Contesting state and civil society: Southeast Asian trajectories

Modern Asian Studies

Volumn 35, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 921-951

  Hedman, Eva Lotta E ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CIVIL SOCIETY; STATE ROLE; STATE-LOCAL RELATIONS;

INDONESIA; MALAYSIA; PHILIPPINES; THAILAND;

EID: 0034792603     PISSN: 0026749X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0026749X01004061     Document Type: Article

References (125)

1. See, especially, Benedict R. Anderson, 'Elections and Participation in Three Southeast Asian Countries', and Benedict J. Tria Kerkvliet, 'Contested Meanings of Elections in the Philippines', in R. H. Taylor (ed.), The Politics of Elections in Southeast Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 12-33 and 136-63.
2. See, especially, Benedict R. Anderson, 'Elections and Participation in Three Southeast Asian Countries', and Benedict J. Tria Kerkvliet, 'Contested Meanings of Elections in the Philippines', in R. H. Taylor (ed.), The Politics of Elections in Southeast Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 12-33 and 136-63.
3. All citations in this paragraph are drawn from Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippine C. Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 48-56.
4. See, for example, Arief Budiman (ed.), State and Civil Society in Indonesia (Clayton, Victoria: Monash University, Centre for Southeast Asia Studies, 1990); Joel S. Kahn and Francis Loh Kok Wah (eds), Fragmented Vision: Culture and Politics in Contemporary Malaysia (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1992); Kevin Hewison (ed.), Political Change in Thailand: Democracy and Participation (London: Routledge, 1997); and G. Sidney Silliman and Lela Garner Boble (eds), Organizing for Democracy: NGOs, Civil Society, and the Philippine State (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998).
5. See, for example, Arief Budiman (ed.), State and Civil Society in Indonesia (Clayton, Victoria: Monash University, Centre for Southeast Asia Studies, 1990); Joel S. Kahn and Francis Loh Kok Wah (eds), Fragmented Vision: Culture and Politics in Contemporary Malaysia (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1992); Kevin Hewison (ed.), Political Change in Thailand: Democracy and Participation (London: Routledge, 1997); and G. Sidney Silliman and Lela Garner Boble (eds), Organizing for Democracy: NGOs, Civil Society, and the Philippine State (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998).
6. See, for example, Arief Budiman (ed.), State and Civil Society in Indonesia (Clayton, Victoria: Monash University, Centre for Southeast Asia Studies, 1990); Joel S. Kahn and Francis Loh Kok Wah (eds), Fragmented Vision: Culture and Politics in Contemporary Malaysia (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1992); Kevin Hewison (ed.), Political Change in Thailand: Democracy and Participation (London: Routledge, 1997); and G. Sidney Silliman and Lela Garner Boble (eds), Organizing for Democracy: NGOs, Civil Society, and the Philippine State (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998).
7. See, for example, Arief Budiman (ed.), State and Civil Society in Indonesia (Clayton, Victoria: Monash University, Centre for Southeast Asia Studies, 1990); Joel S. Kahn and Francis Loh Kok Wah (eds), Fragmented Vision: Culture and Politics in Contemporary Malaysia (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1992); Kevin Hewison (ed.), Political Change in Thailand: Democracy and Participation (London: Routledge, 1997); and G. Sidney Silliman and Lela Garner Boble (eds), Organizing for Democracy: NGOs, Civil Society, and the Philippine State (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998).
8. On Thailand, see Benedict Anderson, 'Studies of the Thai State: The State of Thai Studies', in Eliezer B. Ayal (ed.), The Study of Thailand (Athens: Ohio University, Center for International Studies, 1978).
9. See, for example, Theda Skocpol and Jeff Goodwill, 'Explaining Revolutions in the Contemporary Third World', Politics and Society, vol. 17, no. 4 (Dec. 1989), pp. 489-509.
10. See, for example, the essays in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, Transitions From Authoritarian Rule, 4 vols (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1986); and Alfred Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics: Brazil and the Southern Cone (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988).
11. See, for example, the essays in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, Transitions From Authoritarian Rule, 4 vols (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1986); and Alfred Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics: Brazil and the Southern Cone (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988).
12. See, for example, Göran Therborn, 'The Travail of Latin American Democracy', New Left Review, 1979 and, for a more recent formulation, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
13. See, for example, Göran Therborn, 'The Travail of Latin American Democracy', New Left Review, 1979 and, for a more recent formulation, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
14. See Alfred Stepan, 'State Power and the Strength of Civil Society in the Southern Cone of Latin America', in Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Theda Skocpol (eds), Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 317-47.
15. See for example, Maurice Zeitlin and Richard Earl Ratcliff, Landlords and Capitalists: The Dominant Class of Chile (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988).
16. See, for example, Hagen Koo, 'Middle Classes, Democratization, and Class Formation', Theory & Society, vol. 20, no. 4 (Aug. 1991), pp. 485-509.
17. For perhaps the most exhaustive such assessment to date, see Jorge G. Castañeda, Utopia Unarmed: The Latin American Left After the Cold War (New York: Vintage Books, 1994). See also Donald Sassoon, One Hundred Years of Socialism: The West European Left in the Twnetieth Century (London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd., 1996).
18. For perhaps the most exhaustive such assessment to date, see Jorge G. Castañeda, Utopia Unarmed: The Latin American Left After the Cold War (New York: Vintage Books, 1994). See also Donald Sassoon, One Hundred Years of Socialism: The West European Left in the Twnetieth Century (London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd., 1996).
19. For an anthropological examination of such counter-mobilization, see especially Katherine A. Bowie, Rituals of National Loyalty: An Anthropology of the State and the Village Scout Movement (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997).
20. See Stepan, 'State Power and the Strength of Civil Society in the Southern Cone'.
21. See, for example, Daniel H. Levine and Scott Mainwaring, 'Religion and Popular Protest in Latin America: Contrasting Experiences', in Susan Eckstein (ed.), Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), pp. 203-40; H. E. Chehabi, Iranian Politics and Religious Modernism: The Liberation Movement of Iran under the Shah and Khomeini (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990).
22. See, for example, Daniel H. Levine and Scott Mainwaring, 'Religion and Popular Protest in Latin America: Contrasting Experiences', in Susan Eckstein (ed.), Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), pp. 203-40; H. E. Chehabi, Iranian Politics and Religious Modernism: The Liberation Movement of Iran under the Shah and Khomeini (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990).
23. See, for example, the essays collected in Christian Smith (ed.), Disruptive Religion: The Force of Faith in Social Movement Activism (New York: Routledge, 1996).
24. The provocative concept of 'civil religion' was coined by Robert N. Bellah in his 'Civil Religion in America', first published in Daedalus, vol. 96, no. 1 (Winter 1967), pp. 1-21; and further explicated in his 'Religion and the Legitimation of the American Republic', first published in Society vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 16-23.
25. The provocative concept of 'civil religion' was coined by Robert N. Bellah in his 'Civil Religion in America', first published in Daedalus, vol. 96, no. 1 (Winter 1967), pp. 1-21; and further explicated in his 'Religion and the Legitimation of the American Republic', first published in Society vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 16-23.
26. For the earliest formulation of this thesis, see Fred Riggs, Thailand: The Modernization of a Bureaucratic Polity (Honolulu: East-West Center Press, 1966).
27. See, especially, Thak Chaloemtiarana, Thailand: The Politics of Despotic Paternalism (Bangkok: Social Science Association of Thailand and Thai Khadi Institute, Thammasat University, 1979); and Chai-Anan Samudavanija, The Thai Young Turks (Singapore, Institute for Southeast Asian Studies, 1982).
28. See, especially, Thak Chaloemtiarana, Thailand: The Politics of Despotic Paternalism (Bangkok: Social Science Association of Thailand and Thai Khadi Institute, Thammasat University, 1979); and Chai-Anan Samudavanija, The Thai Young Turks (Singapore, Institute for Southeast Asian Studies, 1982).
29. For the most recent relevant discussion, see John Girling, Interpreting Development: Capitalism, Democracy, and the Middle Class in Thailand (Ithaca: Cornell University Southeast Asia Program, 1996).
30. See Chai-Anan, The Thai Young Turks; Chai-Anan, Kusuma Sanitwongse, and Suchit Bunbongkan, From Armed Suppression to Political Offensive: Attitudinal Transformation of Thai Military Officers Since 1976 (Bangkok: Institute of Security and International Studies, Chulalongkorn University, 1987); and Suchit Bunbongkarn, The Military in Thai Politics 1981-86 (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1987).
31. See Chai-Anan, The Thai Young Turks; Chai-Anan, Kusuma Sanitwongse, and Suchit Bunbongkan, From Armed Suppression to Political Offensive: Attitudinal Transformation of Thai Military Officers Since 1976 (Bangkok: Institute of Security and International Studies, Chulalongkorn University, 1987); and Suchit Bunbongkarn, The Military in Thai Politics 1981-86 (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1987).
32. See Chai-Anan, The Thai Young Turks; Chai-Anan, Kusuma Sanitwongse, and Suchit Bunbongkan, From Armed Suppression to Political Offensive: Attitudinal Transformation of Thai Military Officers Since 1976 (Bangkok: Institute of Security and International Studies, Chulalongkorn University, 1987); and Suchit Bunbongkarn, The Military in Thai Politics 1981-86 (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1987).
33. G. William Skinner, Chinese Society in Thailand: An Analytical History (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1957); and Benedict Anderson, 'Withdrawal Symptoms: Social and Cultural Aspects of the October 6 Coup', Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, vol. 9, no. 3 (1977), pp. 13-30.
34. G. William Skinner, Chinese Society in Thailand: An Analytical History (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1957); and Benedict Anderson, 'Withdrawal Symptoms: Social and Cultural Aspects of the October 6 Coup', Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, vol. 9, no. 3 (1977), pp. 13-30.
35. See, for example, Kevin Hewison, Bankers and Bureaucrats: Capital and the Role of the State in Thailand (New Haven: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1989); and Anek Laothamatas, Business Associations and the New Political Economy of Thailand: From Bureaucratic Polity to Liberal Corporatism (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992).
36. See, for example, Kevin Hewison, Bankers and Bureaucrats: Capital and the Role of the State in Thailand (New Haven: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1989); and Anek Laothamatas, Business Associations and the New Political Economy of Thailand: From Bureaucratic Polity to Liberal Corporatism (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992).
37. See, for example, James C. Ingram, Economic Change in Thailand. 1850-1970 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1971).
38. On the rising burdens of taxation and tenancy in Vietnam and Burma in the inter-war period, for example, see James C. Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976).
39. See, for example, Robert F. Zimmerman, 'Insurgency in Thailand', Problems of Communism, May-June 1976.
40. See, however, Craig J. Reynolds, Thai Radical Discourse: The Real Face of Thai Feudalism Today (Ithaca: Cornell University Southeast Asia Program, 1994).
41. See, however, Bowie, Rituals of National Identity: The Village Scout Movement in Thailand.
42. Benedict Anderson, 'Radicalism after Communism in Thailand and Indonesia', New Left Review, Vol. 202 (Nov.-Dec. 1993), pp. 3-14.
43. See, especially, Peter A. Jackson, Buddhism, Legitimation, and Conflict: The Political Functions of Urban Thai Buddhism (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1989).
44. In this regard, the contrast with Burma is perhaps especially illuminating as state regulation of the Sangha was only initiated comparatively late in the Ne Win regime whereas, under Sarit's reign in Thailand, the New Sangha Act of 1962 harked back to the 1902 formula of secular bureaucratic authority over the sangha and absolute power to the supreme patriarch. Compared to Thailand, Buddhist monks and temples loomed larger in peasant rebellions, millenarian movements, and anti-colonial struggles across the borders with Burma and Laos. See, for example, Bardwell L. Smith (ed.), Religion and the Legitimation of Power in Thailand, Laos, and Burma (Chambersburg, PA: Anima Books, 1978).
45. See Benedict Anderson, 'Withdrawal Symptoms'. In as much as the delegitimation of the students turned on charges of Communist sympathies, it is useful to recall that in Thai discourse, according to Thongchai Winichakul, 'Communism is simply the enemy of the Nation, Religion (Buddhism), and Monarchy. It is simply Enemy Number One of Thainess . . . .' Thongchai Winichakul, Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-Body of a Nation (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994), p. 169.
46. See Benedict Anderson, 'Withdrawal Symptoms'. In as much as the delegitimation of the students turned on charges of Communist sympathies, it is useful to recall that in Thai discourse, according to Thongchai Winichakul, 'Communism is simply the enemy of the Nation, Religion (Buddhism), and Monarchy. It is simply Enemy Number One of Thainess . . . .' Thongchai Winichakul, Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-Body of a Nation (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994), p. 169.
47. See Benedict Anderson, 'Withdrawal Symptoms'. In as much as the delegitimation of the students turned on charges of Communist sympathies, it is useful to recall that in Thai discourse, according to Thongchai Winichakul, 'Communism is simply the enemy of the Nation, Religion (Buddhism), and Monarchy. It is simply Enemy Number One of Thainess . . . .' Thongchai Winichakul, Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-Body of a Nation (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994), p. 169.
48. See Duncan McCargo, Chamlong Srimuang and the New Thai Politics (London: Hurst & Co., 1997).
49. Frank E. Reynolds, 'Legitimation and Rebellion: Thailand's Civic Religion and the Student Uprising of October 1973', in Smith (ed.), Religion and the Legitimation of Power, pp. 140-1.
50. Cited in McCargo, Chamlong Srimuang, p. 247.
51. On chao phos and provincial bossism in Thailand, see James Soren Ockey, 'Business Leaders, Gangsters, and the Middle Class: Societal Groups and Civilian Rule in Thailand' (Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell University, 1992).
52. However, on NGOs and other 'civil society organisations', see further Kevin F. F. Quigley, 'Towards Consolidating Democracy: The Role of Civil Society Organizations in Thailand' (Ph.D. dissertation, Georgetown University, 1995); and Kevin Hewison (ed.), Political Change in Thailand: Democracy and Participation (London: Routledge, 1997), especially pp. 163-250.
53. However, on NGOs and other 'civil society organisations', see further Kevin F. F. Quigley, 'Towards Consolidating Democracy: The Role of Civil Society Organizations in Thailand' (Ph.D. dissertation, Georgetown University, 1995); and Kevin Hewison (ed.), Political Change in Thailand: Democracy and Participation (London: Routledge, 1997), especially pp. 163-250.
54. For a fuller exploration of this counter-mobilizational argument, see Eva-Lotta E. Hedman, 'In the Name of Civil Society: Contesting Free Elections in the Post-Colonial Philippines' (Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell University, 1998), especially pp. 54-110.
55. See, especially, Mark R. Thompson, The Anti-Marcos Struggle: Personalistic Rule and Democratic Transition in the Philippines (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995).
56. David A. Rosenberg (ed.), Marcos and Martial Law in the Philippines (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979).
57. See, for example, Eva-Lotta E. Hedman, 'Mapping the Movement: NAMFREL in Six Philippine Cities', South East Asia Research, vol. 7, no. 2 (July 1999), pp. 189-214.
58. See, especially, Edgar Wickberg, 'The Chinese Mestizo in Philippine History', Journal of Southeast Asian History, vol. 5, no. 1 (March 1964), pp. 62-100.
59. See, especially, Reynaldo Clemeña Ileto, Pasyon and Revolution: Popular Movements in the Philippines, 1840-1910 (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1979); David R. Sturtevant, Popular Uprisings in the Philippines, 1840-1940 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979); and Melinda Tria Kerkvliet, Manila Workers' Unions, 1900-1950 (Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1992).
60. See, especially, Reynaldo Clemeña Ileto, Pasyon and Revolution: Popular Movements in the Philippines, 1840-1910 (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1979); David R. Sturtevant, Popular Uprisings in the Philippines, 1840-1940 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979); and Melinda Tria Kerkvliet, Manila Workers' Unions, 1900-1950 (Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1992).
61. See, especially, Reynaldo Clemeña Ileto, Pasyon and Revolution: Popular Movements in the Philippines, 1840-1910 (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1979); David R. Sturtevant, Popular Uprisings in the Philippines, 1840-1940 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979); and Melinda Tria Kerkvliet, Manila Workers' Unions, 1900-1950 (Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1992).
62. See especially, Benedict J. Kerkvliet, The Huk Rebellion: A Study of Peasant Revolt in the Philippines (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977).
63. Benedict Kerkvliet, 'Patterns of Philippine Resistance and Rebellion, 1970-1986', Pilipinas, no. 6 (Spring 1986), pp. 35-49.
64. See, for example, Eric O. Hanson, The Catholic Church in World Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987).
65. See especially, Robert L. Youngblood, Marcos Against the Church: Economic Development and Political Repression in the Philippines (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); and Coeli M. Barry, 'Transformations of Politics and Religious Culture Inside the Philippine Catholic Church (1965-90)' (Ph.D. Dissertation, Cornell University, 1996).
66. See especially, Robert L. Youngblood, Marcos Against the Church: Economic Development and Political Repression in the Philippines (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); and Coeli M. Barry, 'Transformations of Politics and Religious Culture Inside the Philippine Catholic Church (1965-90)' (Ph.D. Dissertation, Cornell University, 1996).
67. See Gary Hawes, The Philippine State and the Marcos Regime: The Politics of Export (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987).
68. See, for example, Silliman and Noble (eds), Organizing for Democracy; and Gerard Clarke, The Politics of NGOs in South-East Asia: Participation and Protest in the Philippines (London: Routledge, 1998).
69. See, for example, Silliman and Noble (eds), Organizing for Democracy; and Gerard Clarke, The Politics of NGOs in South-East Asia: Participation and Protest in the Philippines (London: Routledge, 1998).
70. See, especially, Kahn and Loh Kok Wah (eds), Fragmented Vision.
71. See, especially, Harold Crouch, Government and Society in Malaysia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996).
72. See, for example, Harold Crouch, 'Malaysia: Neither Authoritarian Nor Democratic', in Hewison, Robinson, and Rodan (eds), Southeast Asia in the 1990s: Authoritarianism, Democracy and Capitalism (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1993).
73. In addition to its dominant member, the United Malays National Organization (UMNO), the ruling coalition also includes prominently the Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA) and the Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC), as well as a number of other parties.
74. James V. Jesudason, 'The Syncretic State and the Structuring of Oppositional Politics in Malaysia', in Garry Rodan (ed.), Political Oppositions in Industrializing Asia (London: Routledge, 1996), p. 136.
75. See, especially, Jomo Kwame Sundaram, A Question of Class: Capital, The State, and Uneven Development in Malaya (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1988).
76. See, for example, Heng Pek Koon, Chinese Politics in Malaysia: A History of the Malaysian Chinese Association (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1988).
77. For a recent attempt at such nascent leadership, however, see 'Anwar's Wife Forms Multiethnic Party', Asian Wall Street Journal, April 5, 1999, pp. 1 and 8.
78. The MCP was the hard core of the Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army (MPATA) - an 'appellation . . . purely for political effect, to give the impression that the guerrillas represented all of Malaya's races' - which remained about 90% Chinese and retained Mandarin as its 'official' language. Richard Stubbs, Hearts and Minds in Guerrilla Warfare: The Malayan Emergency 1948-1960 (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 44.
79. Stubbs, Hearts and Minds, and Cheah Boon Kheng, Red Star Over Malaya: Resistance and Social Conflict During and After the Japanese Occupation (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1983).
80. Stubbs, Hearts and Minds, and Cheah Boon Kheng, Red Star Over Malaya: Resistance and Social Conflict During and After the Japanese Occupation (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1983).
81. Ibid.
82. See, especially, Simon Barraclough, 'The Dynamics of Coercion in the Malaysian Political Process', Modern Asian Studies, vol. 19, no. 4 (Oct. 1985), pp. 797-822.
83. 61 See, especially, Stubbs, Hearts and Minds.
84. See, especially, Moshe Yegar, Islam and Islamic Institutions in British Malaya: Policies and Implementation (Jerusalem: The Magues Press, 1979); and William R. Roff, The Origins of Malay Nationalism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967).
85. See, especially, Moshe Yegar, Islam and Islamic Institutions in British Malaya: Policies and Implementation (Jerusalem: The Magues Press, 1979); and William R. Roff, The Origins of Malay Nationalism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967).
86. See, especially, Michael G. Peletz, 'Sacred Texts and Dangerous Words: The Politics of Law and Cultural Rationalization in Malaysia', Society for Comparative Study of Society and History, Vol. 35 (1993), pp. 66-109. For an analysis of an explicitly Islamic opposition party's capture of the state of Kelantan, however, see C. S. Kessler, 'Islam, Society and Political Behaviour: Some Comparative Implications of the Malay Case', British Journal of Sociology, vol. 23, no. 1 (March 1972), pp. 33-50.
87. See, especially, Michael G. Peletz, 'Sacred Texts and Dangerous Words: The Politics of Law and Cultural Rationalization in Malaysia', Society for Comparative Study of Society and History, Vol. 35 (1993), pp. 66-109. For an analysis of an explicitly Islamic opposition party's capture of the state of Kelantan, however, see C. S. Kessler, 'Islam, Society and Political Behaviour: Some Comparative Implications of the Malay Case', British Journal of Sociology, vol. 23, no. 1 (March 1972), pp. 33-50.
88. See, for example, K. S. Jomo and S. C. Ahmad, 'Malaysia's Islamic Movements', in Kahn and Loh Kok Wah (eds), Fragmented Vision.
89. Clive S. Kessler, 'Malaysia: Islamic Revivalism and Political Disaffection in a Divided Society', Southeast Asia Chronicle, Issue 75, 1980, p. 9.
90. James V. Jesudason, 'Statist Democracy and the Limits of Civil Society in Malaysia' (National University of Singapore: Department of Sociology', Working Paper no. 119, 1993), p. 17.
91. See, for example, Edmund T. Gomez and K. S. Jomo, 'Authoritarianism, Elections, and Political Change in Malaysia', Public Policy, vol. 2, no. 3 (1998), pp. 113-
92. See, for example, Farish A. Noor, 'Looking for Reformasi: The Discursive Dynamic's of the Reformasi Movement and Its Prospects as a Political Project', Indonesia and the Malay World, vol. 27, no. 77 (March 1999), p. 13.
93. See, for example, 'Malaysia: Wake-Up Call', Far Eastern Economic Review, Dec. 9, 1999, pp. 16-17.
94. See George McT. Kahin, Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1952).
95. For an informative discussion of the Suharto regime, see Adam Schwarz, A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1994).
96. John Pemberton, On The Subject of 'Java' (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994).
97. For a nuanced treatment of these trends in the 1990s, see Jun Honna, 'Military Ideology and Response to Democratic Pressure During the Late Suharto Era: Political and Institutional Contexts', Indonesia, 67 (April 1999), pp. 77-126. See also The Editors, 'Current Data on the Indonesian Military Elite January 1, 1992-April 3, 1993', Indonesia, 55 (April 1993); and 'Current Data on the Indonesian Military Elite January 1, 1998 - January 31, 1999', Indonesia, 67 (April 1999), pp. 133-62.
98. For a nuanced treatment of these trends in the 1990s, see Jun Honna, 'Military Ideology and Response to Democratic Pressure During the Late Suharto Era: Political and Institutional Contexts', Indonesia, 67 (April 1999), pp. 77-126. See also The Editors, 'Current Data on the Indonesian Military Elite January 1, 1992-April 3, 1993', Indonesia, 55 (April 1993); and 'Current Data on the Indonesian Military Elite January 1, 1998 - January 31, 1999', Indonesia, 67 (April 1999), pp. 133-62.
99. For a nuanced treatment of these trends in the 1990s, see Jun Honna, 'Military Ideology and Response to Democratic Pressure During the Late Suharto Era: Political and Institutional Contexts', Indonesia, 67 (April 1999), pp. 77-126. See also The Editors, 'Current Data on the Indonesian Military Elite January 1, 1992-April 3, 1993', Indonesia, 55 (April 1993); and 'Current Data on the Indonesian Military Elite January 1, 1998 - January 31, 1999', Indonesia, 67 (April 1999), pp. 133-62.
100. For a systematic examination of such contradictions and their significance for the unravelling of the Suharto regime, see John T. Sidel, 'Macet Total: Logics of Circulation and Accumulation in the Demise of Indonesia's New Order', Indonesia, no. 66 (Oct. 1998), pp. 159-96.
101. See, for example, Ruth McVey (ed.), Southeast Asian Capitalists (Cornell University: Southeast Asia Program, 1992).
102. On the Suharto family's expanding business interests, see, for example, Schwarz, A Nation in Waiting; on Habibie's sprawling development networks, see Takashi Shiraishi, 'Rewiring the Indonesian State', Ruth McVey and Daniel S. Lev (eds), Making Indonesia: Essays on Modern Indonesia in Honor of George McT. Kahin (Cornell University: Southeast Asia Program, 1996), pp. 164-79.
103. On the Suharto family's expanding business interests, see, for example, Schwarz, A Nation in Waiting; on Habibie's sprawling development networks, see Takashi Shiraishi, 'Rewiring the Indonesian State', Ruth McVey and Daniel S. Lev (eds), Making Indonesia: Essays on Modern Indonesia in Honor of George McT. Kahin (Cornell University: Southeast Asia Program, 1996), pp. 164-79.
104. On the Suharto family's expanding business interests, see, for example, Schwarz, A Nation in Waiting; on Habibie's sprawling development networks, see Takashi Shiraishi, 'Rewiring the Indonesian State', Ruth McVey and Daniel S. Lev (eds), Making Indonesia: Essays on Modern Indonesia in Honor of George McT. Kahin (Cornell University: Southeast Asia Program, 1996), pp. 164-79.
105. See, especially, Rex Mortimer, Indonesian Communism under Sukarno (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1972).
106. See, especially, Geoffrey B. Robinson, The Dark Side of Paradise: Political Violence in Bali (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995).
107. See, for example, Benedict Anderson, 'Last Days of Indonesia's Suharto?' Southeast Asia Chronicle, no. 63 (July-Aug. 1978), pp. 2-17.
108. See, for example, François Raillon, Les étudiants Indonésiens et l'Ordre Nouveau (Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, 1984).
109. See, for example, Robert Cribb (ed.), The Indonesian Killings of 1965-1966: Studies from Java and Bali (Monash: Center of Southeast Asian Studies, 1990); and R. A. F. Paul Webb, 'The Sickle and the Cross: Christians and Communists in Bali, Flores, Sumba, and Timor, 1965-67', Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, vol. 17, no. 1 (March 1986), pp. 94-112.
110. See, for example, Robert Cribb (ed.), The Indonesian Killings of 1965-1966: Studies from Java and Bali (Monash: Center of Southeast Asian Studies, 1990); and R. A. F. Paul Webb, 'The Sickle and the Cross: Christians and Communists in Bali, Flores, Sumba, and Timor, 1965-67', Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, vol. 17, no. 1 (March 1986), pp. 94-112.
111. See, for example, Richard Tanter, 'The Totalitarian Ambition: Intelligence and Security Agencies in Indonesia', in Arief Budiman (ed.), State and Civil Society in Indonesia (Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1990), pp. 215-88.
112. James T. Siegel, 'Early Thoughts on the Violence of May 13 and 14, 1998 in Jakarta', Indonesia, 66 (Oct. 1998), pp. 75-108.
113. See Pemberton, On the Subject of 'Java'.
114. See, for example, Robert Hefner, 'Islam, State and Civil Society: ICMI and the Struggle for the Indonesian Middle Class', Indonesia, 56 (Oct. 1993), pp. 1-35.
115. Harry Benda, The Crescent and the Rising Sun: Indonesian Islam under the Japanese Occupation 1942-1945 (The Hague: W. Van Hoeve, 1958); and Yegar, Islam and Islamic Institutions in British Malaya.
116. Harry Benda, The Crescent and the Rising Sun: Indonesian Islam under the Japanese Occupation 1942-1945 (The Hague: W. Van Hoeve, 1958); and Yegar, Islam and Islamic Institutions in British Malaya.
117. See, for example, Andrée Feillard, Islam et armée dans L'Indonésie contemporaine (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1995).
118. On the mobilization of not-so civil society during the conjunctures identified below, see (on the 1965-66 massacres) Cribb (ed.), The Indonesian Killings; Robinson, The Dark Side of Paradise, and (on the so-called Malari affair in 1974 and the mobilization of ABRI-supported youth ('pemuda') groups and gangs against otherwise non-violent collective action in the late New Order) Harold Crouch, The Army and Politics in Indonesia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998 revised ed.).
119. On the mobilization of not-so civil society during the conjunctures identified below, see (on the 1965-66 massacres) Cribb (ed.), The Indonesian Killings; Robinson, The Dark Side of Paradise, and (on the so-called Malari affair in 1974 and the mobilization of ABRI-supported youth ('pemuda') groups and gangs against otherwise non-violent collective action in the late New Order) Harold Crouch, The Army and Politics in Indonesia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998 revised ed.).
120. On the mobilization of not-so civil society during the conjunctures identified below, see (on the 1965-66 massacres) Cribb (ed.), The Indonesian Killings; Robinson, The Dark Side of Paradise, and (on the so-called Malari affair in 1974 and the mobilization of ABRI-supported youth ('pemuda') groups and gangs against otherwise non-violent collective action in the late New Order) Harold Crouch, The Army and Politics in Indonesia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998 revised ed.).
121. On Suharto's changing relations with ABRI, see, for example, Salim Said, 'Suharto's Armed Forces: Building a Power Base in New Order Indonesia, 1966-1998', Asian Survey, vol. 38 (June 1998), pp. 535-52.
122. See, for example, '1998: The Nationwide Student Protest Movement and the Opening to Democratic Reform', in Human Rights Watch-Asia, Academic Freedom in Indonesia: Dismantling Soeharto-Era Barriers (New York: Human Rights Watch-Asia, 1998). See also, Robin Madrid, 'Islamic Students in the Indonesian Student Movement, 1998-1999: Forces for Moderation', Bulletin for Concerned Asian Scholars, Vol. 31, No. 3 (July-Sept. 1999), pp. 17-32.
123. See, for example, '1998: The Nationwide Student Protest Movement and the Opening to Democratic Reform', in Human Rights Watch-Asia, Academic Freedom in Indonesia: Dismantling Soeharto-Era Barriers (New York: Human Rights Watch-Asia, 1998). See also, Robin Madrid, 'Islamic Students in the Indonesian Student Movement, 1998-1999: Forces for Moderation', Bulletin for Concerned Asian Scholars, Vol. 31, No. 3 (July-Sept. 1999), pp. 17-32.
124. See, especially, Benny Subianto, 'The Politics of Chinese Indonesians after the Fall of Soeharto's New Order', unpublished paper presented at the Association for Asian Studies conference, San Diego, March 9-13, 2000.
125. For an examination of Megawati's populist appeal, see Daniel Zi.v 'Indonesian Populist Perceptions and Perceptions of Indonesian Populism: The Case of Megawati Sukarnoputri', unpublished paper presented at the Association for Asian Studies conference, San Diego, March 9-13, 2000.