The evolution of Soviet adoption law

Journal of Family History

Volumn 22, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 204-226

  Bernstein, Laurie ^a  

^a RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0031116204     PISSN: 03631990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/036319909702200205     Document Type: Article

References (233)

1. This case is referred to in several sources, but the best overview is in Biulleten' Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 3 (1971): 12-3. See also Konstantin K. Cherviakov, Ustanovolenie i prekrashchenie roditel'skikh prav i obiazannostei (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1975), 83-4; S. I. Gusev, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii Plenuma i opredelenii Sudebnoi kollegii po grazhdanskim delam Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR (1962-1978 gg.), (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1980), 265-6.
2. This case is referred to in several sources, but the best overview is in Biulleten' Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 3 (1971): 12-3. See also Konstantin K. Cherviakov, Ustanovolenie i prekrashchenie roditel'skikh prav i obiazannostei (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1975), 83-4; S. I. Gusev, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii Plenuma i opredelenii Sudebnoi kollegii po grazhdanskim delam Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR (1962-1978 gg.), (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1980), 265-6.
3. This case is referred to in several sources, but the best overview is in Biulleten' Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 3 (1971): 12-3. See also Konstantin K. Cherviakov, Ustanovolenie i prekrashchenie roditel'skikh prav i obiazannostei (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1975), 83-4; S. I. Gusev, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii Plenuma i opredelenii Sudebnoi kollegii po grazhdanskim delam Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR (1962-1978 gg.), (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1980), 265-6.
4. Aleksandra I. Pergament, "Nekotorye voprosy usynovleniia," Sotsialisticheskaia zakonnost' 2 (February 1949): 23; Nataliia M. Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka," 1971), 74-5. If the mother, however, did not display any concern for the child (by visiting, writing letters, keeping the child apprised of her whereabouts, etc.), the child could be adopted without her permission. Mariia M. Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1963), 21; Z. A. Oshlakova, Usynovlenie detei rannego vozrasta (Alma-Ata, 1969), 9.
5. Aleksandra I. Pergament, "Nekotorye voprosy usynovleniia," Sotsialisticheskaia zakonnost' 2 (February 1949): 23; Nataliia M. Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka," 1971), 74-5. If the mother, however, did not display any concern for the child (by visiting, writing letters, keeping the child apprised of her whereabouts, etc.), the child could be adopted without her permission. Mariia M. Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1963), 21; Z. A. Oshlakova, Usynovlenie detei rannego vozrasta (Alma-Ata, 1969), 9.
6. Aleksandra I. Pergament, "Nekotorye voprosy usynovleniia," Sotsialisticheskaia zakonnost' 2 (February 1949): 23; Nataliia M. Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka," 1971), 74-5. If the mother, however, did not display any concern for the child (by visiting, writing letters, keeping the child apprised of her whereabouts, etc.), the child could be adopted without her permission. Mariia M. Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1963), 21; Z. A. Oshlakova, Usynovlenie detei rannego vozrasta (Alma-Ata, 1969), 9.
7. Aleksandra I. Pergament, "Nekotorye voprosy usynovleniia," Sotsialisticheskaia zakonnost' 2 (February 1949): 23; Nataliia M. Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka," 1971), 74-5. If the mother, however, did not display any concern for the child (by visiting, writing letters, keeping the child apprised of her whereabouts, etc.), the child could be adopted without her permission. Mariia M. Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1963), 21; Z. A. Oshlakova, Usynovlenie detei rannego vozrasta (Alma-Ata, 1969), 9.
8. Harold J. Berman, Justice in the U.S.S.R.: An Interpretation of Soviet Law (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963), 8.
9. The Soviet prosecutor Andrei Vyshinskii explained the coexistence of law and terror as stemming from the absence of worldwide communism. Until communism triumphed, the law only covered certain sectors of society. Quoted in Berman, Justice in the U.S.S.R., 57. It has been estimated that 85 percent of all cases heard in the Soviet Union were civil matters. Donald D. Barry and Harold J. Berman, "The Jurists," in Interest Groups in Soviet Politics, ed. H. Gordon Skilling and Franklyn Griffiths (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971), 301.
10. The Soviet prosecutor Andrei Vyshinskii explained the coexistence of law and terror as stemming from the absence of worldwide communism. Until communism triumphed, the law only covered certain sectors of society. Quoted in Berman, Justice in the U.S.S.R., 57. It has been estimated that 85 percent of all cases heard in the Soviet Union were civil matters. Donald D. Barry and Harold J. Berman, "The Jurists," in Interest Groups in Soviet Politics, ed. H. Gordon Skilling and Franklyn Griffiths (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971), 301.
11. From the very start, Soviet adoption laws compared favorably with the basic criteria for adoption that were established by a United Nations survey in 1952. See Comparative Analysis of Adoption Laws (New York: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 1956).
12. Berman argues that no one attempted to recodify Soviet legislation both for technical and political reasons: Technically, the laws were nearly impossible to integrate, and politically there was the fear of Stalin's disapproval. Berman, Justice in the U.S.S.R., 235-6.
13. Nataliia M. Ershova, "Opeka (popechitel'stvo) i usynovlenie (udocherenie)," Sovetskaia iustitsiia 1 (January 1969): 18.
14. On orphans in the Imperial period, see David L. Ransel, Mothers of Misery: Child Abandonment in Russia (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988). Bernice Madison called the ban a "reaction to the failure of many adoptive homes to provide good care in tsarist times." Bernice Q. Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1968), 36.
15. On orphans in the Imperial period, see David L. Ransel, Mothers of Misery: Child Abandonment in Russia (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988). Bernice Madison called the ban a "reaction to the failure of many adoptive homes to provide good care in tsarist times." Bernice Q. Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1968), 36.
16. So spoke Zlata Lilina, head of the Petrograd Department of Education and wife of the Bolshevik leader Zinoviev, at a 1918 conference. Quoted in James Bowen, Soviet Education: Anton Makarenko and the Years of Experiment (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1962), 36.
17. For a discussion of radical visions, see Richard Stiles, Revolutionary Dreams: Utopian Vision and Experimental Life in the Russian Revolution (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989).
18. Soviet theorists were actually operating in the tradition of those prerevolutionary philanthropists and social activists who displayed a marked "preference for the public upbringing of children." See Adele Lindenmeyr, "Maternalism and Child Welfare in Late Imperial Russia," Journal of Women's History V (2) (Fall 1993): 123.
19. N. Bukharin and E. Preobrazhensky, The ABC of Communism: A Popular Explanation of the Program of the Communist Party of Russia (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1966), 233-4. Ironically, Bukharin's own son, Iurii, received a cruel taste of his father's optimistic medicine when he was raised in orphanages and foster homes, not knowing that his father was Bukharin and not even learning that his mother was alive until he was twenty.
20. 13. On reasons for adoption's prohibition, see Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii," Drug detei 1 (January 1925): 8-11; Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Novyi zakon ob usynovlenii," in Ob usynovlenii detei ipodrostkov (Moscow: Izdanie Detkomissii VTsIK, 1926), 1, 22-3; Dmitrii I. Kurskii, Proekt Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeka 1925 goda (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 7; Evgenii I. Dombrovskii, "Usynovlenie i opeka po deistvuiushchemu zakonu i po proektu Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeke," in Sbornik statei i materialov po brachnomu i semeinomu pravu, ed. Dmitrii I. Kurskii (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 71-2; "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,'" in Ob usynovlenii detei i podrostkov, 60; Pavel V. Gidulianov, Brak, razvod, otyskanie ottsovstva i usynovlenie (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 51; Iakov N. Brandenburgskii, Semeinoe, brachnoe i opekunskoe pravo RSFSR (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1927), 65-6; P. Stuchka, "Usynovlenie," in Entsiklopediia gosudarstva i prava II, ed. P. Stuchka (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo kommunisticheskoi akademii, 1925-1927), 1388-9. Wendy Goldman attributes the ban to "the belief that the state would be a better guardian for an orphan than an individual family" and the fear that "adoption would allow peasants to exploit children as unpaid labor." Wendy Z. Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution: Soviet Family Policy and Social Life, 1917-1936 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 52.
21. 13. On reasons for adoption's prohibition, see Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii," Drug detei 1 (January 1925): 8-11; Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Novyi zakon ob usynovlenii," in Ob usynovlenii detei ipodrostkov (Moscow: Izdanie Detkomissii VTsIK, 1926), 1, 22-3; Dmitrii I. Kurskii, Proekt Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeka 1925 goda (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 7; Evgenii I. Dombrovskii, "Usynovlenie i opeka po deistvuiushchemu zakonu i po proektu Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeke," in Sbornik statei i materialov po brachnomu i semeinomu pravu, ed. Dmitrii I. Kurskii (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 71-2; "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,'" in Ob usynovlenii detei i podrostkov, 60; Pavel V. Gidulianov, Brak, razvod, otyskanie ottsovstva i usynovlenie (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 51; Iakov N. Brandenburgskii, Semeinoe, brachnoe i opekunskoe pravo RSFSR (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1927), 65-6; P. Stuchka, "Usynovlenie," in Entsiklopediia gosudarstva i prava II, ed. P. Stuchka (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo kommunisticheskoi akademii, 1925-1927), 1388-9. Wendy Goldman attributes the ban to "the belief that the state would be a better guardian for an orphan than an individual family" and the fear that "adoption would allow peasants to exploit children as unpaid labor." Wendy Z. Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution: Soviet Family Policy and Social Life, 1917-1936 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 52.
22. 13. On reasons for adoption's prohibition, see Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii," Drug detei 1 (January 1925): 8-11; Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Novyi zakon ob usynovlenii," in Ob usynovlenii detei ipodrostkov (Moscow: Izdanie Detkomissii VTsIK, 1926), 1, 22-3; Dmitrii I. Kurskii, Proekt Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeka 1925 goda (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 7; Evgenii I. Dombrovskii, "Usynovlenie i opeka po deistvuiushchemu zakonu i po proektu Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeke," in Sbornik statei i materialov po brachnomu i semeinomu pravu, ed. Dmitrii I. Kurskii (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 71-2; "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,'" in Ob usynovlenii detei i podrostkov, 60; Pavel V. Gidulianov, Brak, razvod, otyskanie ottsovstva i usynovlenie (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 51; Iakov N. Brandenburgskii, Semeinoe, brachnoe i opekunskoe pravo RSFSR (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1927), 65-6; P. Stuchka, "Usynovlenie," in Entsiklopediia gosudarstva i prava II, ed. P. Stuchka (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo kommunisticheskoi akademii, 1925-1927), 1388-9. Wendy Goldman attributes the ban to "the belief that the state would be a better guardian for an orphan than an individual family" and the fear that "adoption would allow peasants to exploit children as unpaid labor." Wendy Z. Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution: Soviet Family Policy and Social Life, 1917-1936 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 52.
23. 13. On reasons for adoption's prohibition, see Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii," Drug detei 1 (January 1925): 8-11; Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Novyi zakon ob usynovlenii," in Ob usynovlenii detei ipodrostkov (Moscow: Izdanie Detkomissii VTsIK, 1926), 1, 22-3; Dmitrii I. Kurskii, Proekt Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeka 1925 goda (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 7; Evgenii I. Dombrovskii, "Usynovlenie i opeka po deistvuiushchemu zakonu i po proektu Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeke," in Sbornik statei i materialov po brachnomu i semeinomu pravu, ed. Dmitrii I. Kurskii (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 71-2; "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,'" in Ob usynovlenii detei i podrostkov, 60; Pavel V. Gidulianov, Brak, razvod, otyskanie ottsovstva i usynovlenie (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 51; Iakov N. Brandenburgskii, Semeinoe, brachnoe i opekunskoe pravo RSFSR (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1927), 65-6; P. Stuchka, "Usynovlenie," in Entsiklopediia gosudarstva i prava II, ed. P. Stuchka (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo kommunisticheskoi akademii, 1925-1927), 1388-9. Wendy Goldman attributes the ban to "the belief that the state would be a better guardian for an orphan than an individual family" and the fear that "adoption would allow peasants to exploit children as unpaid labor." Wendy Z. Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution: Soviet Family Policy and Social Life, 1917-1936 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 52.
24. 13. On reasons for adoption's prohibition, see Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii," Drug detei 1 (January 1925): 8-11; Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Novyi zakon ob usynovlenii," in Ob usynovlenii detei ipodrostkov (Moscow: Izdanie Detkomissii VTsIK, 1926), 1, 22-3; Dmitrii I. Kurskii, Proekt Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeka 1925 goda (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 7; Evgenii I. Dombrovskii, "Usynovlenie i opeka po deistvuiushchemu zakonu i po proektu Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeke," in Sbornik statei i materialov po brachnomu i semeinomu pravu, ed. Dmitrii I. Kurskii (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 71-2; "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,'" in Ob usynovlenii detei i podrostkov, 60; Pavel V. Gidulianov, Brak, razvod, otyskanie ottsovstva i usynovlenie (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 51; Iakov N. Brandenburgskii, Semeinoe, brachnoe i opekunskoe pravo RSFSR (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1927), 65-6; P. Stuchka, "Usynovlenie," in Entsiklopediia gosudarstva i prava II, ed. P. Stuchka (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo kommunisticheskoi akademii, 1925-1927), 1388-9. Wendy Goldman attributes the ban to "the belief that the state would be a better guardian for an orphan than an individual family" and the fear that "adoption would allow peasants to exploit children as unpaid labor." Wendy Z. Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution: Soviet Family Policy and Social Life, 1917-1936 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 52.
25. 13. On reasons for adoption's prohibition, see Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii," Drug detei 1 (January 1925): 8-11; Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Novyi zakon ob usynovlenii," in Ob usynovlenii detei ipodrostkov (Moscow: Izdanie Detkomissii VTsIK, 1926), 1, 22-3; Dmitrii I. Kurskii, Proekt Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeka 1925 goda (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 7; Evgenii I. Dombrovskii, "Usynovlenie i opeka po deistvuiushchemu zakonu i po proektu Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeke," in Sbornik statei i materialov po brachnomu i semeinomu pravu, ed. Dmitrii I. Kurskii (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 71-2; "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,'" in Ob usynovlenii detei i podrostkov, 60; Pavel V. Gidulianov, Brak, razvod, otyskanie ottsovstva i usynovlenie (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 51; Iakov N. Brandenburgskii, Semeinoe, brachnoe i opekunskoe pravo RSFSR (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1927), 65-6; P. Stuchka, "Usynovlenie," in Entsiklopediia gosudarstva i prava II, ed. P. Stuchka (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo kommunisticheskoi akademii, 1925-1927), 1388-9. Wendy Goldman attributes the ban to "the belief that the state would be a better guardian for an orphan than an individual family" and the fear that "adoption would allow peasants to exploit children as unpaid labor." Wendy Z. Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution: Soviet Family Policy and Social Life, 1917-1936 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 52.
26. 13. On reasons for adoption's prohibition, see Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii," Drug detei 1 (January 1925): 8-11; Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Novyi zakon ob usynovlenii," in Ob usynovlenii detei ipodrostkov (Moscow: Izdanie Detkomissii VTsIK, 1926), 1, 22-3; Dmitrii I. Kurskii, Proekt Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeka 1925 goda (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 7; Evgenii I. Dombrovskii, "Usynovlenie i opeka po deistvuiushchemu zakonu i po proektu Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeke," in Sbornik statei i materialov po brachnomu i semeinomu pravu, ed. Dmitrii I. Kurskii (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 71-2; "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,'" in Ob usynovlenii detei i podrostkov, 60; Pavel V. Gidulianov, Brak, razvod, otyskanie ottsovstva i usynovlenie (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 51; Iakov N. Brandenburgskii, Semeinoe, brachnoe i opekunskoe pravo RSFSR (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1927), 65-6; P. Stuchka, "Usynovlenie," in Entsiklopediia gosudarstva i prava II, ed. P. Stuchka (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo kommunisticheskoi akademii, 1925-1927), 1388-9. Wendy Goldman attributes the ban to "the belief that the state would be a better guardian for an orphan than an individual family" and the fear that "adoption would allow peasants to exploit children as unpaid labor." Wendy Z. Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution: Soviet Family Policy and Social Life, 1917-1936 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 52.
27. 13. On reasons for adoption's prohibition, see Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii," Drug detei 1 (January 1925): 8-11; Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Novyi zakon ob usynovlenii," in Ob usynovlenii detei ipodrostkov (Moscow: Izdanie Detkomissii VTsIK, 1926), 1, 22-3; Dmitrii I. Kurskii, Proekt Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeka 1925 goda (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 7; Evgenii I. Dombrovskii, "Usynovlenie i opeka po deistvuiushchemu zakonu i po proektu Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeke," in Sbornik statei i materialov po brachnomu i semeinomu pravu, ed. Dmitrii I. Kurskii (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 71-2; "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,'" in Ob usynovlenii detei i podrostkov, 60; Pavel V. Gidulianov, Brak, razvod, otyskanie ottsovstva i usynovlenie (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 51; Iakov N. Brandenburgskii, Semeinoe, brachnoe i opekunskoe pravo RSFSR (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1927), 65-6; P. Stuchka, "Usynovlenie," in Entsiklopediia gosudarstva i prava II, ed. P. Stuchka (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo kommunisticheskoi akademii, 1925-1927), 1388-9. Wendy Goldman attributes the ban to "the belief that the state would be a better guardian for an orphan than an individual family" and the fear that "adoption would allow peasants to exploit children as unpaid labor." Wendy Z. Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution: Soviet Family Policy and Social Life, 1917-1936 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 52.
28. 13. On reasons for adoption's prohibition, see Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii," Drug detei 1 (January 1925): 8-11; Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Novyi zakon ob usynovlenii," in Ob usynovlenii detei ipodrostkov (Moscow: Izdanie Detkomissii VTsIK, 1926), 1, 22-3; Dmitrii I. Kurskii, Proekt Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeka 1925 goda (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 7; Evgenii I. Dombrovskii, "Usynovlenie i opeka po deistvuiushchemu zakonu i po proektu Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeke," in Sbornik statei i materialov po brachnomu i semeinomu pravu, ed. Dmitrii I. Kurskii (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 71-2; "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,'" in Ob usynovlenii detei i podrostkov, 60; Pavel V. Gidulianov, Brak, razvod, otyskanie ottsovstva i usynovlenie (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1926), 51; Iakov N. Brandenburgskii, Semeinoe, brachnoe i opekunskoe pravo RSFSR (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1927), 65-6; P. Stuchka, "Usynovlenie," in Entsiklopediia gosudarstva i prava II, ed. P. Stuchka (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo kommunisticheskoi akademii, 1925-1927), 1388-9. Wendy Goldman attributes the ban to "the belief that the state would be a better guardian for an orphan than an individual family" and the fear that "adoption would allow peasants to exploit children as unpaid labor." Wendy Z. Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution: Soviet Family Policy and Social Life, 1917-1936 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 52.
29. Adoption was also prohibited in England until 1926. The adoption law specialist Joan Hollinger attributes the reluctance to codify adoption in Great Britain to the "traditional English commitment to blood lineage as a basis for class and status differentiation, along with hostility towards illegitimacy." Joan H. Hollinger, "Introduction to Adoption Law and Practice," in Adoption Law and Practice I (Albany, NY: Matthew Bender, 1994), 19. See also Comparative Analysis of Adoption Laws, 3.
30. Adoption was also prohibited in England until 1926. The adoption law specialist Joan Hollinger attributes the reluctance to codify adoption in Great Britain to the "traditional English commitment to blood lineage as a basis for class and status differentiation, along with hostility towards illegitimacy." Joan H. Hollinger, "Introduction to Adoption Law and Practice," in Adoption Law and Practice I (Albany, NY: Matthew Bender, 1994), 19. See also Comparative Analysis of Adoption Laws, 3.
31. Ob usynovlenii detei i podrostkov, iii. For debates on the proposed adoption law, see "Stenograficheskii otchet zasedanii 2 sessii Vserossiiskogo Tsentral'nogo Ispolnitel'nogo Komiteta XII sozyva 17 i 19 oktiabria 1925 goda po proektu Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeka," in Sbornik statei i materialov po brachnomu i semeinomu pravu.
32. Ob usynovlenii detei i podrostkov, iii. For debates on the proposed adoption law, see "Stenograficheskii otchet zasedanii 2 sessii Vserossiiskogo Tsentral'nogo Ispolnitel'nogo Komiteta XII sozyva 17 i 19 oktiabria 1925 goda po proektu Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeka," in Sbornik statei i materialov po brachnomu i semeinomu pravu.
33. Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Opeka i detskaia besprizornost'," in Vestnik prosveshcheniia 4 (1923): 196, 200. In the legal profession, notable exceptions were lakov Brandenburgskii, who in 1927 still called state-controlled child raising "unquestionably better" than adoption, and L. Azov, who as late as 1928 referred to adoption as a "temporary" measure that would exist until the state could care for all children in need. See Brandenburgskii, Semeinoe, brachnoe, i opekunskoe pravo RSFSR, 66; L. Azov, "Usynovlenie i priimachestvo," Krest'ianskii iurist 16 (1928): 13.
34. Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Opeka i detskaia besprizornost'," in Vestnik prosveshcheniia 4 (1923): 196, 200. In the legal profession, notable exceptions were lakov Brandenburgskii, who in 1927 still called state-controlled child raising "unquestionably better" than adoption, and L. Azov, who as late as 1928 referred to adoption as a "temporary" measure that would exist until the state could care for all children in need. See Brandenburgskii, Semeinoe, brachnoe, i opekunskoe pravo RSFSR, 66; L. Azov, "Usynovlenie i priimachestvo," Krest'ianskii iurist 16 (1928): 13.
35. Pavel I. Liublinskii, "Opeka i detskaia besprizornost'," in Vestnik prosveshcheniia 4 (1923): 196, 200. In the legal profession, notable exceptions were lakov Brandenburgskii, who in 1927 still called state-controlled child raising "unquestionably better" than adoption, and L. Azov, who as late as 1928 referred to adoption as a "temporary" measure that would exist until the state could care for all children in need. See Brandenburgskii, Semeinoe, brachnoe, i opekunskoe pravo RSFSR, 66; L. Azov, "Usynovlenie i priimachestvo," Krest'ianskii iurist 16 (1928): 13.
36. "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,' " 62. See also Sergei I. Raevich, "Brachnoe, semeinoe i opekunskoe pravo v usloviiakh NEPa," Vlast' sovetov 3 (March 1923): 49. In the blunt words of a recent adoption study, adoption means that "[s]tate and local governments are spared the costs of caring for unwanted, mistreated or impoverished children." Hollinger, "Introduction to Adoption Law and Practice," 7.
37. "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,' " 62. See also Sergei I. Raevich, "Brachnoe, semeinoe i opekunskoe pravo v usloviiakh NEPa," Vlast' sovetov 3 (March 1923): 49. In the blunt words of a recent adoption study, adoption means that "[s]tate and local governments are spared the costs of caring for unwanted, mistreated or impoverished children." Hollinger, "Introduction to Adoption Law and Practice," 7.
38. "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,' " 62. See also Sergei I. Raevich, "Brachnoe, semeinoe i opekunskoe pravo v usloviiakh NEPa," Vlast' sovetov 3 (March 1923): 49. In the blunt words of a recent adoption study, adoption means that "[s]tate and local governments are spared the costs of caring for unwanted, mistreated or impoverished children." Hollinger, "Introduction to Adoption Law and Practice," 7.
39. On besprizornost', see Alan M. Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened: Abandoned Children in Soviet Russia, 1918-1930 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1994).
40. On the conditions in Soviet orphanages, see Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened, 108-26.
41. See, for example, statements by Anatolii Lunacharskii, the people's commissar of enlightenment, in Narodnoe prosveshchenie v RSFSR k 1924/25 uchebnomu godu (Moscow, 1925), 78; Narodnoe prosveshchenie v RSFSR k 1925/26 uchebnomu godu (Moscow, 1926), 63.
42. See, for example, statements by Anatolii Lunacharskii, the people's commissar of enlightenment, in Narodnoe prosveshchenie v RSFSR k 1924/25 uchebnomu godu (Moscow, 1925), 78; Narodnoe prosveshchenie v RSFSR k 1925/26 uchebnomu godu (Moscow, 1926), 63.
43. 21. Vlast' truda (December 11, 1921), printed in Spasennye revoliutsiei. Bor'ba s besprizomost'iu v Irkutskoi gubemii i okruge (1920-1931 gg.) (Irkutsk: Vostochno-Sibirskoe knizhnoe izdatel'stvo, 1977), 39-40.
44. Vlast' truda (December 11, 1921), printed in Spasennye revoliutsiei. Bor'ba s besprizomost'iu v Irkutskoi gubemii i okruge (1920-1931 gg.) (Irkutsk: Vostochno-Sibirskoe knizhnoe izdatel'stvo, 1977), 39-40.
45. 22. M. Ustvol'skii, "K voprosu o peredache besprizornykh v krest'ianskie sem'i," Leningradskaia ablast' 4 (1928): 112; E. Rozenblium, "O podkidyshakh," Drug detei 2 (1926): 5; S. Zarechnaia, "Vtoraia sem'ia," Drug detei 4 (April 1928): 15; Ia. A. Perel' and A. A. Liubimova, eds., Pravovoe poloihenie rebenka v sem'e (Moscow/Leningrad: Narkompros RSFSR-Uchpedgiz, 1932), 126; O.P. Nogina, Mother and Child Care in the U.S.S.R. (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1950), 30.
46. M. Ustvol'skii, "K voprosu o peredache besprizornykh v krest'ianskie sem'i," Leningradskaia ablast' 4 (1928): 112; E. Rozenblium, "O podkidyshakh," Drug detei 2 (1926): 5; S. Zarechnaia, "Vtoraia sem'ia," Drug detei 4 (April 1928): 15; Ia. A. Perel' and A. A. Liubimova, eds., Pravovoe poloihenie rebenka v sem'e (Moscow/Leningrad: Narkompros RSFSR-Uchpedgiz, 1932), 126; O.P. Nogina, Mother and Child Care in the U.S.S.R. (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1950), 30.
47. M. Ustvol'skii, "K voprosu o peredache besprizornykh v krest'ianskie sem'i," Leningradskaia ablast' 4 (1928): 112; E. Rozenblium, "O podkidyshakh," Drug detei 2 (1926): 5; S. Zarechnaia, "Vtoraia sem'ia," Drug detei 4 (April 1928): 15; Ia. A. Perel' and A. A. Liubimova, eds., Pravovoe poloihenie rebenka v sem'e (Moscow/Leningrad: Narkompros RSFSR-Uchpedgiz, 1932), 126; O.P. Nogina, Mother and Child Care in the U.S.S.R. (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1950), 30.
48. M. Ustvol'skii, "K voprosu o peredache besprizornykh v krest'ianskie sem'i," Leningradskaia ablast' 4 (1928): 112; E. Rozenblium, "O podkidyshakh," Drug detei 2 (1926): 5; S. Zarechnaia, "Vtoraia sem'ia," Drug detei 4 (April 1928): 15; Ia. A. Perel' and A. A. Liubimova, eds., Pravovoe poloihenie rebenka v sem'e (Moscow/Leningrad: Narkompros RSFSR-Uchpedgiz, 1932), 126; O.P. Nogina, Mother and Child Care in the U.S.S.R. (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1950), 30.
49. M. Ustvol'skii, "K voprosu o peredache besprizornykh v krest'ianskie sem'i," Leningradskaia ablast' 4 (1928): 112; E. Rozenblium, "O podkidyshakh," Drug detei 2 (1926): 5; S. Zarechnaia, "Vtoraia sem'ia," Drug detei 4 (April 1928): 15; Ia. A. Perel' and A. A. Liubimova, eds., Pravovoe poloihenie rebenka v sem'e (Moscow/Leningrad: Narkompros RSFSR-Uchpedgiz, 1932), 126; O.P. Nogina, Mother and Child Care in the U.S.S.R. (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1950), 30.
50. O. Nogina, "Kak my boremsia s podkidyvaniem," Drug detei 1 (January 1927): 12. The program's promising results were repotted in V. A. Pavlovskii, "Opyt otdachi detei v patronat v gor. Moskve," Okhrana materinstva i mladenchestva 2 (1925): 118-24. See also M. S. Kokoshko, "K voprosu o znachenii konsul'tatsii i patronata v dele bor'by s detskoi smertnost'iu," Zhurnal po izucheniiu rannego detskogo vozrasta 5 (1924): 62-70.
51. O. Nogina, "Kak my boremsia s podkidyvaniem," Drug detei 1 (January 1927): 12. The program's promising results were repotted in V. A. Pavlovskii, "Opyt otdachi detei v patronat v gor. Moskve," Okhrana materinstva i mladenchestva 2 (1925): 118-24. See also M. S. Kokoshko, "K voprosu o znachenii konsul'tatsii i patronata v dele bor'by s detskoi smertnost'iu," Zhurnal po izucheniiu rannego detskogo vozrasta 5 (1924): 62-70.
52. O. Nogina, "Kak my boremsia s podkidyvaniem," Drug detei 1 (January 1927): 12. The program's promising results were repotted in V. A. Pavlovskii, "Opyt otdachi detei v patronat v gor. Moskve," Okhrana materinstva i mladenchestva 2 (1925): 118-24. See also M. S. Kokoshko, "K voprosu o znachenii konsul'tatsii i patronata v dele bor'by s detskoi smertnost'iu," Zhurnal po izucheniiu rannego detskogo vozrasta 5 (1924): 62-70.
53. On the campaign to encourage patronirovanie, see M. S. Serebrianyi, L'goty krest'ianam za vospitanie besprizornykh (Moscow and Leningrad: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo, 1927). See also Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened, 144-9. Goldman describes patronirovanie in Women, the State and Revolution, 97-9, 307-8, but there is some conflation between it and the related, but separate, adoption policy.
54. On the campaign to encourage patronirovanie, see M. S. Serebrianyi, L'goty krest'ianam za vospitanie besprizornykh (Moscow and Leningrad: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo, 1927). See also Ball, And Now My Soul Is Hardened, 144-9. Goldman describes patronirovanie in Women, the State and Revolution, 97-9, 307-8, but there is some conflation between it and the related, but separate, adoption policy.
55. B. Orlovskii, "Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu v Nizhegorodskoi gubernii," Shkola i zhizn' 11 (November 1926): 37; Kliachko, Usynovleniepo sovetskomu pravu, 8; Ia. R. Vebers, "Sushchnost' usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," Pravovedenie 4 (1966): 53. For an official who frankly characterized the 1926 adoption law as having been made in response to public pressure from the peasantry, see P. S. Gilev, Detskaia besprizornost' i bor'ba s nei v Buriatii za poslednie piat'let (Verkhneudinsk: Izdanie Detskoi komissii pri BurTsIK'e, 1928), 19.
56. B. Orlovskii, "Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu v Nizhegorodskoi gubernii," Shkola i zhizn' 11 (November 1926): 37; Kliachko, Usynovleniepo sovetskomu pravu, 8; Ia. R. Vebers, "Sushchnost' usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," Pravovedenie 4 (1966): 53. For an official who frankly characterized the 1926 adoption law as having been made in response to public pressure from the peasantry, see P. S. Gilev, Detskaia besprizornost' i bor'ba s nei v Buriatii za poslednie piat'let (Verkhneudinsk: Izdanie Detskoi komissii pri BurTsIK'e, 1928), 19.
57. B. Orlovskii, "Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu v Nizhegorodskoi gubernii," Shkola i zhizn' 11 (November 1926): 37; Kliachko, Usynovleniepo sovetskomu pravu, 8; Ia. R. Vebers, "Sushchnost' usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," Pravovedenie 4 (1966): 53. For an official who frankly characterized the 1926 adoption law as having been made in response to public pressure from the peasantry, see P. S. Gilev, Detskaia besprizornost' i bor'ba s nei v Buriatii za poslednie piat'let (Verkhneudinsk: Izdanie Detskoi komissii pri BurTsIK'e, 1928), 19.
58. B. Orlovskii, "Bor'ba s detskoi besprizornost'iu v Nizhegorodskoi gubernii," Shkola i zhizn' 11 (November 1926): 37; Kliachko, Usynovleniepo sovetskomu pravu, 8; Ia. R. Vebers, "Sushchnost' usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," Pravovedenie 4 (1966): 53. For an official who frankly characterized the 1926 adoption law as having been made in response to public pressure from the peasantry, see P. S. Gilev, Detskaia besprizornost' i bor'ba s nei v Buriatii za poslednie piat'let (Verkhneudinsk: Izdanie Detskoi komissii pri BurTsIK'e, 1928), 19.
59. "Stenograficheskii otchet zasedanii 2 sessii Vserossiiskogo Tsentral'nogo Ispolnitel'nogo Komiteta XII sozyva," 121.
60. Kurskii, Proekt Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeka 1925 goda, 7.
61. Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii," 8-9; Liublinskii, "Novyi zakon ob usynovlenii," 1-2; G. Safonov, "Shkola i detskaia besprizornost'," Shkola i zhizn ' 8 (August 1927): 82.
62. Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii," 8-9; Liublinskii, "Novyi zakon ob usynovlenii," 1-2; G. Safonov, "Shkola i detskaia besprizornost'," Shkola i zhizn ' 8 (August 1927): 82.
63. Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii," 8-9; Liublinskii, "Novyi zakon ob usynovlenii," 1-2; G. Safonov, "Shkola i detskaia besprizornost'," Shkola i zhizn' 8 (August 1927): 82.
64. Brak, sem'ia i deli (Kharkov. Narkomiust USSR, 1925): 65-6, cited in Liublinskii, "Novyi zakon ob usynovlenii," 3. See also Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii," 8; Vladimir I. Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava (Kiev: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo politicheskoi literatury USSR, 1952), 292-3.
65. Brak, sem'ia i deli (Kharkov. Narkomiust USSR, 1925): 65-6, cited in Liublinskii, "Novyi zakon ob usynovlenii," 3. See also Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii," 8; Vladimir I. Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava (Kiev: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo politicheskoi literatury USSR, 1952), 292-3.
66. Brak, sem'ia i deli (Kharkov. Narkomiust USSR, 1925): 65-6, cited in Liublinskii, "Novyi zakon ob usynovlenii," 3. See also Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii," 8; Vladimir I. Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava (Kiev: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo politicheskoi literatury USSR, 1952), 292-3.
67. Brak, sem'ia i deli (Kharkov. Narkomiust USSR, 1925): 65-6, cited in Liublinskii, "Novyi zakon ob usynovlenii," 3. See also Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii," 8; Vladimir I. Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava (Kiev: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo politicheskoi literatury USSR, 1952), 292-3.
68. According to article 66 of the Land Code of the RSFSR, a household consisted of any members who participated in its upkeep. This included anyone who joined the household by the practice of priimachestvo; quoted in Ob usynovlenii detei i podrostkav, 103. See also John N. Hazard, "The Child under Soviet Law," The University of Chicago Law Review V (1937-38): 430. As several authors pointed out, priimaki differed from adopted children in that the former tended to be adults who had been taken into the peasant household because of their labor capabilities. See for example, Azov, "Usynovlenie i priimachestvo," 11-3. The Land Code also permitted some hiring of agricultural labor, thereby eliminating the danger that adoption would be used to evade the prohibition on hired hands.
69. According to article 66 of the Land Code of the RSFSR, a household consisted of any members who participated in its upkeep. This included anyone who joined the household by the practice of priimachestvo; quoted in Ob usynovlenii detei i podrostkav, 103. See also John N. Hazard, "The Child under Soviet Law," The University of Chicago Law Review V (1937-38): 430. As several authors pointed out, priimaki differed from adopted children in that the former tended to be adults who had been taken into the peasant household because of their labor capabilities. See for example, Azov, "Usynovlenie i priimachestvo," 11-3. The Land Code also permitted some hiring of agricultural labor, thereby eliminating the danger that adoption would be used to evade the prohibition on hired hands.
70. According to article 66 of the Land Code of the RSFSR, a household consisted of any members who participated in its upkeep. This included anyone who joined the household by the practice of priimachestvo; quoted in Ob usynovlenii detei i podrostkav, 103. See also John N. Hazard, "The Child under Soviet Law," The University of Chicago Law Review V (1937-38): 430. As several authors pointed out, priimaki differed from adopted children in that the former tended to be adults who had been taken into the peasant household because of their labor capabilities. See for example, Azov, "Usynovlenie i priimachestvo," 11-3. The Land Code also permitted some hiring of agricultural labor, thereby eliminating the danger that adoption would be used to evade the prohibition on hired hands.
71. Liublinskii, "Ob usynovlenii," 10.
72. Raevich, "Brachnoe, semeinoe i opekunskoe pravo v usloviiakh NEPa," 49.
73. Ezhenedel'nik sovetskoi iustitsii 48 (1924), cited in Gidulianov, Brak, razvod, otyskanie ottsovstva i usynovlenie, 52.
74. Ezhenedel'nik sovetskoi iustitsii 48 (1924), cited in Gidulianov, Brak, razvod, otyskanie ottsovstva i usynovlenie, 52.
75. A. Genkin, S. Kishkin, and A. Rodnianskii, Kodeks zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeke s postateino-sistematizirovannymi materialami (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel'stvo NKIu RSFSR, 1929), 84-5.
76. I. Rostovskii, "Na strazhe interesov rebenka," Krest'ianskii iurist 13 (1928): 12.
77. See "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,' " 76-7.
78. Most of the children either were taken from infants' homes or were already under foster care with their adoptive parents. Vasil'ev, "Rabota Moskovskoi opeki," Drug detei 5 (August-September 1926): 15.
79. Drug detei 6-7 (June-July 1927): 36.
80. Gilev, Detskaia besprizornost'i bor'ba s nei v Buriatii, 19.
81. B. Orlovskii, "Desiat' let bor'by s detskoi besprizornost'iu," Shkola izhizn' 10 (October 1927): 62-3.
82. Narodnoe prosveshchenie v RSFSR k 1926/27 uchebnomu godu (Moscow-Leningrad: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo, 1927), 61.
83. Peasant families who adopted children they had initially taken in under the foster care program were permitted to keep the tax break and extra land plot that accompanied patronirovanie. See "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,' " 77.
84. 43. If a child was older than the age of ten, the child had to consent to the adoption. For concerns over whether ten-year-old children were sufficiently competent to decide their future, see Dombrovskii, "Usynovlenie i opeka po deistvuiushchemu zakonu i po proektu Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeke," 77-9; and comments by Central Committee member Chernysheva recorded in "Stenograficheskii otchet zasedanii 2 sessii Vserossiiskogo Tsentral'nogo Ispolnitel'nogo Komiteta XII sozyva," 181-2.
85. If a child was older than the age of ten, the child had to consent to the adoption. For concerns over whether ten-year-old children were sufficiently competent to decide their future, see Dombrovskii, "Usynovlenie i opeka po deistvuiushchemu zakonu i po proektu Kodeksa zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeke," 77-9; and comments by Central Committee member Chernysheva recorded in "Stenograficheskii otchet zasedanii 2 sessii Vserossiiskogo Tsentral'nogo Ispolnitel'nogo Komiteta XII sozyva," 181-2.
86. See "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,' " 65.
87. Despite the assertion in a 1940 source that there were still "class enemies" in the 1920s who had to be kept from adopting children, class status was not automatic grounds for exclusion. In Grigorii M. Sverdlov, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," Sotsialisticheskaia zakonnost' 1 (1940): 31.
88. On rules, see "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,' " 64-7, 81. Children older than the age of ten had to consent to the transfer of surnames in any case.
89. Nursing infants were not supposed to be placed for adoption until it was clear whether they were free of syphilis, tuberculosis, epilepsy, or physical and mental defects. Authorities expected that babies who turned out to be ill or handicapped would be returned to state institutions; see Pravovoe polozhenie rebenka v sem'e, 125. Liublinskii recommended that all potential adoptees be tested for syphilis and tuberculosis and that adoptive parents be fully informed of the adoptee's condition, because "[p]laying hide-and-seek here is completely inappropriate." Liublinskii, "Novyi zakon ob usynovlenii," 34-5.
90. Nursing infants were not supposed to be placed for adoption until it was clear whether they were free of syphilis, tuberculosis, epilepsy, or physical and mental defects. Authorities expected that babies who turned out to be ill or handicapped would be returned to state institutions; see Pravovoe polozhenie rebenka v sem'e, 125. Liublinskii recommended that all potential adoptees be tested for syphilis and tuberculosis and that adoptive parents be fully informed of the adoptee's condition, because "[p]laying hide-and-seek here is completely inappropriate." Liublinskii, "Novyi zakon ob usynovlenii," 34-5.
91. "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,' " 72.
92. Liublinskii, "Novyi zakon ob usynovlenii'," 34.
93. "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,' " 83.
94. "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,' " 73-4.
95. In Alma-Ata a council was formed in 1928 for the purpose of deciding issues relating to children younger than the age of three. It gave itself the broad right to turn down an adoption if "in their opinion adoption in a given case does not address the interests of the child." It also considered it within its rights to revoke an adoption if this ruling suited the child's interests. Oshlakova, Usynovlenie detei rannego vozrasta, 10-2.
96. "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,' " 62.
97. The concept of adoption as contingent and impermanent is in contradiction to current wisdom about adoption as "forever." Given the potential for the abuse of adoptees, particularly in light of the leeway in the guidelines, the provisions for reversals were supposed to protect, rather than hurt, adopted children.
98. In 1926, for example, a committee of the People's Commissariat of Justice held an adopted child's biological father liable for child support on the grounds that adoption must not serve to harm a child's financial situation; Ezhenedel'nik sovetskoi iustitisii 7 (1926): 224; Genkin, Kishkin, and Rodnianskii, Kodeks zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeke, 117. In the 1930s approximately half the states in the United States also left open "the possibility that destitute adoptive parents and the state could hold an adoptee's biological parents contingently liable for child support. " Hollinger, "Introduction to Adoption Law and Practice, " 35.
99. In 1926, for example, a committee of the People's Commissariat of Justice held an adopted child's biological father liable for child support on the grounds that adoption must not serve to harm a child's financial situation; Ezhenedel'nik sovetskoi iustitisii 7 (1926): 224; Genkin, Kishkin, and Rodnianskii, Kodeks zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeke, 117. In the 1930s approximately half the states in the United States also left open "the possibility that destitute adoptive parents and the state could hold an adoptee's biological parents contingently liable for child support. " Hollinger, "Introduction to Adoption Law and Practice, " 35.
100. In 1926, for example, a committee of the People's Commissariat of Justice held an adopted child's biological father liable for child support on the grounds that adoption must not serve to harm a child's financial situation; Ezhenedel'nik sovetskoi iustitisii 7 (1926): 224; Genkin, Kishkin, and Rodnianskii, Kodeks zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeke, 117. In the 1930s approximately half the states in the United States also left open "the possibility that destitute adoptive parents and the state could hold an adoptee's biological parents contingently liable for child support. " Hollinger, "Introduction to Adoption Law and Practice, " 35.
101. For a 1926 ruling obligating a child's birth father to pay child support, even though the child had been legally adopted by the stepfather, see Genkin, Kishkin, and Rodnianskii, Kodeks zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeke, 117; Pravovoe polozhenie rebenka v sem'e, 69.
102. For a 1926 ruling obligating a child's birth father to pay child support, even though the child had been legally adopted by the stepfather, see Genkin, Kishkin, and Rodnianskii, Kodeks zakonov o brake, sem'e i opeke, 117; Pravovoe polozhenie rebenka v sem'e, 69.
103. "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,' " 74; Grigorii M. Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo iuridicheskoi literatury, 1951), 28-9.
104. "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,' " 74; Grigorii M. Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo iuridicheskoi literatury, 1951), 28-9.
105. Gl. Protasov, "Iz praktiki po delam ob usynovlenii (po povodu odnogo nabolevshego voprosa)," Detskii dom 7 (1929): 78-9.
106. "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,' " 84-5.
107. Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu, p. 26. United States law also undermined the permanence of adoption. For example, until 1974 in New York an adoption could be abrogated for "any misdemeanor or ill behavior" by the child. Hollinger, "Introduction to Adoption Law and Practice," 39.
108. Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu, p. 26. United States law also undermined the permanence of adoption. For example, until 1974 in New York an adoption could be abrogated for "any misdemeanor or ill behavior" by the child. Hollinger, "Introduction to Adoption Law and Practice," 39.
109. "Instruktivnoe pis'mo 'ob usynovlenii,' " 64-5.
110. Described in Pravovoe polozhenie rebenka v sem'e, 134-5.
111. "Stenograficheskii otchet zasedanii 2 sessii Vserossiiskogo Tsentral'nogo Ispolnitel'nogo Komiteta XII sozyva," 122.
112. Brandenburgskii, Semeinoe, brachnoe i opekunskoe pravo, 66.
113. See Trekhletnii plan bor'by s detskoi besprizornost'iu (Moscow: Rabochii Leninets, 1927).
114. He attributed this to claims of overwork and understaffing of other agency employees. See Protasov, "Iz praktiki po delam ob usynovlenii," 78-9.
115. Rezoliutsii 3-go Vserossiiskogo s"ezdapo okhrane detstva, 25-30 maia 1930 g, i 1-go Vserossiiskogo soveshchaniia po bor'be s detskoi besprizornost'iu i beznadzomost'iu, 7-go dekabria 193Og. (Moscow: Izdatel'skaia chast' Narkomprosa, 1931).
116. See Pravovoe polozhenie rebenka v sem'e, 4; Sverdlov, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 30.
117. See Pravovoe polozhenie rebenka v sem'e, 4; Sverdlov, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 30.
118. 69. On this shift, see for example, Gail Warshofsky Lapidus, Women in Soviet Society: Equality, Development, and Social Change (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1978), 110-9; Richard Stiles, The Women's Liberation Movement in Russia: Feminism, Nihilism, and Bolshevism, 1860-1930 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978), 376-91; Goldman, Women, the Stale and Revolution, 296-336.
119. On this shift, see for example, Gail Warshofsky Lapidus, Women in Soviet Society: Equality, Development, and Social Change (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1978), 110-9; Richard Stiles, The Women's Liberation Movement in Russia: Feminism, Nihilism, and Bolshevism, 1860-1930 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978), 376-91; Goldman, Women, the Stale and Revolution, 296-336.
120. On this shift, see for example, Gail Warshofsky Lapidus, Women in Soviet Society: Equality, Development, and Social Change (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1978), 110-9; Richard Stiles, The Women's Liberation Movement in Russia: Feminism, Nihilism, and Bolshevism, 1860-1930 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978), 376-91; Goldman, Women, the Stale and Revolution, 296-336.
121. Quoted in Robert V. Daniels, ed., A Documentary History of Communism in Russia (Hanover, VT: University Press of New England, 1993), 197.
122. See Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union, 43; Robert W. Thurston, "The Soviet Family During the Great Terror, 1935-1941," Soviet Studies XLIII(3) (1991): 553-74; Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 323-7.
123. See Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union, 43; Robert W. Thurston, "The Soviet Family During the Great Terror, 1935-1941," Soviet Studies XLIII(3) (1991): 553-74; Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 323-7.
124. See Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union, 43; Robert W. Thurston, "The Soviet Family During the Great Terror, 1935-1941," Soviet Studies XLIII(3) (1991): 553-74; Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution, 323-7.
125. The absence of a requirement until 1968 for court verification of the search for a parent left much room for abuse of this provision. Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 71-2.
126. B. R. Rodman, "Zadachi patronata," Voprosy materinstva i mladenchestva 2-3 (1939): 31. Similarly, in 1940 Grigorii Sverdlov referred to children without parents and children wh o "for one vital circumstance or another have been deprived of the possibility of living with their parents" (The italics are mine). See Sverdlov, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 30-1.
127. B. R. Rodman, "Zadachi patronata," Voprosy materinstva i mladenchestva 2-3 (1939): 31. Similarly, in 1940 Grigorii Sverdlov referred to children without parents and children wh o "for one vital circumstance or another have been deprived of the possibility of living with their parents" (The italics are mine). See Sverdlov, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 30-1.
128. From Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii, fond 1235, opis' 2, delo 1348, listy 1-2, in Rapports Secrets Soviétiques: La société russe dans les documents confidentiels, 1921-1991 (Éditions Gallimard, 1994), 148-9.
129. 75. See, for example, Elena Kononenko, "Ty ne sirota, malysh!" Pravda, 31 (January 31, 1942), p. 3; "Siroty vospityvaiutsia v sem'iakh trudiashchikhsia," Pravda, 256 (October 26, 1945), p. 1; Anna I. Dovgalevskaia, "Priemnye deti," Sem'ia i shkola 6 (1946): 6; Anna I. Dovgalevskaia, Semeinoe vospitanie priemnykh detei (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe uchebnopedagogicheskoe izdatel'stvo, 1948), 53-4; A. N. Sinitsin, "Zabota o beznadzornykh i besprizornykh detiakh v SSSR v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi Voiny," Voprosy istorii 6 (1969): 27.
130. See, for example, Elena Kononenko, "Ty ne sirota, malysh!" Pravda, 31 (January 31, 1942), p. 3; "Siroty vospityvaiutsia v sem'iakh trudiashchikhsia," Pravda, 256 (October 26, 1945), p. 1; Anna I. Dovgalevskaia, "Priemnye deti," Sem'ia i shkola 6 (1946): 6; Anna I. Dovgalevskaia, Semeinoe vospitanie priemnykh detei (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe uchebnopedagogicheskoe izdatel'stvo, 1948), 53-4; A. N. Sinitsin, "Zabota o beznadzornykh i besprizornykh detiakh v SSSR v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi Voiny," Voprosy istorii 6 (1969): 27.
131. See, for example, Elena Kononenko, "Ty ne sirota, malysh!" Pravda, 31 (January 31, 1942), p. 3; "Siroty vospityvaiutsia v sem'iakh trudiashchikhsia," Pravda, 256 (October 26, 1945), p. 1; Anna I. Dovgalevskaia, "Priemnye deti," Sem'ia i shkola 6 (1946): 6; Anna I. Dovgalevskaia, Semeinoe vospitanie priemnykh detei (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe uchebnopedagogicheskoe izdatel'stvo, 1948), 53-4; A. N. Sinitsin, "Zabota o beznadzornykh i besprizornykh detiakh v SSSR v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi Voiny," Voprosy istorii 6 (1969): 27.
132. See, for example, Elena Kononenko, "Ty ne sirota, malysh!" Pravda, 31 (January 31, 1942), p. 3; "Siroty vospityvaiutsia v sem'iakh trudiashchikhsia," Pravda, 256 (October 26, 1945), p. 1; Anna I. Dovgalevskaia, "Priemnye deti," Sem'ia i shkola 6 (1946): 6; Anna I. Dovgalevskaia, Semeinoe vospitanie priemnykh detei (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe uchebnopedagogicheskoe izdatel'stvo, 1948), 53-4; A. N. Sinitsin, "Zabota o beznadzornykh i besprizornykh detiakh v SSSR v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi Voiny," Voprosy istorii 6 (1969): 27.
133. See, for example, Elena Kononenko, "Ty ne sirota, malysh!" Pravda, 31 (January 31, 1942), p. 3; "Siroty vospityvaiutsia v sem'iakh trudiashchikhsia," Pravda, 256 (October 26, 1945), p. 1; Anna I. Dovgalevskaia, "Priemnye deti," Sem'ia i shkola 6 (1946): 6; Anna I. Dovgalevskaia, Semeinoe vospitanie priemnykh detei (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe uchebnopedagogicheskoe izdatel'stvo, 1948), 53-4; A. N. Sinitsin, "Zabota o beznadzornykh i besprizornykh detiakh v SSSR v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi Voiny," Voprosy istorii 6 (1969): 27.
134. According to one estimate, about 200,000 children were adopted between 1941 and 1945. A. Vaksberg, "Usynovlenie," Sem'ia i shkola 11 (November 1956): 27; Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union, 45.
135. According to one estimate, about 200,000 children were adopted between 1941 and 1945. A. Vaksberg, "Usynovlenie," Sem'ia i shkola 11 (November 1956): 27; Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union, 45.
136. See, for example, Instruktivno-metodicheskoe pis'mo o rabote po okhrane prav detstva (Kishinev: Otdel shkol-intematov, detskikh domov i doshkol'nykh uzhrezhdenii Ministerstva prosveshcheniia MSSR i Otdel uchashcheisia molodezhi TsK LKSM Moldavii, 1959).
137. No doubt Anton Makarenko's popular theories about how to foster collectivity within the family unit hastened this along. For a discussion of Makarenko's ideas, see Bowen, Soviet Education', Frederic Lilge, Anton Semyonovitch Makarenko: An Analysis of his Educational Ideas in the Context of Soviet Society (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1958).
138. No doubt Anton Makarenko's popular theories about how to foster collectivity within the family unit hastened this along. For a discussion of Makarenko's ideas, see Bowen, Soviet Education', Frederic Lilge, Anton Semyonovitch Makarenko: An Analysis of his Educational Ideas in the Context of Soviet Society (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1958).
139. Anna M. Beliakova and Evgenii M. Vorozheikin, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1974), 269-70; Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 60.
140. Anna M. Beliakova and Evgenii M. Vorozheikin, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1974), 269-70; Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 60.
141. Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogoprava, 293.
142. In Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 12 (December 1950): 6-7.
143. A decade later the law allowed an adoptive mother to be eligible for disability leave for the first fifty-six days after an adopted child's birth. If a child was adopted after some time had passed, the mother could still receive leave. See Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 61-2; Iuridicheskii spravochnik dlia naseleniia (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1968), 465. In 1956 there were about 3,750,000 single mothers with children younger than twelve years of age receiving government subsidies; see Bernice Madison, "Russia's Illegitimate Children Before and After the Revolution," Slavic Review XXII(1) (March 1963): 91.
144. A decade later the law allowed an adoptive mother to be eligible for disability leave for the first fifty-six days after an adopted child's birth. If a child was adopted after some time had passed, the mother could still receive leave. See Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 61-2; Iuridicheskii spravochnik dlia naseleniia (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1968), 465. In 1956 there were about 3,750,000 single mothers with children younger than twelve years of age receiving government subsidies; see Bernice Madison, "Russia's Illegitimate Children Before and After the Revolution," Slavic Review XXII(1) (March 1963): 91.
145. A decade later the law allowed an adoptive mother to be eligible for disability leave for the first fifty-six days after an adopted child's birth. If a child was adopted after some time had passed, the mother could still receive leave. See Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 61-2; Iuridicheskii spravochnik dlia naseleniia (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1968), 465. In 1956 there were about 3,750,000 single mothers with children younger than twelve years of age receiving government subsidies; see Bernice Madison, "Russia's Illegitimate Children Before and After the Revolution," Slavic Review XXII(1) (March 1963): 91.
146. Oshlakova, Usynovlenie detei rannego vozrasta, 7.
147. Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 7 (July 1949): 31-2.
148. Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 11 (November 1950): 42-3.
149. Aleksandra I. Pergament, Praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR po voprosam semeinogo prava (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo iuridicheskoi literatury, 1949), 40-4.
150. Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 1 (1946): 24-5. For other examples of postwar reversals in favor of biological relationships, see the cases in Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 7 (July 1945): 28-9; Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 9 (1946): 5-6; Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 4 (1948): 26.
151. Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 1 (1946): 24-5. For other examples of postwar reversals in favor of biological relationships, see the cases in Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 7 (July 1945): 28-9; Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 9 (1946): 5-6; Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 4 (1948): 26.
152. Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 1 (1946): 24-5. For other examples of postwar reversals in favor of biological relationships, see the cases in Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 7 (July 1945): 28-9; Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 9 (1946): 5-6; Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 4 (1948): 26.
153. Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 1 (1946): 24-5. For other examples of postwar reversals in favor of biological relationships, see the cases in Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 7 (July 1945): 28-9; Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 9 (1946): 5-6; Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 4 (1948): 26.
154. Pergament, "Nekotorye voprosy usynovleniia," 21. See also V. S. Makarova, "K voprosu ob usynovlenii," in Voprosy teorii sovetskogo prava (Novosibirsk: Novosibirskii fakul'tet Sverdlovskogo iuridicheskogo instituta, 1966), 66-7. By 1980 there was no longer even lip service to socialized child rearing: "there's not one children's institution, even the most perfect, that will be able to give [a child] as much love and warmth as can a family." See Mikhail A. Ivanov and Rimma F. Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo "Iuridicheskaia literature," 1980), 210.
155. Pergament, "Nekotorye voprosy usynovleniia," 21. See also V. S. Makarova, "K voprosu ob usynovlenii," in Voprosy teorii sovetskogo prava (Novosibirsk: Novosibirskii fakul'tet Sverdlovskogo iuridicheskogo instituta, 1966), 66-7. By 1980 there was no longer even lip service to socialized child rearing: "there's not one children's institution, even the most perfect, that will be able to give [a child] as much love and warmth as can a family." See Mikhail A. Ivanov and Rimma F. Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo "Iuridicheskaia literature," 1980), 210.
156. Pergament, "Nekotorye voprosy usynovleniia," 21. See also V. S. Makarova, "K voprosu ob usynovlenii," in Voprosy teorii sovetskogo prava (Novosibirsk: Novosibirskii fakul'tet Sverdlovskogo iuridicheskogo instituta, 1966), 66-7. By 1980 there was no longer even lip service to socialized child rearing: "there's not one children's institution, even the most perfect, that will be able to give [a child] as much love and warmth as can a family." See Mikhail A. Ivanov and Rimma F. Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo "Iuridicheskaia literature," 1980), 210.
157. Evgeniia A. Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," in Ocherkipo grazhdanskomu pravu. Sbornik statei (Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Leningradskogo universiteta, 1957), 244.
158. Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu, 12-3.
159. Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu, 12.
160. "Eshche ob usynovlenii," in Sem'ia i shkola 7 (July 1959): 14. By the mid-1970s adoption by one member of a couple had become rare; Beliakova and Vorozheikin, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo, 274.
161. "Eshche ob usynovlenii," in Sem'ia i shkola 7 (July 1959): 14. By the mid-1970s adoption by one member of a couple had become rare; Beliakova and Vorozheikin, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo, 274.
162. On this issue, see Lynne Attwood, The New Soviet Man and Woman: Sex-Role Socialization in the USSR (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1990).
163. The adoptive father's work as factory foreman was not questioned. See Iu. Dobrolenskaia, "Roma i ego vospitateli," in Sem'ia i shkola 10 (October 1947): 16.
164. See decisions in Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 6 (1944): 31; Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 4 (1948): 26; Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 4 (1954): 29-30.
165. See decisions in Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 6 (1944): 31; Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 4 (1948): 26; Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 4 (1954): 29-30.
166. See decisions in Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 6 (1944): 31; Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 4 (1948): 26; Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 4 (1954): 29-30.
167. Dovgalevskaia, Semeinoe vospitanie priemnykh detei, 90.
168. See Dovgalevskaia, Semeinoe vospitanie priemnykh detei, pp. 67-8. Apparently, she left his brother behind. The 1968 laws would specify the undesirability of separating siblings.
169. Dovgalevskaia, Semeinoe vospitanie priemnykh detei, 71.
170. 99. Dovgalevskaia, Semeinoe vospitanie priemnykh detei, 71-2. See also Tat'iana B. Mal'tsman, "Spornye voprosy usynovleniia," in Uchenye zapiski, vyp. 16 (Moscow: Vsesoiuznyi institut iuridicheskikh nauk, 1963), 108-10.
171. Dovgalevskaia, Semeinoe vospitanie priemnykh detei, 71-2. See also Tat'iana B. Mal'tsman, "Spornye voprosy usynovleniia," in Uchenye zapiski, vyp. 16 (Moscow: Vsesoiuznyi institut iuridicheskikh nauk, 1963), 108-10.
172. Madison summed up Khrushchev-era Soviet psychology as relying on "reason," rather than instincts or the subconscious. Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union, 28-9.
173. Sverdlov, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 32-6. Sverdlov nevertheless wanted to see legal relations maintained with the birth family, so that they could be liable for maintenance payments should the adopted child encounter financial difficulties. Though he admitted that continued obligations involving the biological family could undermine the adoption, he believed that this was necessary in the interests of the child's well-being.
174. See for example, Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 253-4; Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava, 298-9; Zh. K. Anan'eva, "Sudebnye spory o vospitanii detei" (Avtoreferat dissertatsii na soiskanie uchenoi stepeni kandidata iuridicheskikh nauk, Leningrad, 1954), 10; Zh. K. Anan'eva, "Voprosy usynovleniia po sovetskomu pravu," in Uchenye zapiski Tartuskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, vyp. 39 (Tallinn: Trudy iuridicheskogo fakul'teta, 1955), 82-5; N. V. Rabinovich, "Semeinoe pravo," in Sorok let sovetskogo prava, 1917-1957 tom 2 (Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Leningradskogo universiteta, 1957), 299-300; K. Kolibab, "Usilit' okhranu prav roditelei i usynovitelei," Sovetskaia iustitsiia 8 (1957): 38; Iu. Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu," Sovetskaia iustitsiia 12 (1963): 7; Mal'tsman, "Spornye voprosy usynovleniia," 128-31; Vebers, "Sushchnost' usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 54-6.
175. See for example, Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 253-4; Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava, 298-9; Zh. K. Anan'eva, "Sudebnye spory o vospitanii detei" (Avtoreferat dissertatsii na soiskanie uchenoi stepeni kandidata iuridicheskikh nauk, Leningrad, 1954), 10; Zh. K. Anan'eva, "Voprosy usynovleniia po sovetskomu pravu," in Uchenye zapiski Tartuskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, vyp. 39 (Tallinn: Trudy iuridicheskogo fakul'teta, 1955), 82-5; N. V. Rabinovich, "Semeinoe pravo," in Sorok let sovetskogo prava, 1917-1957 tom 2 (Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Leningradskogo universiteta, 1957), 299-300; K. Kolibab, "Usilit' okhranu prav roditelei i usynovitelei," Sovetskaia iustitsiia 8 (1957): 38; Iu. Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu," Sovetskaia iustitsiia 12 (1963): 7; Mal'tsman, "Spornye voprosy usynovleniia," 128-31; Vebers, "Sushchnost' usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 54-6.
176. See for example, Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 253-4; Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava, 298-9; Zh. K. Anan'eva, "Sudebnye spory o vospitanii detei" (Avtoreferat dissertatsii na soiskanie uchenoi stepeni kandidata iuridicheskikh nauk, Leningrad, 1954), 10; Zh. K. Anan'eva, "Voprosy usynovleniia po sovetskomu pravu," in Uchenye zapiski Tartuskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, vyp. 39 (Tallinn: Trudy iuridicheskogo fakul'teta, 1955), 82-5; N. V. Rabinovich, "Semeinoe pravo," in Sorok let sovetskogo prava, 1917-1957 tom 2 (Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Leningradskogo universiteta, 1957), 299-300; K. Kolibab, "Usilit' okhranu prav roditelei i usynovitelei," Sovetskaia iustitsiia 8 (1957): 38; Iu. Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu," Sovetskaia iustitsiia 12 (1963): 7; Mal'tsman, "Spornye voprosy usynovleniia," 128-31; Vebers, "Sushchnost' usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 54-6.
177. See for example, Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 253-4; Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava, 298-9; Zh. K. Anan'eva, "Sudebnye spory o vospitanii detei" (Avtoreferat dissertatsii na soiskanie uchenoi stepeni kandidata iuridicheskikh nauk, Leningrad, 1954), 10; Zh. K. Anan'eva, "Voprosy usynovleniia po sovetskomu pravu," in Uchenye zapiski Tartuskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, vyp. 39 (Tallinn: Trudy iuridicheskogo fakul'teta, 1955), 82-5; N. V. Rabinovich, "Semeinoe pravo," in Sorok let sovetskogo prava, 1917-1957 tom 2 (Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Leningradskogo universiteta, 1957), 299-300; K. Kolibab, "Usilit' okhranu prav roditelei i usynovitelei," Sovetskaia iustitsiia 8 (1957): 38; Iu. Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu," Sovetskaia iustitsiia 12 (1963): 7; Mal'tsman, "Spornye voprosy usynovleniia," 128-31; Vebers, "Sushchnost' usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 54-6.
178. See for example, Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 253-4; Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava, 298-9; Zh. K. Anan'eva, "Sudebnye spory o vospitanii detei" (Avtoreferat dissertatsii na soiskanie uchenoi stepeni kandidata iuridicheskikh nauk, Leningrad, 1954), 10; Zh. K. Anan'eva, "Voprosy usynovleniia po sovetskomu pravu," in Uchenye zapiski Tartuskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, vyp. 39 (Tallinn: Trudy iuridicheskogo fakul'teta, 1955), 82-5; N. V. Rabinovich, "Semeinoe pravo," in Sorok let sovetskogo prava, 1917-1957 tom 2 (Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Leningradskogo universiteta, 1957), 299-300; K. Kolibab, "Usilit' okhranu prav roditelei i usynovitelei," Sovetskaia iustitsiia 8 (1957): 38; Iu. Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu," Sovetskaia iustitsiia 12 (1963): 7; Mal'tsman, "Spornye voprosy usynovleniia," 128-31; Vebers, "Sushchnost' usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 54-6.
179. See for example, Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 253-4; Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava, 298-9; Zh. K. Anan'eva, "Sudebnye spory o vospitanii detei" (Avtoreferat dissertatsii na soiskanie uchenoi stepeni kandidata iuridicheskikh nauk, Leningrad, 1954), 10; Zh. K. Anan'eva, "Voprosy usynovleniia po sovetskomu pravu," in Uchenye zapiski Tartuskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, vyp. 39 (Tallinn: Trudy iuridicheskogo fakul'teta, 1955), 82-5; N. V. Rabinovich, "Semeinoe pravo," in Sorok let sovetskogo prava, 1917-1957 tom 2 (Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Leningradskogo universiteta, 1957), 299-300; K. Kolibab, "Usilit' okhranu prav roditelei i usynovitelei," Sovetskaia iustitsiia 8 (1957): 38; Iu. Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu," Sovetskaia iustitsiia 12 (1963): 7; Mal'tsman, "Spornye voprosy usynovleniia," 128-31; Vebers, "Sushchnost' usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 54-6.
180. See for example, Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 253-4; Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava, 298-9; Zh. K. Anan'eva, "Sudebnye spory o vospitanii detei" (Avtoreferat dissertatsii na soiskanie uchenoi stepeni kandidata iuridicheskikh nauk, Leningrad, 1954), 10; Zh. K. Anan'eva, "Voprosy usynovleniia po sovetskomu pravu," in Uchenye zapiski Tartuskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, vyp. 39 (Tallinn: Trudy iuridicheskogo fakul'teta, 1955), 82-5; N. V. Rabinovich, "Semeinoe pravo," in Sorok let sovetskogo prava, 1917-1957 tom 2 (Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Leningradskogo universiteta, 1957), 299-300; K. Kolibab, "Usilit' okhranu prav roditelei i usynovitelei," Sovetskaia iustitsiia 8 (1957): 38; Iu. Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu," Sovetskaia iustitsiia 12 (1963): 7; Mal'tsman, "Spornye voprosy usynovleniia," 128-31; Vebers, "Sushchnost' usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 54-6.
181. See for example, Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 253-4; Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava, 298-9; Zh. K. Anan'eva, "Sudebnye spory o vospitanii detei" (Avtoreferat dissertatsii na soiskanie uchenoi stepeni kandidata iuridicheskikh nauk, Leningrad, 1954), 10; Zh. K. Anan'eva, "Voprosy usynovleniia po sovetskomu pravu," in Uchenye zapiski Tartuskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, vyp. 39 (Tallinn: Trudy iuridicheskogo fakul'teta, 1955), 82-5; N. V. Rabinovich, "Semeinoe pravo," in Sorok let sovetskogo prava, 1917-1957 tom 2 (Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Leningradskogo universiteta, 1957), 299-300; K. Kolibab, "Usilit' okhranu prav roditelei i usynovitelei," Sovetskaia iustitsiia 8 (1957): 38; Iu. Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu," Sovetskaia iustitsiia 12 (1963): 7; Mal'tsman, "Spornye voprosy usynovleniia," 128-31; Vebers, "Sushchnost' usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 54-6.
182. See for example, Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 253-4; Boshko, Ocherki sovetskogo semeinogo prava, 298-9; Zh. K. Anan'eva, "Sudebnye spory o vospitanii detei" (Avtoreferat dissertatsii na soiskanie uchenoi stepeni kandidata iuridicheskikh nauk, Leningrad, 1954), 10; Zh. K. Anan'eva, "Voprosy usynovleniia po sovetskomu pravu," in Uchenye zapiski Tartuskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, vyp. 39 (Tallinn: Trudy iuridicheskogo fakul'teta, 1955), 82-5; N. V. Rabinovich, "Semeinoe pravo," in Sorok let sovetskogo prava, 1917-1957 tom 2 (Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Leningradskogo universiteta, 1957), 299-300; K. Kolibab, "Usilit' okhranu prav roditelei i usynovitelei," Sovetskaia iustitsiia 8 (1957): 38; Iu. Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu," Sovetskaia iustitsiia 12 (1963): 7; Mal'tsman, "Spornye voprosy usynovleniia," 128-31; Vebers, "Sushchnost' usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 54-6.
183. For a discussion of structural changes in post-Stalinist Soviet society, see Moshe Lewin, The Gorbachev Phenomenon: A Historical Interpretation (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988).
184. Berman, Justice in the U.S.S.R., 79-82. On legal culture during the Stalinist period, see Robert Sharlet, "Stalinism and Soviet Legal Culture," in Stalinism: Essays in Historical Interpretation, ed. Robert C. Tucker (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1977), 155-79. On the influence of Soviet jurists, see Barry and Herman, "The Jurists, " 291-333.
185. Berman, Justice in the U.S.S.R., 79-82. On legal culture during the Stalinist period, see Robert Sharlet, "Stalinism and Soviet Legal Culture," in Stalinism: Essays in Historical Interpretation, ed. Robert C. Tucker (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1977), 155-79. On the influence of Soviet jurists, see Barry and Herman, "The Jurists, " 291-333.
186. Berman, Justice in the U.S.S.R., 79-82. On legal culture during the Stalinist period, see Robert Sharlet, "Stalinism and Soviet Legal Culture," in Stalinism: Essays in Historical Interpretation, ed. Robert C. Tucker (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1977), 155-79. On the influence of Soviet jurists, see Barry and Herman, "The Jurists, " 291-333.
187. He referred to a man whose attempted adoption of his orphaned nephew was revealed to be a ruse to acquire the boy's property. See Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 5. This case is also mentioned in Ivanov and Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon., 215.
188. He referred to a man whose attempted adoption of his orphaned nephew was revealed to be a ruse to acquire the boy's property. See Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 5. This case is also mentioned in Ivanov and Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon., 215.
189. Kolibab, "Usilit' okhranu prav roditelei i usynovitelei," 34-7.
190. Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 250-2.
191. L. N. Smirnov, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii plenum. Verkhovnogo Suda RSFSR, 1961-1971 (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1972), 41.
192. Sverdlov, "Usnovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 36-7. Mal'tsman is one of the few Soviet jurists who supported the dual procedures. See Mal'tsman, "Spornye voprosy usynovleniia," 134-6.
193. Sverdlov, "Usnovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 36-7. Mal'tsman is one of the few Soviet jurists who supported the dual procedures. See Mal'tsman, "Spornye voprosy usynovleniia," 134-6.
194. Pergament, Praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR po voprosam semeinogo prava, 42-3.
195. 111. See Sverdlov, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 36-7; Irina A. Koetkina, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," (Avtoreferat dissertatsii na soiskanie uchenoi stepeni kandidata iuridicheskikh nauk, Moscow, 1953), 10; Kolibab, "Usilit' okhranu prav roditelei i usynovitelei," 38; Irina M. Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prave na vospitanie detei (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-5; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 262-3; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu" 6.
196. See Sverdlov, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 36-7; Irina A. Koetkina, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," (Avtoreferat dissertatsii na soiskanie uchenoi stepeni kandidata iuridicheskikh nauk, Moscow, 1953), 10; Kolibab, "Usilit' okhranu prav roditelei i usynovitelei," 38; Irina M. Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prave na vospitanie detei (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-5; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 262-3; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu" 6.
197. See Sverdlov, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 36-7; Irina A. Koetkina, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," (Avtoreferat dissertatsii na soiskanie uchenoi stepeni kandidata iuridicheskikh nauk, Moscow, 1953), 10; Kolibab, "Usilit' okhranu prav roditelei i usynovitelei," 38; Irina M. Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prave na vospitanie detei (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-5; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 262-3; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu" 6.
198. See Sverdlov, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 36-7; Irina A. Koetkina, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," (Avtoreferat dissertatsii na soiskanie uchenoi stepeni kandidata iuridicheskikh nauk, Moscow, 1953), 10; Kolibab, "Usilit' okhranu prav roditelei i usynovitelei," 38; Irina M. Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prave na vospitanie detei (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-5; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 262-3; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu" 6.
199. See Sverdlov, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 36-7; Irina A. Koetkina, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," (Avtoreferat dissertatsii na soiskanie uchenoi stepeni kandidata iuridicheskikh nauk, Moscow, 1953), 10; Kolibab, "Usilit' okhranu prav roditelei i usynovitelei," 38; Irina M. Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prave na vospitanie detei (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-5; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 262-3; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu" 6.
200. See Sverdlov, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 36-7; Irina A. Koetkina, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," (Avtoreferat dissertatsii na soiskanie uchenoi stepeni kandidata iuridicheskikh nauk, Moscow, 1953), 10; Kolibab, "Usilit' okhranu prav roditelei i usynovitelei," 38; Irina M. Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prave na vospitanie detei (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-5; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 262-3; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu" 6.
201. Kolibab, "Usilit' okhranu prav roditelei i usynovitelei," 38.
202. A recent study of adoption law in the United States asserts that it is only in the last twenty years that "an adopted child's support, succession and other property rights have truly become 'in all respects' equivalent to the rights of a biological child." Hollinger, "Introduction to Adoption Law and Practice," 37.
203. Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditeiskikh prav i obiazannostei, 71 ; S. Ia. Palastina, "Spornye pravovye voprosy tainy usynovleniia," Sovetskoe gosudarstvo ipravo 3 (March 1976): 117-21. At present, authorities on adoption in the United States tend to agree that an adopted child's origins should not be kept secret from the child. For example, see Lois Ruskai Melina, Making Sense of Adoption: A Parent's Guide (New York: Harper and Row, 1989), 227-36; Hollinger, "Introduction to Adoption Law and Practice," 13-4.
204. Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditeiskikh prav i obiazannostei, 71 ; S. Ia. Palastina, "Spornye pravovye voprosy tainy usynovleniia," Sovetskoe gosudarstvo ipravo 3 (March 1976): 117-21. At present, authorities on adoption in the United States tend to agree that an adopted child's origins should not be kept secret from the child. For example, see Lois Ruskai Melina, Making Sense of Adoption: A Parent's Guide (New York: Harper and Row, 1989), 227-36; Hollinger, "Introduction to Adoption Law and Practice," 13-4.
205. Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditeiskikh prav i obiazannostei, 71 ; S. Ia. Palastina, "Spornye pravovye voprosy tainy usynovleniia," Sovetskoe gosudarstvo ipravo 3 (March 1976): 117-21. At present, authorities on adoption in the United States tend to agree that an adopted child's origins should not be kept secret from the child. For example, see Lois Ruskai Melina, Making Sense of Adoption: A Parent's Guide (New York: Harper and Row, 1989), 227-36; Hollinger, "Introduction to Adoption Law and Practice," 13-4.
206. Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditeiskikh prav i obiazannostei, 71 ; S. Ia. Palastina, "Spornye pravovye voprosy tainy usynovleniia," Sovetskoe gosudarstvo ipravo 3 (March 1976): 117-21. At present, authorities on adoption in the United States tend to agree that an adopted child's origins should not be kept secret from the child. For example, see Lois Ruskai Melina, Making Sense of Adoption: A Parent's Guide (New York: Harper and Row, 1989), 227-36; Hollinger, "Introduction to Adoption Law and Practice," 13-4.
207. Hollinger, "Introduction to Adoption Law and Practice," 1.
208. By and large, the 1968 laws are very similar to laws recently promulgated by the State Duma of the Russian Federation. See Semeinyi Kodeks Rossiiskoi Federatsii (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo "Iuridicheskaia literatura," 1996).
209. On how some custodial decisions were made, see O rabote obshchestvennogo inspektora po okhrane detstva: Metodicheskoe pis'mo (Moscow: Uchpedgiz, 1955).
210. Unfortunately, there is no date for this anecdote. From Olimpiad S. Ioffe, Soviet Law and Soviet Reality (Dordrecht, Boston, and Lancaster: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1985), 29.
211. Sovetskaia iustitsiia 2 (1968): ii, cited in Yuri I. Luryi, Soviet Family Law (Buffalo, NY: William S. Hein & Company, 1980), 75.
212. Sovetskaia iustitsiia 2 (1968): ii, cited in Yuri I. Luryi, Soviet Family Law (Buffalo, NY: William S. Hein & Company, 1980), 75.
213. Luryi, Soviet Family Law, 78-9.
214. In 1960 Komsomol'skaia pravda reported an incident involving the guardian of two children who beat a little boy because he refused to pray. See "Ravnodushie k detiam neterpimo," in Komsomol'skaia pravda 177 (July 28, 1960): 1.
215. For typical postwar decisions, see Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR; E. Arlazorova, "Usynovlenie," Sem'ia ishkola 1 (January 1959): 17-9; Biulleten' Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 3 (1971): 12-3; Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditei'skikh prav, 71-86; Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 60-81; Gusev, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii Plenwna i opredelenii Sudebnoi kollegii po grazhdanskim delam Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR (1962-1978 gg.), 265-6; Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prove na vospitanie detei, 32-40; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 4-6; Ivanov and Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon, 210-20; Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu; Gennadii K. Matveev, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1985), 183-90; Raufa F. Mazhitova, Vzyskanie alimentov (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-6; Pergament, Praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR po voprosam semeinogo prava, 40-4; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 244-64; Sverdlov, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo iuridicheskoi literatury, 1958), 247-53; Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu; Vaksberg, "Usynovlenie," 27-8; Vebers, "Sushchnost" usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 53-9.
216. For typical postwar decisions, see Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR; E. Arlazorova, "Usynovlenie," Sem'ia ishkola 1 (January 1959): 17-9; Biulleten' Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 3 (1971): 12-3; Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditei'skikh prav, 71-86; Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 60-81; Gusev, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii Plenwna i opredelenii Sudebnoi kollegii po grazhdanskim delam Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR (1962-1978 gg.), 265-6; Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prove na vospitanie detei, 32-40; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 4-6; Ivanov and Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon, 210-20; Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu; Gennadii K. Matveev, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1985), 183-90; Raufa F. Mazhitova, Vzyskanie alimentov (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-6; Pergament, Praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR po voprosam semeinogo prava, 40-4; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 244-64; Sverdlov, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo iuridicheskoi literatury, 1958), 247-53; Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu; Vaksberg, "Usynovlenie," 27-8; Vebers, "Sushchnost" usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 53-9.
217. For typical postwar decisions, see Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR; E. Arlazorova, "Usynovlenie," Sem'ia ishkola 1 (January 1959): 17-9; Biulleten' Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 3 (1971): 12-3; Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditel'skikh prav, 71-86; Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 60-81; Gusev, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii Plenwna i opredelenii Sudebnoi kollegii po grazhdanskim delam Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR (1962-1978 gg.), 265-6; Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prove na vospitanie detei, 32-40; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 4-6; Ivanov and Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon, 210-20; Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu; Gennadii K. Matveev, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1985), 183-90; Raufa F. Mazhitova, Vzyskanie alimentov (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-6; Pergament, Praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR po voprosam semeinogo prava, 40-4; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 244-64; Sverdlov, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo iuridicheskoi literatury, 1958), 247-53; Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu; Vaksberg, "Usynovlenie," 27-8; Vebers, "Sushchnost" usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 53-9.
218. For typical postwar decisions, see Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR; E. Arlazorova, "Usynovlenie," Sem'ia ishkola 1 (January 1959): 17-9; Biulleten' Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 3 (1971): 12-3; Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditel'skikh prav, 71-86; Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 60-81; Gusev, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii Plenwna i opredelenii Sudebnoi kollegii po grazhdanskim delam Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR (1962-1978 gg.), 265-6; Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prove na vospitanie detei, 32-40; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 4-6; Ivanov and Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon, 210-20; Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu; Gennadii K. Matveev, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1985), 183-90; Raufa F. Mazhitova, Vzyskanie alimentov (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-6; Pergament, Praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR po voprosam semeinogo prava, 40-4; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 244-64; Sverdlov, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo iuridicheskoi literatury, 1958), 247-53; Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu; Vaksberg, "Usynovlenie," 27-8; Vebers, "Sushchnost" usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 53-9.
219. For typical postwar decisions, see Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR; E. Arlazorova, "Usynovlenie," Sem'ia ishkola 1 (January 1959): 17-9; Biulleten' Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 3 (1971): 12-3; Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditel'skikh prav, 71-86; Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 60-81; Gusev, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii Plenwna i opredelenii Sudebnoi kollegii po grazhdanskim delam Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR (1962-1978 gg.), 265-6; Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prove na vospitanie detei, 32-40; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 4-6; Ivanov and Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon, 210-20; Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu; Gennadii K. Matveev, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1985), 183-90; Raufa F. Mazhitova, Vzyskanie alimentov (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-6; Pergament, Praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR po voprosam semeinogo prava, 40-4; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 244-64; Sverdlov, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo iuridicheskoi literatury, 1958), 247-53; Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu; Vaksberg, "Usynovlenie," 27-8; Vebers, "Sushchnost" usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 53-9.
220. For typical postwar decisions, see Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR; E. Arlazorova, "Usynovlenie," Sem'ia ishkola 1 (January 1959): 17-9; Biulleten' Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 3 (1971): 12-3; Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditel'skikh prav, 71-86; Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 60-81; Gusev, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii Plenwna i opredelenii Sudebnoi kollegii po grazhdanskim delam Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR (1962-1978 gg.), 265-6; Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prove na vospitanie detei, 32-40; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 4-6; Ivanov and Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon, 210-20; Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu; Gennadii K. Matveev, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1985), 183-90; Raufa F. Mazhitova, Vzyskanie alimentov (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-6; Pergament, Praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR po voprosam semeinogo prava, 40-4; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 244-64; Sverdlov, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo iuridicheskoi literatury, 1958), 247-53; Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu; Vaksberg, "Usynovlenie," 27-8; Vebers, "Sushchnost" usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 53-9.
221. For typical postwar decisions, see Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR; E. Arlazorova, "Usynovlenie," Sem'ia ishkola 1 (January 1959): 17-9; Biulleten' Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 3 (1971): 12-3; Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditel'skikh prav, 71-86; Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 60-81; Gusev, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii Plenwna i opredelenii Sudebnoi kollegii po grazhdanskim delam Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR (1962-1978 gg.), 265-6; Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prove na vospitanie detei, 32-40; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 4-6; Ivanov and Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon, 210-20; Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu; Gennadii K. Matveev, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1985), 183-90; Raufa F. Mazhitova, Vzyskanie alimentov (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-6; Pergament, Praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR po voprosam semeinogo prava, 40-4; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 244-64; Sverdlov, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo iuridicheskoi literatury, 1958), 247-53; Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu; Vaksberg, "Usynovlenie," 27-8; Vebers, "Sushchnost" usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 53-9.
222. For typical postwar decisions, see Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR; E. Arlazorova, "Usynovlenie," Sem'ia ishkola 1 (January 1959): 17-9; Biulleten' Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 3 (1971): 12-3; Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditel'skikh prav, 71-86; Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 60-81; Gusev, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii Plenwna i opredelenii Sudebnoi kollegii po grazhdanskim delam Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR (1962-1978 gg.), 265-6; Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prove na vospitanie detei, 32-40; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 4-6; Ivanov and Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon, 210-20; Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu; Gennadii K. Matveev, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1985), 183-90; Raufa F. Mazhitova, Vzyskanie alimentov (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-6; Pergament, Praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR po voprosam semeinogo prava, 40-4; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 244-64; Sverdlov, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo iuridicheskoi literatury, 1958), 247-53; Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu; Vaksberg, "Usynovlenie," 27-8; Vebers, "Sushchnost" usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 53-9.
223. For typical postwar decisions, see Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR; E. Arlazorova, "Usynovlenie," Sem'ia ishkola 1 (January 1959): 17-9; Biulleten' Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 3 (1971): 12-3; Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditel'skikh prav, 71-86; Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 60-81; Gusev, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii Plenwna i opredelenii Sudebnoi kollegii po grazhdanskim delam Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR (1962-1978 gg.), 265-6; Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prove na vospitanie detei, 32-40; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 4-6; Ivanov and Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon, 210-20; Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu; Gennadii K. Matveev, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1985), 183-90; Raufa F. Mazhitova, Vzyskanie alimentov (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-6; Pergament, Praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR po voprosam semeinogo prava, 40-4; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 244-64; Sverdlov, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo iuridicheskoi literatury, 1958), 247-53; Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu; Vaksberg, "Usynovlenie," 27-8; Vebers, "Sushchnost" usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 53-9.
224. For typical postwar decisions, see Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR; E. Arlazorova, "Usynovlenie," Sem'ia ishkola 1 (January 1959): 17-9; Biulleten' Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 3 (1971): 12-3; Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditel'skikh prav, 71-86; Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 60-81; Gusev, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii Plenwna i opredelenii Sudebnoi kollegii po grazhdanskim delam Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR (1962-1978 gg.), 265-6; Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prove na vospitanie detei, 32-40; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 4-6; Ivanov and Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon, 210-20; Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu; Gennadii K. Matveev, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1985), 183-90; Raufa F. Mazhitova, Vzyskanie alimentov (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-6; Pergament, Praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR po voprosam semeinogo prava, 40-4; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 244-64; Sverdlov, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo iuridicheskoi literatury, 1958), 247-53; Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu; Vaksberg, "Usynovlenie," 27-8; Vebers, "Sushchnost" usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 53-9.
225. For typical postwar decisions, see Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR; E. Arlazorova, "Usynovlenie," Sem'ia ishkola 1 (January 1959): 17-9; Biulleten' Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 3 (1971): 12-3; Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditel'skikh prav, 71-86; Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 60-81; Gusev, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii Plenwna i opredelenii Sudebnoi kollegii po grazhdanskim delam Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR (1962-1978 gg.), 265-6; Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prove na vospitanie detei, 32-40; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 4-6; Ivanov and Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon, 210-20; Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu; Gennadii K. Matveev, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1985), 183-90; Raufa F. Mazhitova, Vzyskanie alimentov (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-6; Pergament, Praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR po voprosam semeinogo prava, 40-4; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 244-64; Sverdlov, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo iuridicheskoi literatury, 1958), 247-53; Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu; Vaksberg, "Usynovlenie," 27-8; Vebers, "Sushchnost" usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 53-9.
226. For typical postwar decisions, see Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR; E. Arlazorova, "Usynovlenie," Sem'ia ishkola 1 (January 1959): 17-9; Biulleten' Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 3 (1971): 12-3; Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditel'skikh prav, 71-86; Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 60-81; Gusev, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii Plenwna i opredelenii Sudebnoi kollegii po grazhdanskim delam Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR (1962-1978 gg.), 265-6; Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prove na vospitanie detei, 32-40; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 4-6; Ivanov and Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon, 210-20; Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu; Gennadii K. Matveev, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1985), 183-90; Raufa F. Mazhitova, Vzyskanie alimentov (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-6; Pergament, Praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR po voprosam semeinogo prava, 40-4; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 244-64; Sverdlov, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo iuridicheskoi literatury, 1958), 247-53; Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu; Vaksberg, "Usynovlenie," 27-8; Vebers, "Sushchnost" usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 53-9.
227. For typical postwar decisions, see Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR; E. Arlazorova, "Usynovlenie," Sem'ia ishkola 1 (January 1959): 17-9; Biulleten' Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 3 (1971): 12-3; Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditel'skikh prav, 71-86; Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 60-81; Gusev, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii Plenwna i opredelenii Sudebnoi kollegii po grazhdanskim delam Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR (1962-1978 gg.), 265-6; Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prove na vospitanie detei, 32-40; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 4-6; Ivanov and Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon, 210-20; Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu; Gennadii K. Matveev, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1985), 183-90; Raufa F. Mazhitova, Vzyskanie alimentov (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-6; Pergament, Praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR po voprosam semeinogo prava, 40-4; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 244-64; Sverdlov, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo iuridicheskoi literatury, 1958), 247-53; Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu; Vaksberg, "Usynovlenie," 27-8; Vebers, "Sushchnost" usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 53-9.
228. For typical postwar decisions, see Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR; E. Arlazorova, "Usynovlenie," Sem'ia ishkola 1 (January 1959): 17-9; Biulleten' Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 3 (1971): 12-3; Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditel'skikh prav, 71-86; Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 60-81; Gusev, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii Plenwna i opredelenii Sudebnoi kollegii po grazhdanskim delam Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR (1962-1978 gg.), 265-6; Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prove na vospitanie detei, 32-40; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 4-6; Ivanov and Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon, 210-20; Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu; Gennadii K. Matveev, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1985), 183-90; Raufa F. Mazhitova, Vzyskanie alimentov (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-6; Pergament, Praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR po voprosam semeinogo prava, 40-4; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 244-64; Sverdlov, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo iuridicheskoi literatury, 1958), 247-53; Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu; Vaksberg, "Usynovlenie," 27-8; Vebers, "Sushchnost" usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 53-9.
229. For typical postwar decisions, see Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR; E. Arlazorova, "Usynovlenie," Sem'ia ishkola 1 (January 1959): 17-9; Biulleten' Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 3 (1971): 12-3; Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditel'skikh prav, 71-86; Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 60-81; Gusev, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii Plenwna i opredelenii Sudebnoi kollegii po grazhdanskim delam Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR (1962-1978 gg.), 265-6; Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prove na vospitanie detei, 32-40; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 4-6; Ivanov and Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon, 210-20; Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu; Gennadii K. Matveev, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1985), 183-90; Raufa F. Mazhitova, Vzyskanie alimentov (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-6; Pergament, Praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR po voprosam semeinogo prava, 40-4; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 244-64; Sverdlov, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo iuridicheskoi literatury, 1958), 247-53; Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu; Vaksberg, "Usynovlenie," 27-8; Vebers, "Sushchnost" usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 53-9.
230. For typical postwar decisions, see Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR; E. Arlazorova, "Usynovlenie," Sem'ia ishkola 1 (January 1959): 17-9; Biulleten' Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 3 (1971): 12-3; Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditel'skikh prav, 71-86; Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 60-81; Gusev, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii Plenwna i opredelenii Sudebnoi kollegii po grazhdanskim delam Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR (1962-1978 gg.), 265-6; Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prove na vospitanie detei, 32-40; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 4-6; Ivanov and Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon, 210-20; Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu; Gennadii K. Matveev, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1985), 183-90; Raufa F. Mazhitova, Vzyskanie alimentov (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-6; Pergament, Praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR po voprosam semeinogo prava, 40-4; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 244-64; Sverdlov, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo iuridicheskoi literatury, 1958), 247-53; Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu; Vaksberg, "Usynovlenie," 27-8; Vebers, "Sushchnost" usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 53-9.
231. For typical postwar decisions, see Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR; E. Arlazorova, "Usynovlenie," Sem'ia ishkola 1 (January 1959): 17-9; Biulleten' Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 3 (1971): 12-3; Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditel'skikh prav, 71-86; Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 60-81; Gusev, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii Plenwna i opredelenii Sudebnoi kollegii po grazhdanskim delam Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR (1962-1978 gg.), 265-6; Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prove na vospitanie detei, 32-40; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 4-6; Ivanov and Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon, 210-20; Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu; Gennadii K. Matveev, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1985), 183-90; Raufa F. Mazhitova, Vzyskanie alimentov (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-6; Pergament, Praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR po voprosam semeinogo prava, 40-4; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 244-64; Sverdlov, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo iuridicheskoi literatury, 1958), 247-53; Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu; Vaksberg, "Usynovlenie," 27-8; Vebers, "Sushchnost" usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 53-9.
232. For typical postwar decisions, see Sudebnaia praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR; E. Arlazorova, "Usynovlenie," Sem'ia ishkola 1 (January 1959): 17-9; Biulleten' Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR 3 (1971): 12-3; Cherviakov, Ustanovlenie i prekrashchenie roditel'skikh prav, 71-86; Ershova, Pravovye voprosy vospitaniia detei v sem'e, 60-81; Gusev, ed., Sbornik postanovlenii Plenwna i opredelenii Sudebnoi kollegii po grazhdanskim delam Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR (1962-1978 gg.), 265-6; Il'inskaia, Sudebnoe rassmotrenie sporov o prove na vospitanie detei, 32-40; Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 4-6; Ivanov and Kallistratova, Sem'ia. Obshchestvo. Zakon, 210-20; Kliachko, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu semeinomu pravu; Gennadii K. Matveev, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1985), 183-90; Raufa F. Mazhitova, Vzyskanie alimentov (Moscow: Gosiurizdat, 1960), 33-6; Pergament, Praktika Verkhovnogo Suda SSSR po voprosam semeinogo prava, 40-4; Posse, "Osnovnye voprosy usynovleniia," 244-64; Sverdlov, Sovetskoe semeinoe pravo (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo iuridicheskoi literatury, 1958), 247-53; Sverdlov, Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu; Vaksberg, "Usynovlenie," 27-8; Vebers, "Sushchnost" usynovleniia i ego pravovye posledstviia," 53-9.
233. Iurburgskii, "Usynovlenie po sovetskomu pravu," 4-5. This stands in contrast to the above-described adoption of Vova in June 1943, whose infant brother's fate did not figure into any recorded considerations of the children's best interests.