National identity and politics in Southern and Eastern Ukraine

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 48, Issue 7, 1996, Pages 1079-1104

  Pirie, Paul S ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ETHNICITY; NATIONAL IDENTITY; NATIONAL POLITICS; NATIONALISM; POLITICAL IMPACT; SELF-IDENTIFICATION;

UKRAINE;

EID: 0030438624     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09668139608412401     Document Type: Article

References (92)

1. N. V. Gogol', Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 12 (Moscow, 1952), p. 419. 'Khokhol' is a derogatory term.
2. Paul R. Spickard, Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity in Twentieth-Century America (Madison, 1989), pp. 371-372.
3. Eastern Ukraine is generally defined as the territory of the Sumy, Kharkiv, Donets'k, Luhans'k, Dnipropetrovs'k and Zaporizhzhia oblasti. Southern Ukraine comprises Odessa, Mykolaiv and Kherson oblasti. For the purposes of this study the term Southern Ukraine will also include Crimea. Although in a broad sense this article will be looking at the East and the South on the whole, the Donbass oblasti (Luhans'k and Donets'k), Odessa and Crimea have been the main case studies for the article.
4. For a valuable collection of essays on national identity, see John Hutchinson & Anthony D. Smith (eds), Nationalism (Oxford, 1994).
5. Peter van Ham, 'Ukraine, Russia and European Security: implications for Western Policy', Chaillot Paper, 13, 1994, p. 31.
6. Ann Devroy & James Rupert, '"Your Efforts Will be Repaid", Clinton Tells Ukrainians', International Herald Tribune, 13-14 May 1995, p. 2.
7. Ian Bremmer, The Politics of Ethnicity: Russians in the New Ukraine', Europe-Asia Studies, 46, 2, 1994, pp. 261-283.
8. Bill Miller et al., 'Language versus Nationality in the Politics of Ukraine', Press Release, 4 (Glasgow, 1994), p. 1.
9. Paul Kolstoe, Russians in the Former Soviet Union (London, 1995), p. 6. On the Russians of Ukraine, see pp. 170-199. For a valuable English language reader on current reseach in this field by scholars from the former Soviet Union, see Vladimir Shlapentokh et al. (eds), The New Russian Diaspora: Russian Minorities in the Former Soviet Union (London, 1994). In particular see the article by Golovakha, Panina & Churilov, 'Russians in Ukraine', pp. 59-71.
10. Paul Kolstoe, Russians in the Former Soviet Union (London, 1995), p. 6. On the Russians of Ukraine, see pp. 170-199. For a valuable English language reader on current reseach in this field by scholars from the former Soviet Union, see Vladimir Shlapentokh et al. (eds), The New Russian Diaspora: Russian Minorities in the Former Soviet Union (London, 1994). In particular see the article by Golovakha, Panina & Churilov, 'Russians in Ukraine', pp. 59-71.
11. Paul Kolstoe, Russians in the Former Soviet Union (London, 1995), p. 6. On the Russians of Ukraine, see pp. 170-199. For a valuable English language reader on current reseach in this field by scholars from the former Soviet Union, see Vladimir Shlapentokh et al. (eds), The New Russian Diaspora: Russian Minorities in the Former Soviet Union (London, 1994). In particular see the article by Golovakha, Panina & Churilov, 'Russians in Ukraine', pp. 59-71.
12. The Director of the Democratic Initiatives Research Centre is Les Taniuk. It is located at the following address: 252001, Ukraine, Kiev, vul. Mykhailivs'ka, 6. The Pulse Sociological Centre is based at the Chair of Sociology of Odessa State University. Its director is Irina Markovna Popova. For an evaluation of the methods and reliability of sociological surveys conducted by such institutions in Ukraine see Problemy rozvytku sotsiolohii na suchasnomu etapi (teoratychni ta metodychni pytannia): materialy mizhnarodnoi naukovo-praktychnoi konferentsii (Kiev. 1994), pp. 202-229, esp. pp. 229-232.
13. Mary C. Waters, 'The Everyday Use of Surname to Determine Ethnic Ancestry', Qualitative Sociology, 12, 3, 1989, pp. 303-324.
14. Victor Humenkiuk, 'A doky zh? Iak vidzhyvaty national'nu samosvidomist' krymskykh ukraintsiv', Slovo i chas, 1993, 4, p. 69.
15. Natalia Dinello, 'Religious Attitudes of Russian Minorities and National Identity', in Shlapentokh et al. (eds), The New Russian Diaspora, p. 199. The study was carried out in August-September 1991 by the Centre for the Study of Public Opinion.
16. Pavlo Movchan, speaking on Kultura (Television Broadcast), Ukrainian TV-1 (18:00 hours, 9 December 1994).
17. Volodymyr Honcharenko (ed.), Spovnenyi liubovi ta dobra (Cherkassy, 1990), p. 75.
18. Western scholars have been examining the relationship between intermarriage and ethnic identity in the Soviet context for several decades. See Brian D. Silver, 'Ethnic intermarriage and ethnic consciousness among Soviet nationalities', Soviet Studies, 30, 1, 1978, pp. 107-116; Rasma Karlins, Ethnic Relations in the USSR: The Perspective from Below (London, 1986), pp. 154-182.
19. Western scholars have been examining the relationship between intermarriage and ethnic identity in the Soviet context for several decades. See Brian D. Silver, 'Ethnic intermarriage and ethnic consciousness among Soviet nationalities', Soviet Studies, 30, 1, 1978, pp. 107-116; Rasma Karlins, Ethnic Relations in the USSR: The Perspective from Below (London, 1986), pp. 154-182.
20. Jay Goldstein & Alexander Segall, 'Ethnic Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity', Canadian Ethnic Studies, 17, 3, 1985, pp. 63-64.
21. As a large-scale social phenomenon in the Soviet Union intermarriage was first examined in 1964, in a less than subtly titled article: 'Inter-ethnic marriage - one of the progressive tendencies of the rapprochement of socialist nations'. Taking the lead from such works, scholars such as Oleksander P. Ponomarev & Lyubov' V. Chuiko investigated this officially encouraged development in Ukraine. See K. Kh. Khanazarov, 'Mezhnatsional'nye braki - odna iz progressivnykh tendentsii sblizheniya sotsialisticheskikh natsii', Obshchestvennye nauki v Uzbekistane, 1964; A. P. Ponomarev, Mezhnatsional'nye braki v UkSSR i protsess intematsionalizatsii (Kiev, 1989); Lyubov' V. Chuiko, Opyt analiza mezhnatsional'nykh brakov v UkrSSR', Razvittie naseleniya (Moscow, 1974), pp. 47-54, L. N. Chizhikova, Ob etnicheskikh protsessakh v vostochnykh raionakh Ukrainy', Sovetskaya etnografiya, 1968, 1, pp. 18-31.
22. As a large-scale social phenomenon in the Soviet Union intermarriage was first examined in 1964, in a less than subtly titled article: 'Inter-ethnic marriage - one of the progressive tendencies of the rapprochement of socialist nations'. Taking the lead from such works, scholars such as Oleksander P. Ponomarev & Lyubov' V. Chuiko investigated this officially encouraged development in Ukraine. See K. Kh. Khanazarov, 'Mezhnatsional'nye braki - odna iz progressivnykh tendentsii sblizheniya sotsialisticheskikh natsii', Obshchestvennye nauki v Uzbekistane, 1964; A. P. Ponomarev, Mezhnatsional'nye braki v UkSSR i protsess intematsionalizatsii (Kiev, 1989); Lyubov' V. Chuiko, Opyt analiza mezhnatsional'nykh brakov v UkrSSR', Razvittie naseleniya (Moscow, 1974), pp. 47-54, L. N. Chizhikova, Ob etnicheskikh protsessakh v vostochnykh raionakh Ukrainy', Sovetskaya etnografiya, 1968, 1, pp. 18-31.
23. As a large-scale social phenomenon in the Soviet Union intermarriage was first examined in 1964, in a less than subtly titled article: 'Inter-ethnic marriage - one of the progressive tendencies of the rapprochement of socialist nations'. Taking the lead from such works, scholars such as Oleksander P. Ponomarev & Lyubov' V. Chuiko investigated this officially encouraged development in Ukraine. See K. Kh. Khanazarov, 'Mezhnatsional'nye braki - odna iz progressivnykh tendentsii sblizheniya sotsialisticheskikh natsii', Obshchestvennye nauki v Uzbekistane, 1964; A. P. Ponomarev, Mezhnatsional'nye braki v UkSSR i protsess intematsionalizatsii (Kiev, 1989); Lyubov' V. Chuiko, Opyt analiza mezhnatsional'nykh brakov v UkrSSR', Razvittie naseleniya (Moscow, 1974), pp. 47-54, L. N. Chizhikova, Ob etnicheskikh protsessakh v vostochnykh raionakh Ukrainy', Sovetskaya etnografiya, 1968, 1, pp. 18-31.
24. As a large-scale social phenomenon in the Soviet Union intermarriage was first examined in 1964, in a less than subtly titled article: 'Inter-ethnic marriage - one of the progressive tendencies of the rapprochement of socialist nations'. Taking the lead from such works, scholars such as Oleksander P. Ponomarev & Lyubov' V. Chuiko investigated this officially encouraged development in Ukraine. See K. Kh. Khanazarov, 'Mezhnatsional'nye braki - odna iz progressivnykh tendentsii sblizheniya sotsialisticheskikh natsii', Obshchestvennye nauki v Uzbekistane, 1964; A. P. Ponomarev, Mezhnatsional'nye braki v UkSSR i protsess intematsionalizatsii (Kiev, 1989); Lyubov' V. Chuiko, Opyt analiza mezhnatsional'nykh brakov v UkrSSR', Razvittie naseleniya (Moscow, 1974), pp. 47-54, L. N. Chizhikova, Ob etnicheskikh protsessakh v vostochnykh raionakh Ukrainy', Sovetskaya etnografiya, 1968, 1, pp. 18-31.
25. Ponomarev, Mezhnatsional'nye braki v UkSSR..., p. 56. For similar studies based on other Soviet republics see V. P. Krivonogov, 'Mezhetnicheskie braki u khakasov v sovremennyi period', Sovetskaya etnografiya, 1980, 3; E. P. Busygin & G. R. Stolyarova, 'Kul'turno-bytovye protsessy v natsional'no smeshannykh sem'yakh', Sovetskava etnografiya, 1988, 3, pp. 27-36; A. B. Kalyshev, 'Mezhnatsional'nye braki v sel'skikh raionakh Kazakhstana: po materialam Pavlodarskoi oblasti 1966-1979 gg.', Sovetskaya etnografiya, 1984, 2, pp. 71-77.
26. Ponomarev, Mezhnatsional'nye braki v UkSSR..., p. 56. For similar studies based on other Soviet republics see V. P. Krivonogov, 'Mezhetnicheskie braki u khakasov v sovremennyi period', Sovetskaya etnografiya, 1980, 3; E. P. Busygin & G. R. Stolyarova, 'Kul'turno-bytovye protsessy v natsional'no smeshannykh sem'yakh', Sovetskava etnografiya, 1988, 3, pp. 27-36; A. B. Kalyshev, 'Mezhnatsional'nye braki v sel'skikh raionakh Kazakhstana: po materialam Pavlodarskoi oblasti 1966-1979 gg.', Sovetskaya etnografiya, 1984, 2, pp. 71-77.
27. Ponomarev, Mezhnatsional'nye braki v UkSSR..., p. 56. For similar studies based on other Soviet republics see V. P. Krivonogov, 'Mezhetnicheskie braki u khakasov v sovremennyi period', Sovetskaya etnografiya, 1980, 3; E. P. Busygin & G. R. Stolyarova, 'Kul'turno-bytovye protsessy v natsional'no smeshannykh sem'yakh', Sovetskava etnografiya, 1988, 3, pp. 27-36; A. B. Kalyshev, 'Mezhnatsional'nye braki v sel'skikh raionakh Kazakhstana: po materialam Pavlodarskoi oblasti 1966-1979 gg.', Sovetskaya etnografiya, 1984, 2, pp. 71-77.
28. Ponomarev, Mezhnatsional'nye braki v UkSSR..., p. 56. For similar studies based on other Soviet republics see V. P. Krivonogov, 'Mezhetnicheskie braki u khakasov v sovremennyi period', Sovetskaya etnografiya, 1980, 3; E. P. Busygin & G. R. Stolyarova, 'Kul'turno-bytovye protsessy v natsional'no smeshannykh sem'yakh', Sovetskava etnografiya, 1988, 3, pp. 27-36; A. B. Kalyshev, 'Mezhnatsional'nye braki v sel'skikh raionakh Kazakhstana: po materialam Pavlodarskoi oblasti 1966-1979 gg.', Sovetskaya etnografiya, 1984, 2, pp. 71-77.
29. E. M. Galkina, 'Etnicheskaya identifikatsiya u vykhodtsev iz natsional'no-smeshannykh semei (etnosotsiologicheskii i etnopsikhologicheskii aspekty)', Etnografiya. antropologiya i smezhnye distsipliny: sootnoshenie predmeta i metodov. Sbornik statei (Moscow, 1989), pp. 17-18.
30. In her 1991 study of ethnic minority identity in Great Britain, Nimmi Hutnik hypothesises that there are four basic strategies of ethnic self-identification that are adopted by members of ethnic minorities. In the first instance the individual may identify strongly with his or her minority group. Conversely, the individual may identify strongly with the majority group, but not with the minority group. Thirdly, the individual may identify strongly with two groups: this strategy is labelled 'acculturative' by Hutnik. Finally, the individual may fall into a category termed 'marginal'. In this case the individual has a weak identification with both the minority and majority groups. Hutnik's model is extremely useful for our purposes, yet it requires a certain degree of modification to fit the case of Ukrainians and Russians in Eastern and Southern Ukraine. Her model assumes that an individual - even one who strongly identifies with the British majority - is still Objectively' a minority member, presumably because of their ethnic origin or because of ethnic markers, such as skin colour. In the case of Russians and Ukrainians there is no basis for claiming that a person who claims to identify as a Russian is Objectively' a Ukrainian or vice versa. Therefore, for our purposes, this premise will be discarded. Nimmi Hutnik, Ethnic Minority Identity: A Social Psychological Perspective (Oxford, 1991).
31. Unlike Hutnik's approach, Shu'ha's work encompasses individuals of all nationalities, not just members of ethnic minorities. He proposes four strategies: (1) identification with one ethnic group; (2) healthy identification with two ethnic groups; (3) marginal identification; (4) cosmopolitan identification or 'ethnic nihilism'. Shul'ha's categories have been largely followed with the exception of the fourth category. Moreover, Hutnik's over-arching distinction between strategies that imply a strong identification and those that imply a weak identification has been superimposed on the model. Mykola Oleksandrovych Shul'ha. Etnichna samoidentyfikatsiya osoby, Dissertation at Institute of Sociology of Ukrainian Academy of Sciences (Kiev, 1993); Shul'ha, Lichnost' i etnos (Manuscript Deposited at the Ukr. I.N.T.E.I No. 1905-Uk 92 08.12.92.), (Kiev, 1992), pp. 382-414.
32. Unlike Hutnik's approach, Shu'ha's work encompasses individuals of all nationalities, not just members of ethnic minorities. He proposes four strategies: (1) identification with one ethnic group; (2) healthy identification with two ethnic groups; (3) marginal identification; (4) cosmopolitan identification or 'ethnic nihilism'. Shul'ha's categories have been largely followed with the exception of the fourth category. Moreover, Hutnik's over-arching distinction between strategies that imply a strong identification and those that imply a weak identification has been superimposed on the model. Mykola Oleksandrovych Shul'ha. Etnichna samoidentyfikatsiya osoby, Dissertation at Institute of Sociology of Ukrainian Academy of Sciences (Kiev, 1993); Shul'ha, Lichnost' i etnos (Manuscript Deposited at the Ukr. I.N.T.E.I No. 1905-Uk 92 08.12.92.), (Kiev, 1992), pp. 382-414.
33. Morozov's case is fairly specific, however, insofar as his Russian father was absent for virtually all of his childhood. See Lyudmila Taran (interview with Konstantin Morozov), 'Generalpolkovnyk Kostiantyn Morozov: Mysliu sebe Ukraintsem. Tse ne pafos a moia pravda', Ukraina. 1994, 4, pp. 3-4.
34. The concept 'marginal identity' was first used in 1928 by R. Park to describe the disorientation experienced by migrants. R. Park, 'Human Migration and the Marginal Man', American Journal of Sociology, 33, 1928.
35. Joyce O. Hertzler, A Sociology of Language (New York, 1965), p. 229.
36. Shul'ha, by contrast, regards such 'cosmopolitanism' as a separate category. There is a certain degree of logic to this, in that both of these types of identification imply a broad, pan-identity. However, because 'cosmopolitanism' implies a very weak identification qua ethnicity, it is best understood as a form of marginal identification, and as an inability or unwillingness to make an ethnic decision.
37. For a study of pan-ethnic identity in the United States see David Lopez & Yen Espiritu, 'Panethnicity in the United States: A Theoretical Framework', Ethnic and Racial Studies, 13, 2, 1990, p. 219. Lopez & Espiritu see intermarriage as the key to the formation of a pan-ethnic identity.
38. Dusko Sekulic, Randy Hodson & Garth Massey, 'Who Were the Yugoslavs? Failed Sources of a Common Identity in the Former Yugoslavia', American Sociological Review, 59, 1994, p. 85.
39. Goldstein & Segall, 'Ethnic Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity', pp. 63-64.
40. The pioneering work on this phenomenon is Jonothan Y. Okamua, 'Situational Identity', Ethnic and Racial Studies, 4, 4, 1981, pp. 452-465.
41. T. V Klinchenko, 'Etnichna samosvidomist' uchnivs'koi molodi Ukrainy', in Problemy rozvylku sotsiolohii na suchasnomu etapi (teoratychni ta metodychni pytannia): materialy mizhnarodnoi naukovo-praktychnoi konferentsii (Kiev, 1994), pp. 119-121.
42. A. P. Ponomar'ov (Ponomarev), Suchasna sim'ia i simeinyi pobut robitnykiv Donbasu. (Kiev, 1978), p. 38; Ponomarev, Mezhnaisional'nye braki, pp. 67; 77-78; 80-82. Ponomarev's figures for intermarriage in the Donbass were based on a sample of 800 marriages at DODA ZAGS (Donets'k oblast' marriage registry office), and 1900 family cards. He conducted similar research at the ZAGS offices of the other oblasti.
43. A. P. Ponomar'ov (Ponomarev), Suchasna sim'ia i simeinyi pobut robitnykiv Donbasu. (Kiev, 1978), p. 38; Ponomarev, Mezhnaisional'nye braki, pp. 67; 77-78; 80-82. Ponomarev's figures for intermarriage in the Donbass were based on a sample of 800 marriages at DODA ZAGS (Donets'k oblast' marriage registry office), and 1900 family cards. He conducted similar research at the ZAGS offices of the other oblasti.
44. For example, 93.9% of Belarussian mothers' children in Donets'k ablast' had fathers of a different nationality. These figures represent only a modest increase in figures from the preceding decade (roughly 2% increase), which suggests that the rate of intermarriage in Donets'k has stabilised. 'Udel'nyi ves rodivshikhsya, u kotorykh otets drugoi natsional'nosti, v obshchem enisle rodivshikhsya dannoi natsional'nosti (v protsentakh)', Rozhdaemost'v Donetskoi oblasti: statisticheskii sbornik. (Donets'k, 1993), p. 16.
45. E. I. Golovakha & I. V. Panina, 'National'no-gosudarstvennaya identifikatsiya i formirovanie sotsial'no-politicheskikh orientatsii russkogo men'shinstva v Ukraine', Politicheskaya kul'tura naseleniya Ukrainy: rezul'taty sotsiologicheskikh issledovanii (Kiev, 1993), p. 105.
46. Valerii Khmelko, 'Dva berehy - Dva sposoby zhyttia: linhvo-etnichni struktury ta social'ni orientatsii pravoberezhnoi i livoberezhnoi Ukrainy', Demos, 1995, 1, pp. 17-20. This study was conducted by the Chair of Sociology of the Kiev-Mohyla Academy and the Kiev International Institute of Sociology as part of the project 'Social Structure and its Particulars in the Conditions of Radical Social Change'. The methodology of the survey was devised by staff from Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA. The interviews were carried out personally at the home of the respondents in 183 points of settlement; they were carried out in December 1993 (1833 interviews) and January 1994 (3038 interviews). The sample was calculated to reflect the social and ethnic structure of the population. Only persons aged 18 years and over were included in the survey.
47. The survey was conducted by the Donets'k State University Department of Statistics. It is cited in Dmitri Kornilov, 'The Problems of Federal and Unitary Systems in the Documents of the International Movement of the Donbass', paper presented at conference on 'Ukraine and Change in Central and Eastern Europe' (photocopy of manuscript in possession of author) (6-8 May 1993), Donets'k, Ukraine, p. 2. No further information regarding the survey is available.
48. The precise wording of the question was: 'What do you think about the national-cultural characteristics of the Donbass?' The most common selection was 'In the Donbass a special community linked both with Russia and Ukraine has formed'. The second most popular answer was: 'The population of the Donbass are largely Ukrainians who have acquired special traits through unique living conditions'. The survey was carried out by the Sociological Laboratory of the Luhans'k Pedagogical Institute in September 1992. 968 persons were interviewed in 23 settlements. Eleonora Vilens'ka & Vasyl' Poklad, 'Natsional'no-kul'turni orientatsii meshkantsiv Luhans'koi oblasti', Filosofs'ka i sotsiolohichna dumka, 1993, 4, pp. 48-60.
49. These social distance scales are based on surveys where individuals are asked a number of questions about their attitudes to a variety of ethnic groups. The questions are designed to determine how close that individual feels to the ethnic group in question. Thus, for example, in the case of maximum tolerance, the individual would be willing to have members of this group in his or her immediate family; in the case of maximum intolerance, he or she would not want members of this group admitted into the country.
50. The intolerance rating of 'Russians' living in Ukraine relative to Russians was 1.82, and only 1.66 relative to Ukrainians. Ukrainians living in Crimea had an intolerance level of 2.29 towards Ukrainians but only 2.24 towards Russians. This social-distance material is from a study done by researchers at the Institute of Sociology of the Ukrainian Academy of Science. It is cited in E. I. Golovakha & I. V. Panina, Sotsial'noe bezumie: Istoriya, teoriya i sovremennaya praktika (Kiev, 1994), Table 3.4, p. 116.
51. Bill Miller et al. 'Language versus Nationality in the Politics of Ukraine', Press Release, 4 (Glasgow, 1994).
52. V. V. Ryabov (ed.), Politologiya na Rossiiskom fone (Moscow, Lukh, 1993), p. 215.
53. The relationship between allegiance to Russian orthodoxy and Russian ethnic identity is examined in Natalia Dinello, 'Religious Attitudes of Russian Minorities and National Identity', in Shlapentokh et al. The New Russian Diaspora, pp. 195-205. According to Dinello, Russians who claim to belong to the Russian Orthodox Church are more likely to identify as 'Russians' as opposed to 'Soviet' (p. 200).
54. A table giving the breakdown of the religious affiliation of the Ukrainian population, based on an autumn 1992 sociological survey by the RFE/RL Research Institute, is published in Jarowlaw Martyniuk, 'News Analysis: The State of Ukraine's Orthodox Church', Ukrainian Weekly, 13 March 1994, pp. 2, 8.
55. 'Ukrainian nation-wide public opinion poll', February-March 1994, size: 1799 respondents, A Political Portrait of Ukraine, 4, 1994, p. 19. The methodology of Democratic Initiatives as outlined in its publications is as follows. The survey sample is representative of the total adult population (over 18 years of age) according to key socio-demographic characteristics (sex, age, education, and region). To ensure a representative sample selection the survey's authors (N. Panina & E. Golovakha of the Insitute of Sociology of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences) saw to it that research was carried out by interviewers following a previously assigned route. Respondents in all regions of Ukraine, Kyiv and Crimea were polled using standardised interviewing techniques. The margin of error for data collection does not exceed 2%.
56. The survey was conducted by V. H. Ohirchuka & L. E. Shklyara of the Institute of Philosophy of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. It is cited in Mykola Slyusarevs'kyi, 'Chy mozhna vybyraty Bat'kivshchynu? Netradytsiini rozdumy pro etnichnu problemu i natsional'nu polityku v Ukraini', Nauka i suspil'stvo, 1993, 11/12, pp. 11, 13.
57. Natalia Dinello, 'Religious Attitudes of Russian Minorities and National Identity', p. 202. The survey was conducted in August-September 1991.
58. 'Dolia mis'koho naselennia v zahal'nii chysel'nosti naselennia po respublitsi krym ta oblastyakh', Naselennia Ukrainy 1993: Demografichnii shchorichnyk (Kiev, 1994), p. 10.
59. Ideally, customised surveys should be utilised, and the data interpreted through such statistical methods as logit regression analysis. Unfortunately, because of restricted access to survey data this was not possible in this study.
60. Washington Post, 29 March 1994, p. A 18.
61. The best overall look at the relationship between politics and national identity in Ukraine is Stephen R. Burant, 'Foreign Policy and National Identity: A Comparison of Ukraine and Belarus', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 7, 1995, pp. 1125-1144.
62. See Theodore H. Friedgut, 'Pluralism and Politics in an Urban Soviet: Donets'k, 1990-1991', in Carol R. Saivets & Anthony Jones, In Search of Soviet Pluralism (Oxford, 1994), p. 51. A brief but useful survey of the interrelationship between politics and national identity in Ukraine is Serhiy Tolstov, 'Dimensions of Inter-Ethnic Relations in Ukraine', The Ukrainian Review, June 1993, pp. 41-44.
63. See Theodore H. Friedgut, 'Pluralism and Politics in an Urban Soviet: Donets'k, 1990-1991', in Carol R. Saivets & Anthony Jones, In Search of Soviet Pluralism (Oxford, 1994), p. 51. A brief but useful survey of the interrelationship between politics and national identity in Ukraine is Serhiy Tolstov, 'Dimensions of Inter-Ethnic Relations in Ukraine', The Ukrainian Review, June 1993, pp. 41-44.
64. On the workers' rebellion in the Donbass see David Marples, Ukraine Under Perestroika (London, 1991).
65. O. V. Volovodova, 'Shakhtars'kyi rukh: vid stykhiinoho vystupu do demokratychnoi systemy samoorhanizatsii', Filosofs'ka i sotsiolohichna dumka, 7, 1991, pp. 46-47.
66. O. V. Haran', Ubiti drakona: z istorii Rukhu ta novykh partii Ukrainv (Kiev, 1993), pp. 45-46.
67. Interview by author with Mikhail Alekseevich Krylov (co-chairman of Donetsk Oblast' Independent Union of Miners' and Regional Union of Strike Committees of the Donbass), Donets'k, 6 March 1995.
68. Golovakha & Panina, Sotsial'noe bezumie, pp. 132-138.
69. I. Klement'eva, 'Vybor sdelan', Vechernii donetsk, 230, 2 December 1991, p. 1.
70. Irina M. Popova, 'Etnopoliticheskie predstavleniya: Dinamika i faktory ikh obslovlivayushchie (Na materiale Yuzhno-Ukrainskogo regiona)', manuscript, Odessa, 1994, p. 11. This article is a working paper of the Pulse Sociological Centre in Odessa. The article's conclusions are based on six separate surveys conducted between 1991 and 1993. The sample of each of the surveys was 400 persons. The authors claim accuracy of plus or minus 3%.
71. On politics in Crimea and the Crimean elections see Andrew Wilson, 'Crimea's Political Cauldron', RFE/RL Research Report, 12 November 1993, pp. 1-8; Andrew Wilson, 'The Elections in Crimea', RFE/RL Research Report, 3, 25, 24 June 1994, pp. 7-19; Chrystyna Lapychak, 'Crackdown on Crimean Separatism'. Transition, 26 May 1995, pp. 2-50; Tor Bukkvoll, 'A Fall From Grace for Crimean Separatists', Transition. 17 November 1995, pp. 46-49.
72. On politics in Crimea and the Crimean elections see Andrew Wilson, 'Crimea's Political Cauldron', RFE/RL Research Report, 12 November 1993, pp. 1-8; Andrew Wilson, 'The Elections in Crimea', RFE/RL Research Report, 3, 25, 24 June 1994, pp. 7-19; Chrystyna Lapychak, 'Crackdown on Crimean Separatism'. Transition, 26 May 1995, pp. 2-50; Tor Bukkvoll, 'A Fall From Grace for Crimean Separatists', Transition. 17 November 1995, pp. 46-49.
73. On politics in Crimea and the Crimean elections see Andrew Wilson, 'Crimea's Political Cauldron', RFE/RL Research Report, 12 November 1993, pp. 1-8; Andrew Wilson, 'The Elections in Crimea', RFE/RL Research Report, 3, 25, 24 June 1994, pp. 7-19; Chrystyna Lapychak, 'Crackdown on Crimean Separatism'. Transition, 26 May 1995, pp. 2-50; Tor Bukkvoll, 'A Fall From Grace for Crimean Separatists', Transition. 17 November 1995, pp. 46-49.
74. On politics in Crimea and the Crimean elections see Andrew Wilson, 'Crimea's Political Cauldron', RFE/RL Research Report, 12 November 1993, pp. 1-8; Andrew Wilson, 'The Elections in Crimea', RFE/RL Research Report, 3, 25, 24 June 1994, pp. 7-19; Chrystyna Lapychak, 'Crackdown on Crimean Separatism'. Transition, 26 May 1995, pp. 2-50; Tor Bukkvoll, 'A Fall From Grace for Crimean Separatists', Transition. 17 November 1995, pp. 46-49.
75. Pavlo Khrienko and Yurii Kolesnikov, 'The Crimea; The Spectrum of Public Opinion', Political Thought (Politychna dumka), 3, 1994, pp. 213-218. Khrienko, a doctor of sociology, is the head of the Crimean International Sociology Centre. The study was conducted in April 1994. According to the study 40% of Crimean Russians, 48% of Crimean Ukrainians and 54% of Crimean Tatars opposed Crimea's secession from Ukraine. Yet 63% of the same group of Russians claimed to favour Crimea becoming part of Russia, while 53% of the Ukrainians and 29% of the Crimean Tatars also held this view. Unfortunately, in this published account of the survey's results the authors of the study do not describe their methodology nor the size of their sample.
76. In March 1996 the Donets'k Communist Party, the Civic Congress and the Donbass Intel-movement held a rally in Donets'k calling for the restoration of the USSR. BBC Survey of World Broadcasts, 19 March 1996, SU/2564 D/1. For a thorough survey of the political parties and movements in the Donets'k oblast' see Donetskaya ablast': Politicheskie partii, dvizheniva, obshchestvennye organizatsii (Donets'k, 1994). For a brief survey of political movements in Odessa oblast' see Vsya Odessa: spravochnaya kniga (Odessa, 1994), pp. 303-340; For a survey of politics in Southern and Eastern Ukraine before independence, see David Marples, 'Turmoil in the Donbass: The Political Situation', Report on the USSR. 12 October 1990, pp. 13-14; For post-independence politics see Andrew Wilson. 'The Growing Challenge to Kiev from the Donbass', RFE/RL Research Report, 20 August 1993, pp. 8-13.
77. In March 1996 the Donets'k Communist Party, the Civic Congress and the Donbass Intel-movement held a rally in Donets'k calling for the restoration of the USSR. BBC Survey of World Broadcasts, 19 March 1996, SU/2564 D/1. For a thorough survey of the political parties and movements in the Donets'k oblast' see Donetskaya ablast': Politicheskie partii, dvizheniva, obshchestvennye organizatsii (Donets'k, 1994). For a brief survey of political movements in Odessa oblast' see Vsya Odessa: spravochnaya kniga (Odessa, 1994), pp. 303-340; For a survey of politics in Southern and Eastern Ukraine before independence, see David Marples, 'Turmoil in the Donbass: The Political Situation', Report on the USSR. 12 October 1990, pp. 13-14; For post-independence politics see Andrew Wilson. 'The Growing Challenge to Kiev from the Donbass', RFE/RL Research Report, 20 August 1993, pp. 8-13.
78. In March 1996 the Donets'k Communist Party, the Civic Congress and the Donbass Intel-movement held a rally in Donets'k calling for the restoration of the USSR. BBC Survey of World Broadcasts, 19 March 1996, SU/2564 D/1. For a thorough survey of the political parties and movements in the Donets'k oblast' see Donetskaya ablast': Politicheskie partii, dvizheniva, obshchestvennye organizatsii (Donets'k, 1994). For a brief survey of political movements in Odessa oblast' see Vsya Odessa: spravochnaya kniga (Odessa, 1994), pp. 303-340; For a survey of politics in Southern and Eastern Ukraine before independence, see David Marples, 'Turmoil in the Donbass: The Political Situation', Report on the USSR. 12 October 1990, pp. 13-14; For post-independence politics see Andrew Wilson. 'The Growing Challenge to Kiev from the Donbass', RFE/RL Research Report, 20 August 1993, pp. 8-13.
79. In March 1996 the Donets'k Communist Party, the Civic Congress and the Donbass Intel-movement held a rally in Donets'k calling for the restoration of the USSR. BBC Survey of World Broadcasts, 19 March 1996, SU/2564 D/1. For a thorough survey of the political parties and movements in the Donets'k oblast' see Donetskaya ablast': Politicheskie partii, dvizheniva, obshchestvennye organizatsii (Donets'k, 1994). For a brief survey of political movements in Odessa oblast' see Vsya Odessa: spravochnaya kniga (Odessa, 1994), pp. 303-340; For a survey of politics in Southern and Eastern Ukraine before independence, see David Marples, 'Turmoil in the Donbass: The Political Situation', Report on the USSR. 12 October 1990, pp. 13-14; For post-independence politics see Andrew Wilson. 'The Growing Challenge to Kiev from the Donbass', RFE/RL Research Report, 20 August 1993, pp. 8-13.
80. Selim Berberov, 'Aplodiruite, yuristy!', Golos Kryma, 7(66), 17 February 1995, p. 1.
81. Nikolai Bobrovitsa, 'Brifing po voprosam grazhdanstva', Krymskaya gazeta, 56(604), 28 March 1995, p. 1; Mykola Shul'ha (interview), 'Podviine hromadyanstvo u chasi i prostori', Polityka i chas, 3 March 1995, pp. 3-8.
82. Nikolai Bobrovitsa, 'Brifing po voprosam grazhdanstva', Krymskaya gazeta, 56(604), 28 March 1995, p. 1; Mykola Shul'ha (interview), 'Podviine hromadyanstvo u chasi i prostori', Polityka i chas, 3 March 1995, pp. 3-8.
83. Alik Tviks, 'Bol'sheviki kladut soyuz na sokhranenie', Gorod (Donets'k), 1993, 11, p. 2; See also the comments of the oblast ' leader of the Communist Party of Ukraine, A. Boiko, 'Donchane pod igom reform', Tovarishch, 2 January 1995, p. 2.
84. Alik Tviks, 'Bol'sheviki kladut soyuz na sokhranenie', Gorod (Donets'k), 1993, 11, p. 2; See also the comments of the oblast ' leader of the Communist Party of Ukraine, A. Boiko, 'Donchane pod igom reform', Tovarishch, 2 January 1995, p. 2.
85. Ideya Soyuza zhivet i nabiraet silu', Komunist, 40, December 1994, p. 2. Speech of P. N. Symonenko, 1st Secretary of the Communist Party of Ukraine at the 2nd Congress of the Peoples' of the USSR.
86. The first question asked citizens whether they agreed that on the territory of Donets'k Oblast' Russian should be used 'alongside the Ukrainian language' at work, in business and administration, and in science and education The second question enquired whether Russian should be recognised alongside Ukrainian as the state language of the republic. The third question asked people whether they supported the adoption of a federal system for Ukraine. The final question asked whether citizens favoured Ukraine's signature of the CIS Charter, and its becoming a full-fledged member of the CIS economic union and Interparliamentary assembly. All of these questions were also put to Luhans'k voters, with the exception of the question on federalism. In Donets'k 87.1% (Luhans'k: 90.4%) responded yes to the first question on the functioning of the Russian language as a 'second state language' alongside the state language. Some 80% of Donets'k voters supported the federal organisation of the Ukrainian state. The use of Russian 'alongside Ukrainian' in work, administration, documentation, education and science was supported by 88.9% of voters (90.9% in Luhans'k). While this 'consultative' referendum had no official status, it did represent a propaganda victory for the local political movements, the vast majority of which support the aims addressed by the referendum. 'Donbass, skazhi svoe slovo!' Donetskii Kryazh, 12(59), March 1994, p. 1; 'Donbass skazal chetyre 'Da' ', Donetskii Kryazh, 13(60), 1-7 April 1994, p. 4; Dominique Arel & Andrew Wilson, 'The Ukrainian Parliamentary Elections', RFE/RL Research Report, 3, 26, July 1994, p. 15.
87. The first question asked citizens whether they agreed that on the territory of Donets'k Oblast' Russian should be used 'alongside the Ukrainian language' at work, in business and administration, and in science and education The second question enquired whether Russian should be recognised alongside Ukrainian as the state language of the republic. The third question asked people whether they supported the adoption of a federal system for Ukraine. The final question asked whether citizens favoured Ukraine's signature of the CIS Charter, and its becoming a full-fledged member of the CIS economic union and Interparliamentary assembly. All of these questions were also put to Luhans'k voters, with the exception of the question on federalism. In Donets'k 87.1% (Luhans'k: 90.4%) responded yes to the first question on the functioning of the Russian language as a 'second state language' alongside the state language. Some 80% of Donets'k voters supported the federal organisation of the Ukrainian state. The use of Russian 'alongside Ukrainian' in work, administration, documentation, education and science was supported by 88.9% of voters (90.9% in Luhans'k). While this 'consultative' referendum had no official status, it did represent a propaganda victory for the local political movements, the vast majority of which support the aims addressed by the referendum. 'Donbass, skazhi svoe slovo!' Donetskii Kryazh, 12(59), March 1994, p. 1; 'Donbass skazal chetyre 'Da' ', Donetskii Kryazh, 13(60), 1-7 April 1994, p. 4; Dominique Arel & Andrew Wilson, 'The Ukrainian Parliamentary Elections', RFE/RL Research Report, 3, 26, July 1994, p. 15.
88. The first question asked citizens whether they agreed that on the territory of Donets'k Oblast' Russian should be used 'alongside the Ukrainian language' at work, in business and administration, and in science and education The second question enquired whether Russian should be recognised alongside Ukrainian as the state language of the republic. The third question asked people whether they supported the adoption of a federal system for Ukraine. The final question asked whether citizens favoured Ukraine's signature of the CIS Charter, and its becoming a full-fledged member of the CIS economic union and Interparliamentary assembly. All of these questions were also put to Luhans'k voters, with the exception of the question on federalism. In Donets'k 87.1% (Luhans'k: 90.4%) responded yes to the first question on the functioning of the Russian language as a 'second state language' alongside the state language. Some 80% of Donets'k voters supported the federal organisation of the Ukrainian state. The use of Russian 'alongside Ukrainian' in work, administration, documentation, education and science was supported by 88.9% of voters (90.9% in Luhans'k). While this 'consultative' referendum had no official status, it did represent a propaganda victory for the local political movements, the vast majority of which support the aims addressed by the referendum. 'Donbass, skazhi svoe slovo!' Donetskii Kryazh, 12(59), March 1994, p. 1; 'Donbass skazal chetyre 'Da' ', Donetskii Kryazh, 13(60), 1-7 April 1994, p. 4; Dominique Arel & Andrew Wilson, 'The Ukrainian Parliamentary Elections', RFE/RL Research Report, 3, 26, July 1994, p. 15.
89. Kuchma won 79% of the votes in Donets'k, 88% in Luhans'k, 71% in Kharkiv, 67.8% in Dnipropetrovs'k, 70.7% in Zaporizhzhia, 90% in Crimea, 64.6% in Kherson, 52.8% in Mykolaiv and 66.8% in Odessa. Dominique Arel & Andrew Wilson, 'Ukraine Under Kuchma: Back to "Eurasia"?', RFE/RL Research Report, 3, 32, 19 August 1994, p. 10. Wilson & Arel also argue that voters in Eastern and Southern Ukraine supported Kuchma primarily because of his pro-Russian election campaign (p. 12).
90. Mikhail Beletsky, 'Pobedil vostok?', Novae vremya, 1994, 30, pp. 16-17.
91. Author's interview with Sergei Tokarev, Leader of Donets'k ablast' branch of LPU (Donets'k, 11 March 1995); on Communist Party of Luhans'k support for Kuchma see Mar'yana Chorna, 'Skhidnii Donbas: Tyazhke probudzhennia', Demos, 9 January 1995, p. 13.
92. This survey was conducted by Democratic Initiatives with the assistance of the Institute of Sociology of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences in May-June 1994. 1200 respondents were questioned. A Political Portrait of Ukraine, 9, 1994, p. 44.