii, "Chto ty sdelal dlia detei vo vremia voiny?" Komsomol'skaia pravda, February 18, 1943, 3; "Siroty vospityvaiutsia v sem'iakh trudiashchikhsia, "Pravda no. 256 (October 26, 1945): 1. Specific statistics for foster care in Leningrad are in TsGAS-P, f. 5039, Leningradskii gorodskii otdel narodnogo obrazovaniia Lengorispolkoma, op. 3, d. 663, "Statisticheskie otchety o detskikh domakh na pervogo ianvaria 1945 goda, "ll. 1-2; d. 993, "Otchet gorodskogo otdela narodnogo obrazovaniia goroda Leningrada po okhrane detstva s 1-go ianvaria po 1-e iiulia 1947 goda, "l. 5.
208. Bernice Madison, quoting Grigorii Sverdlov, alleged that little was done to investigate the fates of children fostered out during wartime. Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union, 45. A campaign to promote foster care continued in the immediate postwar years. TsGAS-P, f. 5039, op. 3, d. 993, ll. 2-3.
209. F. Farberova, "Sel'skie sovety i okhrana prav nesovershennoletnikh detei, ostavshikhsia bez roditelei, "Sovet deputatov trudiashchikhsia no. 6 (June 1958): 100-103. Two Americans who investigated child welfare practices in the Soviet Union during the 1950s, a time when Nikita Khrushchev was championing boarding schools for dependent and at-risk children, were denied access to statistics with the numbers of children in foster homes. Yet, despite Khrushchev's renewed emphasis on institutional care, they got the impression that many foster children were being cared for in individual families. Herschel and Edith Alt, Russia's Children: A First Report on Child Welfare in the Soviet Union (New York: Bookman Associates, 1959), 126. On Khrushchev's support for boarding schools, see Urie Bronfenbrenner, "The Changing Soviet Family" in The Role and Status of Women in the Soviet Union, ed. Donald R. Brown (New York: Teachers' College Press, 1968), 109-18.
210. F. Farberova, "Sel'skie sovety i okhrana prav nesovershennoletnikh detei, ostavshikhsia bez roditelei, "Sovet deputatov trudiashchikhsia no. 6 (June 1958): 100-103. Two Americans who investigated child welfare practices in the Soviet Union during the 1950s, a time when Nikita Khrushchev was championing boarding schools for dependent and at-risk children, were denied access to statistics with the numbers of children in foster homes. Yet, despite Khrushchev's renewed emphasis on institutional care, they got the impression that many foster children were being cared for in individual families. Herschel and Edith Alt, Russia's Children: A First Report on Child Welfare in the Soviet Union (New York: Bookman Associates, 1959), 126. On Khrushchev's support for boarding schools, see Urie Bronfenbrenner, "The Changing Soviet Family" in The Role and Status of Women in the Soviet Union, ed. Donald R. Brown (New York: Teachers' College Press, 1968), 109-18.
211. F. Farberova, "Sel'skie sovety i okhrana prav nesovershennoletnikh detei, ostavshikhsia bez roditelei, "Sovet deputatov trudiashchikhsia no. 6 (June 1958): 100-103. Two Americans who investigated child welfare practices in the Soviet Union during the 1950s, a time when Nikita Khrushchev was championing boarding schools for dependent and at-risk children, were denied access to statistics with the numbers of children in foster homes. Yet, despite Khrushchev's renewed emphasis on institutional care, they got the impression that many foster children were being cared for in individual families. Herschel and Edith Alt, Russia's Children: A First Report on Child Welfare in the Soviet Union (New York: Bookman Associates, 1959), 126. On Khrushchev's support for boarding schools, see Urie Bronfenbrenner, "The Changing Soviet Family" in The Role and Status of Women in the Soviet Union, ed. Donald R. Brown (New York: Teachers' College Press, 1968), 109-18.
212. Madison, "Russia's Illegitimate Children before and after the Revolution, "92.
213. Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union, 156-57.