Types of identification among Russians in the 'Near abroad'

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 53, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 57-71

  Poppe, Edwin ^a   Hagendoorn, Louk ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ETHNIC MINORITY; IDENTITY CONSTRUCTION; NATIONAL IDENTITY;

EURASIA;

EID: 0035121804     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09668130123914     Document Type: Article

References (40)

1. See, for instance, C. D. Harris, 'The New Russian Minorities: A Statistical Overview', Post-Soviet Geography, 34, 1, 1993, pp. 1-27.
2. J. Chinn & R. Kaiser, Russians as the New Minority: Ethnicity and Nationalism in the Soviet Successor States (Boulder, CO, Westview Press, 1996);
3. P. Kolstø, Russians in the Former Soviet Republics (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1995);
4. D. Laitin, Identity in Formation. The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad (Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1998);
5. N. Melvin, Russians beyond Russia: The Politics of National Identity (London, Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1995);
6. G.I. Mirsky, On Ruins of Empire. Ethnicity and Nationalism in the Former Soviet Union (Westport, CT, Greenwood Press, 1997);
7. V. Shlapentokh, M. Sendich & E. Payin (eds), The New Russian Diaspora (Armonk, NY, M.E. Sharpe, 1994).
8. G. Smith, V. Law, A. Wilson, A. Bohr & E. Allworth, Nation-Building in the Post-Soviet Borderlands: The Politics of National Identities (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 23-47.
9. See for example Melvin, p. 9.
10. Exceptions are studies on regional differences within countries, for instance, I. Bremmer, 'The Politics of Ethnicity: Russians in the New Ukraine', Europe-Asia Studies, 46, 2, 1994, pp. 261-283. Pirie comes closest to an empirical investigation of identification types of Russians, namely those residing in Ukraine. Unfortunately, he is not able to examine various identification types at one point in time because he uses data from different surveys. P.S. Pirie, 'National Identity and Politics in Southern and Eastern Ukraine', Europe-Asia Studies, 48, 7, 1996, pp. 1079-1104.
11. Exceptions are studies on regional differences within countries, for instance, I. Bremmer, 'The Politics of Ethnicity: Russians in the New Ukraine', Europe-Asia Studies, 46, 2, 1994, pp. 261-283. Pirie comes closest to an empirical investigation of identification types of Russians, namely those residing in Ukraine. Unfortunately, he is not able to examine various identification types at one point in time because he uses data from different surveys. P.S. Pirie, 'National Identity and Politics in Southern and Eastern Ukraine', Europe-Asia Studies, 48, 7, 1996, pp. 1079-1104.
12. J. Berry, 'Psychology of Acculturation', in R.A. Dienstbier & J.J. Berman (eds), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Cross-cultural Perspectives (Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press, 1989), pp. 201-233; N. Hutnik, Ethnic Minority Identity: A Social Psychological Perspective (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1991); for the post-Soviet context see Pirie; S. Shulman, 'Competing versus Complementary Identities: Ukrainian-Russian Relations and the Loyalties of Russians in Ukraine', Nationalities Papers, 24, 4, 1998, pp. 615-632; M.N. Guboglo, 'The Disintegration and Synthesis of Identity in Post-Soviet Space and Time (The Case of Ukraine)', The Harriman Review, 9, 1996, pp. 92-102.
13. J. Berry, 'Psychology of Acculturation', in R.A. Dienstbier & J.J. Berman (eds), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Cross-cultural Perspectives (Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press, 1989), pp. 201-233; N. Hutnik, Ethnic Minority Identity: A Social Psychological Perspective (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1991); for the post-Soviet context see Pirie; S. Shulman, 'Competing versus Complementary Identities: Ukrainian-Russian Relations and the Loyalties of Russians in Ukraine', Nationalities Papers, 24, 4, 1998, pp. 615-632; M.N. Guboglo, 'The Disintegration and Synthesis of Identity in Post-Soviet Space and Time (The Case of Ukraine)', The Harriman Review, 9, 1996, pp. 92-102.
14. J. Berry, 'Psychology of Acculturation', in R.A. Dienstbier & J.J. Berman (eds), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Cross-cultural Perspectives (Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press, 1989), pp. 201-233; N. Hutnik, Ethnic Minority Identity: A Social Psychological Perspective (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1991); for the post-Soviet context see Pirie; S. Shulman, 'Competing versus Complementary Identities: Ukrainian-Russian Relations and the Loyalties of Russians in Ukraine', Nationalities Papers, 24, 4, 1998, pp. 615-632; M.N. Guboglo, 'The Disintegration and Synthesis of Identity in Post-Soviet Space and Time (The Case of Ukraine)', The Harriman Review, 9, 1996, pp. 92-102.
15. J. Berry, 'Psychology of Acculturation', in R.A. Dienstbier & J.J. Berman (eds), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Cross-cultural Perspectives (Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press, 1989), pp. 201-233; N. Hutnik, Ethnic Minority Identity: A Social Psychological Perspective (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1991); for the post-Soviet context see Pirie; S. Shulman, 'Competing versus Complementary Identities: Ukrainian-Russian Relations and the Loyalties of Russians in Ukraine', Nationalities Papers, 24, 4, 1998, pp. 615-632; M.N. Guboglo, 'The Disintegration and Synthesis of Identity in Post-Soviet Space and Time (The Case of Ukraine)', The Harriman Review, 9, 1996, pp. 92-102.
16. Pirie, p. 1090; Laitin, p. 308; L. Barrington, 'The Geographic Component of Mass Attitudes in Ukraine', Post-Soviet Geography and Economics, 38, 10, 1997, p. 607.
17. Melvin, p. 9; Pirie, p. 1094.
18. P. Kolstø, 'The New Russian Diaspora - An Identity of its Own? Possible Identity Trajectories for Russians in the Former Soviet Republics', Ethnic and Racial Studies, 19, 1996, pp. 609-639.
19. A.H. Miller, Th.F. Klobucar, W.R. Reisinger & V.L. Hesli, 'Social Identities in Russia, Ukraine, and Lithuania', Post-Soviet Affairs, 14, 3, 1998, pp. 248-286; Pirie, pp. 1084-1085.
20. Whereas the present study is concerned with the relation between demographic variables and identification types on the individual level, authors of previous studies focused on the aggregate or macro-level, i.e. the comparison between republics or regions within republics; see the framework factors of Kolstø, 'The New Russian Diaspora ...', or the variables empirically tested by Pirie. Nevertheless, we assume that these previous studies indicate a number of demographic factors which may also play a role in identification on the individual level. Testing the relationship between identification and country-level demographic variables, such as geographical distance from Russia, cultural distance from Russian culture, or minority policies in the republics, is beyond the scope of this article.
21. R. Karklins, Ethnic Relations in the USSR. The Perspectives from Below (Boston, Hyman, 1986), pp. 154-155; B.D. Silver, 'Ethnic Intermarriages and Ethnic Consciousness among Soviet Nationalities', Soviet Studies, 30, 1, 1978, pp. 154-182; and Kolstø, 'The New Russian Diaspora ...'.
22. R. Karklins, Ethnic Relations in the USSR. The Perspectives from Below (Boston, Hyman, 1986), pp. 154-155; B.D. Silver, 'Ethnic Intermarriages and Ethnic Consciousness among Soviet Nationalities', Soviet Studies, 30, 1, 1978, pp. 154-182; and Kolstø, 'The New Russian Diaspora ...'.
23. R. Karklins, Ethnic Relations in the USSR. The Perspectives from Below (Boston, Hyman, 1986), pp. 154-155; B.D. Silver, 'Ethnic Intermarriages and Ethnic Consciousness among Soviet Nationalities', Soviet Studies, 30, 1, 1978, pp. 154-182; and Kolstø, 'The New Russian Diaspora ...'.
24. Laitin, pp. 201-216. The duration of residence was significantly related to the assimilation index in Estonia, Latvia and Ukraine, but not in Kazakhstan.
25. D. Sekulic, G. Massey & R. Hodson, 'Who Were the Yugoslavs? Failed Sources of a Common Identity in the Former Yugoslavia', American Sociological Review, 59, 1, 1994, pp. 83-97.
26. R.A. LeVine & D.T. Campbell, Ethnocentrism: Theories and Conflict, Ethnic Attitudes and Group Behaviour (New York, Wiley, 1972); S. Olzak & J. Nagel, Competitive Ethnic Relations (Orlando, Academic Press, 1986).
27. R.A. LeVine & D.T. Campbell, Ethnocentrism: Theories and Conflict, Ethnic Attitudes and Group Behaviour (New York, Wiley, 1972); S. Olzak & J. Nagel, Competitive Ethnic Relations (Orlando, Academic Press, 1986).
28. Laitin, pp. 201-216.
29. The nationality of the respondent was asked before the interview took place. Respondents who answered that they considered themselves Russians were asked to participate on a voluntary basis. The response rate was very high: 98% across the five countries. The samples in the republics are fairly equally distributed across gender and age categories; only in Georgia and Kazakhstan do females seem to be over-represented (62% and 60% respectively) and in Kazakhstan respondents older than 55 years are under-represented compared with the other republics; in Georgia respondents under 35 years are under-represented and those between 46 and 55 are over-represented. It is natural that such deviations occur in smaller samples. The proportion of Russian-titular marriages among the respondents across the five republics is not very different from the percentages of mixed marriages in urban areas in 1988 presented by R. Kaiser, The Geography of Nationalism in Russia and the USSR (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 302-303.
30. Guboglo, p. 96; Bremmer, p. 282.
31. The original five-point scales were recorded in dichotomous scales in which the answer categories 'agree' and 'fully agree' are indicators of identification, while the answer categories 'fully disagree', 'disagree' and 'neutral' are indicators of marginality.
32. Whereas 'Russian identification' and 'titular identification' are more or less competing, other identifications appeared to be more or less complementary. Of 'Primary Russians', 56% also considered themselves Soviet and 35% republican citizens. Of 'primary titulars', 83% also considered themselves republican and 31% Soviet. Of 'Soviets', 47% considered themselves republican. These findings reflect the fact that Russian identification is correlated to Soviet identification (Pearson correlation coefficient = 0.21; p < 0.001), while titular identification is correlated to republican identification (r = 0.28; p < 0.001).
33. See for example Pirie; Shulman.
34. The questions on patriotism were taken from R. Kosterman & S. Feshbach, 'Toward a Measure of Patriotic and Nationalistic Attitudes', Political Psychology, 10, 2, 1989, pp. 257-274. All the questions were answered on a 5-point scale from 'disagree' to 'agree'. Factor analysis indicated that the four questions formed a reliable scale. Therefore the answers on the four items were summed and divided by the number of items. In order to facilitate the interpretation, the answers were recoded in such a way that 0.00 was the lowest and 1.0 the highest value.
35. The questions on social distance were taken from E. Bogardus, 'A Social Distance Scale', Sociology and Social Research, 22, 3, pp. 265-271. The first question was: 'How acceptable or unacceptable is it for you to have [titulars] as neighbours of your household?' The name of the titular nation was filled in. The same questions were asked for 'chief at work', 'class-mates of your child' and 'husband or wife'. All the questions were answered on a 5-point scale from 'fully unacceptable' to 'fully acceptable'. In order to facilitate the interpretation, the answers were recoded so that 0.00 was the lowest and 1.0 the highest value.
36. The phenomenon of 'false consensus effect' or 'looking glass perception', i.e. the propensity to believe that others' opinions are the same as one's own, has been studied in social psychology; see for example L. Ross, D. Greene & P. House, 'The "False Consensus Effect". An Egocentric Bias in Social Perception and Attribution Processes', Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 3, 1977, pp. 279-301; J. M. Fields & H. Schuman, 'Public Beliefs About the Beliefs of the Public', Public Opinion Quarterly, 40, 4, 1976, pp. 427-448.
37. The phenomenon of 'false consensus effect' or 'looking glass perception', i.e. the propensity to believe that others' opinions are the same as one's own, has been studied in social psychology; see for example L. Ross, D. Greene & P. House, 'The "False Consensus Effect". An Egocentric Bias in Social Perception and Attribution Processes', Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 3, 1977, pp. 279-301; J. M. Fields & H. Schuman, 'Public Beliefs About the Beliefs of the Public', Public Opinion Quarterly, 40, 4, 1976, pp. 427-448.
38. Kolstø's 'integrating new diaspora' is conceived as an instance of a republican identification because they both imply a civic identification without identification as either Russian or titular. Kolstø also specified regional differences within some of the republics, which is beyond the scope of this study. For instance, assimilation is more common in western Ukraine and integration in eastern Ukraine; irredentism in the northern part of Kazakhstan and integration in southern Kazakhstan.
39. See Kolstø, 'The New Russian Diaspora ...'; Laitin; R. Brubaker, 'Nationhood and the National Question in the Soviet Union and Post-Soviet Eurasia: An Institutionalist Account', Theory and Society, 23, 1, 1994, pp. 47-78.
40. See Kolstø, 'The New Russian Diaspora ...'; Laitin; R. Brubaker, 'Nationhood and the National Question in the Soviet Union and Post-Soviet Eurasia: An Institutionalist Account', Theory and Society, 23, 1, 1994, pp. 47-78.