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1
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The British law making it a "criminal offence to give or receive money for supplying organs of either a living or dead person" was passed in 1989 after a scandal involving a paid donor from Turkey (cited in Fox R Spare parts: organ replacement in American society. New York: Oxford University).
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(1992)
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2
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There were certainly dissenting voices during this period, especially coming from legal experts and philosophers trained in ethics (see Joralemon D. Organ wars: the battle for body parts.).
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(1995)
Medical Anthropology Quarterly
, vol.9
, pp. 335-356
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3
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Increasing the supply of transplant organs: The virtues of an options market
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New York: Springer, Cohen's proposal calls for contracts with healthy persons for the right to take their organs for transplantation in the event of their death. The payoff would be to the person's heirs and would regulated amount per usable organ.
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(1995)
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Cohen, L.1
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4
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0006181525
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As of this writing (March the Pennsylvania plan has not been implemented. According to a physician central to the project, the state "seems to have lost its nerve".
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(2000)
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6
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4244019517
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See reference 5
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7
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Danger for organ donations
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Anonymous [editorial] May 7
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(1999)
Times-Picayune
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9
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0006244235
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Testimony given at hearings before the subcommittee on health and environment of the committee on commerce House of Representatives, 106th Congress, 1st session April 15, serial no 106-14
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(1999)
, pp. 29-31
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Metzger, R.A.1
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10
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0006154117
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The ethics of organ transplants: The current debate. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books
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(1998)
, pp. 194-195
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Caplan, A.L.1
Coelho, D.H.2
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12
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12644301166
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The Bellagio task force report on transplantation, bodily integrity, and the international traffic in organs
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The task force was an interdisciplinary group brought together by the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons.
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(1997)
Transplantation Proceedings
, vol.29
, pp. 2741
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Rothman, D.J.1
Rose, E.2
Awaya, T.3
Cohen, B.4
Daar, A.S.5
Dzemeshkevich, S.L.6
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13
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0006249484
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It is not just the idea of financial incentives that has come up for ethical reconsideration in response to the increasingly severe organ shortage. Other plans for increasing the supply of organs that were once suspect and/or medically unwise include: harvesting organs from anencephalic infants; accepting living donations from convicts; xenotransplantation; expanding the criteria for donors to include older (for example, syphilis); linking organ harvesting to the removal of life support for "non-heart-beating donors"; accepting living donations from "living emotionally related" and "living unrelated" donors; and permit organ removal unless an objection has been registered ("presumed consent"). Several of these approaches are already a part of transplantation practice in the United States and in other countries.
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14
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Financial incentives for organ procurement: Ethical aspects of future contracts for cadaveric donors
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American Medical Association (AMA). Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs
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(1995)
Archives of Internal Medicine
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, pp. 581-589
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17
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Internationally, the refusal rate varies considerably. In France, as many as 61% of families decline requests (Durand-Zaleski I, Waissman R, Lang P, Wiel B, Foury M, Bonnet F. Non-procurement of transplantable organs in care hospital.)
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Transplantation
, vol.62
, pp. 1224-1229
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20
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The United States is not alone in generating survey research on ethical issues in organ transplantation. For example, the Japanese were subjected to more than ten national surveys on the issue of brain death and organ between 1983 and 1992 (Lock M. Displacing suffering: the reconstruction of death in North America and Japan. Daedalus 1996;125: 228). The international journal publishes much of this research; the Partnership of many of the American studies at its website: www.transweb.org/partnership/abstract.html
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Transplantation Proceedings
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21
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0006155242
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Organ donation study: Executive summary of a national survey
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United Network for Organ Sharing/National Kidney Foundation. Richmond, Virginia: National Kidney Foundation, United Network for Organ Sharing, Southeastern Institute of Research, Inc
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(1992)
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22
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0026646856
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Rewarded gifting
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Another apparent such use of survey results in the name of promoting financial incentives is what appears to be the selective reporting of polls. For example: cites an internet debate in which a majority of those financial compensation. He then asserts that this finding "is in keeping with other polls in the past" page 366
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(1992)
Transplantation Proceedings
, vol.24
, pp. 2207-2211
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Daar, A.S.1
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24
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Altruism, motivation, and allocation: Giving and using human organs
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He does not mention the polls that have found exactly the opposite (for example
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(1993)
Journal of Social Issues
, vol.49
, pp. 137-150
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Prottas, J.M.1
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26
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14844338611
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The ethics of the organ market: Lloyd Cohen and the free marketers
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Part of this section is adapted from an earlier paper Brodwin P, ed. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, (in press)
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(2000)
Biotechnology and culture
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Joralemon, D.1
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27
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See reference 2
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29
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See reference 21: Lloyd Cohen, the legal/economic expert who spoke at the Division of Transplantation Meeting, also took maximum advantage of the tactic in his book-length defence of a futures market in cadaver organs 3)
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(1996)
, pp. 2207-2211
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30
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85047690076
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Life or death: The issue of payment in cadaveric organ donation
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Additional examples of what appears to be a semantic strategy in the promotion of financial incentives for organs are: transplant surgeon Thomas Peter's proposed "death benefit" Pennsylvania's "stipend", and volunteerism" 1993 Among those who have made note of the widespread use of euphemisms is Jeffrey Prottas (see reference 21)
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(1991)
Journal of the American Medical Association
, vol.265
, pp. 1302-1305
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Peters, T.1
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41
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0003501414
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Procuring organs for transplant: The debate over non-heartbeating cadaver protocols
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Controlled donation entails preparatory interventions to preserve organs for transplantation performed on patients who are on life support, but are not dead by the "whole brain" definition. Once permission is kin, the patient is removed from life support and, assuming the heart does not begin to beat in its own, removal of organs is initiated. See: eds. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
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(1995)
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Arnold, R.M.1
Younger, S.J.2
Schapiro, R.3
Spicer, C.M.4
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45
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0032210159
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Current status of transplant coordination and organ donation
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Evidence from India suggests that this concept has quicklyecome a loophole in legislation prohibiting commercial sale of kidneys. Persons claim an emotional connection to a patient when they are actually engaged sale. See
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(1998)
Transplantation Proceedings
, vol.30
, pp. 3627-3628
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Singh, A.K.1
Srivatsava, P.A.2
Kumar, A.3
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46
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0006197769
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In an earlier article (see reference 2) I offered an analogy between this linguistic process and the biological effect of immunosuppressants: a semantic suppression of cultural rejection.
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49
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0032477531
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Whose body is it anyway? Disputes over body tissues in a biotechnology age
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Lancet
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, pp. 53-57
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Andrews, L.1
Nelkin, D.2
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50
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0006155243
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For example, UNOS has permanent standing committees on: communications; ethics; finance; histocompatability; kidney and pancreas transplantation; liver and intestinal organ transplantation; membership and professional minority affairs; organ procurement organisations; patient affairs; paediatric transplantation; thoracic organ transplantation, and transplant administrators (UNOS by-laws, article VI, 6.1).
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51
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0006154683
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A consensus conference brings together a wide variety of interested parties to debate policy changes. Sometimes they are used to generate proposals for reform, and other times they are designed to provide already offered by standing committees.
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53
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0003502608
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Using the bodies of the dead: Legal, ethical and organisational dimensions of organ transplantation
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The maximum ischaemic time before organs deteriorate beyond transplant potential varies, from five hours for hearts to 72 hours for kidneys Aldershot, UK: Ashgate
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(1998)
, pp. 19
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Machado, N.1
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Development of the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center policy for the care of terminally ill patients who may become organ donors after death following removal of life support
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Arnold RA, Younger SJ, Schapiro R, Spicer CM, eds. In procuring organs for transplant. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
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(1995)
, pp. 55-68
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DeVita, M.A.1
Snyder, J.V.2
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55
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Controversy erupts over organ removals
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Critical views of the Pittsburgh policy are included in a collection of essays originally published in the Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal (see reference 39). An especially controversial modification of the undertaken by other medical centres involved the injection of chemicals to preserve organs for transplant before permission was granted by next of kin. This yielded negative reactions as well as the threat of law-suits Apr 13: section 1:28.
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(1997)
New York Times
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Kolata, G.1
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See reference 37: De Jong W.J. Drachman S.L. Gortmaker
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