Economic bases of ethnic separatism in Turkey: An evaluation of claims and counterclaims

Middle Eastern Studies

Volumn 37, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 101-135

  Mutlu, Servet ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ETHNICITY; POLITICAL ECONOMY; SEPARATISM; TERMS OF TRADE;

TURKEY;

EID: 0034764887     PISSN: 00263206     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/714004425     Document Type: Article

References (176)

1. PKK is the Kurdish acronym for the Workers Party of Kurdistan.
2. The East, both a geographic and an economic region in common pa ance, refers to the areas east of the Euphrates River. By the East here we will mean, unless otherwise stated, both the East in the usual geographic sense covering the provinces of Aǧri, Adiyaman, Bingöl, Bitlis, Elaziǧ, Erzincan, Erzurum, Hakkari, Iǧdir, Kars, Malatya, Muş, Tunceli and Van, and the Southeast comprising the provinces of Adiyaman, Batman, Diyarbakir, Mardin, Şirnak, Sürt and Şanhurfa.
3. In the first party programme adopted in Nov. 1978, it is stated that 'Furdistan is a classic case of colony different parts of which had been separately colonized (by Turkey, Iran, Iraq and Syria)'. In the second party programme adopted at the fifth party congress on 24 Jan. 1995, all explicit references to Syria. Iraq and Iran as colonists were dropped, and of the present day states in the Middle East, only the Republic of Turkey vilified For the full texts of the party programmes, see Nihat Ali Özean, PKK [Kürdistan İşçi Partisi]: Tarihi, İdeolojisi ve Yöntemi (Ankara: Avrasya Stratejik Araştirmalar Merkezi Yayinlan, 1999), pp.350-97: the quotation is from the section on 'General Characteristics of the Situation in Kürdistan', article B, p.361. According to a recent estimate, the Kurds constituted about 42 per cent of the population of the East in 1990 and 65 per cent of that of the Sou heast, see Servet Mutlu, 'Ethnic Kurds in Turkey: A Demographic Study', The Internationa. Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol.28, No.4 (Nov. 1996), p.533.
4. In the first party programme adopted in Nov. 1978, it is stated that 'Furdistan is a classic case of colony different parts of which had been separately colonized (by Turkey, Iran, Iraq and Syria)'. In the second party programme adopted at the fifth party congress on 24 Jan. 1995, all explicit references to Syria. Iraq and Iran as colonists were dropped, and of the present day states in the Middle East, only the Republic of Turkey vilified For the full texts of the party programmes, see Nihat Ali Özean, PKK [Kürdistan İşçi Partisi]: Tarihi, İdeolojisi ve Yöntemi (Ankara: Avrasya Stratejik Araştirmalar Merkezi Yayinlan, 1999), pp.350-97: the quotation is from the section on 'General Characteristics of the Situation in Kürdistan', article B, p.361. According to a recent estimate, the Kurds constituted about 42 per cent of the population of the East in 1990 and 65 per cent of that of the Sou heast, see Servet Mutlu, 'Ethnic Kurds in Turkey: A Demographic Study', The Internationa. Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol.28, No.4 (Nov. 1996), p.533.
5. In the first party programme adopted in Nov. 1978, it is stated that 'Furdistan is a classic case of colony different parts of which had been separately colonized (by Turkey, Iran, Iraq and Syria)'. In the second party programme adopted at the fifth party congress on 24 Jan. 1995, all explicit references to Syria. Iraq and Iran as colonists were dropped, and of the present day states in the Middle East, only the Republic of Turkey vilified For the full texts of the party programmes, see Nihat Ali Özean, PKK [Kürdistan İşçi Partisi]: Tarihi, İdeolojisi ve Yöntemi (Ankara: Avrasya Stratejik Araştirmalar Merkezi Yayinlan, 1999), pp.350-97: the quotation is from the section on 'General Characteristics of the Situation in Kürdistan', article B, p.361. According to a recent estimate, the Kurds constituted about 42 per cent of the population of the East in 1990 and 65 per cent of that of the Sou heast, see Servet Mutlu, 'Ethnic Kurds in Turkey: A Demographic Study', The Internationa. Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol.28, No.4 (Nov. 1996), p.533.
6. Bülent Dinçer, Metin Özaslan and Erdoǧan Satilmiş, İllerin Sosyo-Ekonomik Gelişmişlik Siralamasi Araştirmasi (1996) (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, 1996), pp.51-2.
7. Timuçin Sanalan et al., Kalkinmada Öncelikli Yörelerin Tesbiti ve Bu Yörelerdeki Teşvik Tedbirleri (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, 1973), pp.49-73.
8. Rafet Balli, Kürt Dosyasi (Istanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991).
9. Metin Sever, Kürt Sorunu: Aydinlarimiz Ne Düşünüyor (Istanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1992).
10. Interview with Belli, a prominent leftist ideologue, and with Baskaya, an academic, ibid., pp.44, 65; interview with Tank Ziya Ekinci, a former MP, by Sirmen, see Ali Sirmen, 'Teröre Karşi Demokrasi', Milliyet, 11 Ekim 1994, p.4; İsmail Beşikçi, Devletlerarasi Sömürge Kürdistan (Istanbul: Alan Yayincilik, 1990), pp.11-12; Beşikçi is a former academic currently imprisoned.
11. Interview with Belli, a prominent leftist ideologue, and with Baskaya, an academic, ibid., pp.44, 65; interview with Tank Ziya Ekinci, a former MP, by Sirmen, see Ali Sirmen, 'Teröre Karşi Demokrasi', Milliyet, 11 Ekim 1994, p.4; İsmail Beşikçi, Devletlerarasi Sömürge Kürdistan (Istanbul: Alan Yayincilik, 1990), pp.11-12; Beşikçi is a former academic currently imprisoned.
12. Interview with Belli, a prominent leftist ideologue, and with Baskaya, an academic, ibid., pp.44, 65; interview with Tank Ziya Ekinci, a former MP, by Sirmen, see Ali Sirmen, 'Teröre Karşi Demokrasi', Milliyet, 11 Ekim 1994, p.4; İsmail Beşikçi, Devletlerarasi Sömürge Kürdistan (Istanbul: Alan Yayincilik, 1990), pp.11-12; Beşikçi is a former academic currently imprisoned.
13. Interview with Ahmet Türk, an MP from the Southeast and leader of the now banned proKurdish People's Democracy Party, 'Türk: GAP Kürtlerindir', Sabah, 19 Mayis 1993, p.8; Interviews with Fikret Başkaya and Yalçin Küçük, in Sever, Kürt Sorunu, pp.44-171.
14. Interview with Ekinci by Ali Sirmen, 'Teröre Karşi Demokrasi', Milliyet, 11 Ekim 1992, p.4: interview with Ahmet Özer, the secretary general of the Association of GAP Municipalities, 'Sermaye Güneydoǧu'ya Bilerek Sokulmadi', Cumhuriyet, 1 Aǧustos 1992, p.3.
15. Interview with Ekinci by Ali Sirmen, 'Teröre Karşi Demokrasi', Milliyet, 11 Ekim 1992, p.4: interview with Ahmet Özer, the secretary general of the Association of GAP Municipalities, 'Sermaye Güneydoǧu'ya Bilerek Sokulmadi', Cumhuriyet, 1 Aǧustos 1992, p.3.
16. Ibid., p.3.
17. İlhan Tekeli, 'Evolution of Spatial Organization in the Ottoman Empire and Turkish Republic', in J. Friedmann and W. Alonso (eds.), Regional Policy: Readings in Theory and Applications (Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1975), p.675. Tekeli is refering to the pre-1960 period in his very erudite article.
18. Interview with Ertuǧrul Kürkçü, a leftist, and translator of Marxist works into Turkish, in Sever, Kürt Sorunu, p. 179.
19. Interview with Çetin Altan, a former MP and a columnist, and with Mete Tuncay, an academic, ibid., pp.26. 274.
20. Interview with Doǧu Perinçek, the head of the Socialist Party, ibid., p.202.
21. Yalçin Özer, 'Güneydoǧu'da Demokrasi Var mi?', Türkiye, 25 Temmuz 1993, pp.1, 8; Ertuǧrul Özkök, 'Kimin Parasini Sokaǧa Atiyorsunuz?' Hürriyet, 24 Temmuz 1993, p.25. Özer and Özkök are columnists in wide-circulation newspapers.
22. Yalçin Özer, 'Güneydoǧu'da Demokrasi Var mi?', Türkiye, 25 Temmuz 1993, pp.1, 8; Ertuǧrul Özkök, 'Kimin Parasini Sokaǧa Atiyorsunuz?' Hürriyet, 24 Temmuz 1993, p.25. Özer and Özkök are columnists in wide-circulation newspapers.
23. Tuncay in Sever, Kürt Sorunu, p.274: Tayyar Şafak, 'N'olacak Bu İşin Sonu', Tercüman, 12 Eylül 1992, p.3.
24. Tuncay in Sever, Kürt Sorunu, p.274: Tayyar Şafak, 'N'olacak Bu İşin Sonu', Tercüman, 12 Eylül 1992, p.3.
25. Özer, 'Güneydoǧu'da Demokrasi Var mi?' (note 16), p.8.
26. Özkök, 'Kimin Parasini Sokaǧa Atiyorsunuz?' (note 16), p.25.
27. Interview with Halil Berktay, a historian and former academic, in Sever, Kürt Sorunu, p.81.
28. Musa Anter, an ethnically Kurdish intellectual, in his memoirs tells the story of his uncle, who, apparently in the late 1920s or early 1930s, took a donkey-load of firewood to sell in Mardin. Not knowing Turkish, he used Kurdish in the market place. He was arrested for two days and fined 12 Turkish pounds. This was more than twice what he got for the firewood, five Turkish pounds. He was able to pay the remainder only by selling a few of his goats; see Musa Anter. Hatiralarim, I.Cilt (Istanbul: Yön Yayincilik, 1991), p.29. On some of the assimiliationist policies, see İsmail Beşikçi, Tunceli Kanunu, 1935 ve Dersim Jenosidi (Istanbul: Belge Yayinlan, 1990) and Kürtlerin Mecburi İskam (Ankara: Yurt Kitap-Yayin, 1991).
29. Musa Anter, an ethnically Kurdish intellectual, in his memoirs tells the story of his uncle, who, apparently in the late 1920s or early 1930s, took a donkey-load of firewood to sell in Mardin. Not knowing Turkish, he used Kurdish in the market place. He was arrested for two days and fined 12 Turkish pounds. This was more than twice what he got for the firewood, five Turkish pounds. He was able to pay the remainder only by selling a few of his goats; see Musa Anter. Hatiralarim, I.Cilt (Istanbul: Yön Yayincilik, 1991), p.29. On some of the assimiliationist policies, see İsmail Beşikçi, Tunceli Kanunu, 1935 ve Dersim Jenosidi (Istanbul: Belge Yayinlan, 1990) and Kürtlerin Mecburi İskam (Ankara: Yurt Kitap-Yayin, 1991).
30. These distinctions are due to Hechter. He uses these variables to distinguish between a colony and an internal colony. See Michael Hechter, Internal Colonialism: The Celtic Fringe in British National Development, 1536-1966 (Berkeley. CA: University of California Press, 1975), p.349.
31. Constitutional relationships between colonies and metropolis - the colonial state varied, France, Portugal, Russia and the United States aimed to incorporate dependencies within themselves, though only Russia entirely succeeded in doing so. The rest of the colonial powers treated colonies as distinct political entities, See D.K. Fieldhouse, The Colonial Empires: A Comparative Survey from the Eighteenth Century (London: Macmillan, 2nd edn. 1982), pp.374-80.
32. Examples of ascription of low status to colonial peoples, frequently in pejorative terms, abound in the history of colonialism. The Spanish philosopher and royal chaplain Juan Gines de Sepúlveda, in a treatise written in 1550, in reference to the indigenous peoples of Mexico, argued that 'In prudence, talent, virtue and humanity, Indians are as inferior to Spaniards as children to adults and women to men. There is as much difference between them as there is between wild and cruel and very merciful people, between those who are temperate and those who practice self-restraint and are moderate, and I am saying between monkeys and men.' Quoted in Laura A. Lewis, 'Spanish Ideology and the Practice of Inequality in the New World', in Benjamin P. Bowser (ed.), Racism and Anti-Rucism in World Perspective (London: Sage, 1995), p.52. See also Nicholas Thomas, Colonialism's Culture (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994), pp. 143-69: Robert Huttenback, Racism and Empire: White Settlers and Colored Immigrants in the British Self-Governing Colonies (Ithica and London: Cornell University Press, 1976), pp.317-26: Albert Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized. (Boston: Beacon Press, expanded edn. 1991), pp.79-118: Marc Ferro, Colonization: A Global History (London: Routledge, 1997), 104-210. Low esteer) ascribed to the colonial peoples was accompanied by sometimes extreme cruelty toward them; for examples, see W.O. Henderson. The German Colonial Empire (London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 1993), pp.83-99.
33. Examples of ascription of low status to colonial peoples, frequently in pejorative terms, abound in the history of colonialism. The Spanish philosopher and royal chaplain Juan Gines de Sepúlveda, in a treatise written in 1550, in reference to the indigenous peoples of Mexico, argued that 'In prudence, talent, virtue and humanity, Indians are as inferior to Spaniards as children to adults and women to men. There is as much difference between them as there is between wild and cruel and very merciful people, between those who are temperate and those who practice self-restraint and are moderate, and I am saying between monkeys and men.' Quoted in Laura A. Lewis, 'Spanish Ideology and the Practice of Inequality in the New World', in Benjamin P. Bowser (ed.), Racism and Anti-Rucism in World Perspective (London: Sage, 1995), p.52. See also Nicholas Thomas, Colonialism's Culture (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994), pp. 143-69: Robert Huttenback, Racism and Empire: White Settlers and Colored Immigrants in the British Self-Governing Colonies (Ithica and London: Cornell University Press, 1976), pp.317-26: Albert Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized. (Boston: Beacon Press, expanded edn. 1991), pp.79-118: Marc Ferro, Colonization: A Global History (London: Routledge, 1997), 104-210. Low esteer) ascribed to the colonial peoples was accompanied by sometimes extreme cruelty toward them; for examples, see W.O. Henderson. The German Colonial Empire (London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 1993), pp.83-99.
34. Examples of ascription of low status to colonial peoples, frequently in pejorative terms, abound in the history of colonialism. The Spanish philosopher and royal chaplain Juan Gines de Sepúlveda, in a treatise written in 1550, in reference to the indigenous peoples of Mexico, argued that 'In prudence, talent, virtue and humanity, Indians are as inferior to Spaniards as children to adults and women to men. There is as much difference between them as there is between wild and cruel and very merciful people, between those who are temperate and those who practice self-restraint and are moderate, and I am saying between monkeys and men.' Quoted in Laura A. Lewis, 'Spanish Ideology and the Practice of Inequality in the New World', in Benjamin P. Bowser (ed.), Racism and Anti-Rucism in World Perspective (London: Sage, 1995), p.52. See also Nicholas Thomas, Colonialism's Culture (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994), pp. 143-69: Robert Huttenback, Racism and Empire: White Settlers and Colored Immigrants in the British Self-Governing Colonies (Ithica and London: Cornell University Press, 1976), pp.317-26: Albert Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized. (Boston: Beacon Press, expanded edn. 1991), pp.79-118: Marc Ferro, Colonization: A Global History (London: Routledge, 1997), 104-210. Low esteer) ascribed to the colonial peoples was accompanied by sometimes extreme cruelty toward them; for examples, see W.O. Henderson. The German Colonial Empire (London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 1993), pp.83-99.
35. Examples of ascription of low status to colonial peoples, frequently in pejorative terms, abound in the history of colonialism. The Spanish philosopher and royal chaplain Juan Gines de Sepúlveda, in a treatise written in 1550, in reference to the indigenous peoples of Mexico, argued that 'In prudence, talent, virtue and humanity, Indians are as inferior to Spaniards as children to adults and women to men. There is as much difference between them as there is between wild and cruel and very merciful people, between those who are temperate and those who practice self-restraint and are moderate, and I am saying between monkeys and men.' Quoted in Laura A. Lewis, 'Spanish Ideology and the Practice of Inequality in the New World', in Benjamin P. Bowser (ed.), Racism and Anti-Rucism in World Perspective (London: Sage, 1995), p.52. See also Nicholas Thomas, Colonialism's Culture (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994), pp. 143-69: Robert Huttenback, Racism and Empire: White Settlers and Colored Immigrants in the British Self-Governing Colonies (Ithica and London: Cornell University Press, 1976), pp.317-26: Albert Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized. (Boston: Beacon Press, expanded edn. 1991), pp.79-118: Marc Ferro, Colonization: A Global History (London: Routledge, 1997), 104-210. Low esteer) ascribed to the colonial peoples was accompanied by sometimes extreme cruelty toward them; for examples, see W.O. Henderson. The German Colonial Empire (London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 1993), pp.83-99.
36. Examples of ascription of low status to colonial peoples, frequently in pejorative terms, abound in the history of colonialism. The Spanish philosopher and royal chaplain Juan Gines de Sepúlveda, in a treatise written in 1550, in reference to the indigenous peoples of Mexico, argued that 'In prudence, talent, virtue and humanity, Indians are as inferior to Spaniards as children to adults and women to men. There is as much difference between them as there is between wild and cruel and very merciful people, between those who are temperate and those who practice self-restraint and are moderate, and I am saying between monkeys and men.' Quoted in Laura A. Lewis, 'Spanish Ideology and the Practice of Inequality in the New World', in Benjamin P. Bowser (ed.), Racism and Anti-Rucism in World Perspective (London: Sage, 1995), p.52. See also Nicholas Thomas, Colonialism's Culture (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994), pp. 143-69: Robert Huttenback, Racism and Empire: White Settlers and Colored Immigrants in the British Self-Governing Colonies (Ithica and London: Cornell University Press, 1976), pp.317-26: Albert Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized. (Boston: Beacon Press, expanded edn. 1991), pp.79-118: Marc Ferro, Colonization: A Global History (London: Routledge, 1997), 104-210. Low esteer) ascribed to the colonial peoples was accompanied by sometimes extreme cruelty toward them; for examples, see W.O. Henderson. The German Colonial Empire (London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 1993), pp.83-99.
37. Examples of ascription of low status to colonial peoples, frequently in pejorative terms, abound in the history of colonialism. The Spanish philosopher and royal chaplain Juan Gines de Sepúlveda, in a treatise written in 1550, in reference to the indigenous peoples of Mexico, argued that 'In prudence, talent, virtue and humanity, Indians are as inferior to Spaniards as children to adults and women to men. There is as much difference between them as there is between wild and cruel and very merciful people, between those who are temperate and those who practice self-restraint and are moderate, and I am saying between monkeys and men.' Quoted in Laura A. Lewis, 'Spanish Ideology and the Practice of Inequality in the New World', in Benjamin P. Bowser (ed.), Racism and Anti-Rucism in World Perspective (London: Sage, 1995), p.52. See also Nicholas Thomas, Colonialism's Culture (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994), pp. 143-69: Robert Huttenback, Racism and Empire: White Settlers and Colored Immigrants in the British Self-Governing Colonies (Ithica and London: Cornell University Press, 1976), pp.317-26: Albert Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized. (Boston: Beacon Press, expanded edn. 1991), pp.79-118: Marc Ferro, Colonization: A Global History (London: Routledge, 1997), 104-210. Low esteer) ascribed to the colonial peoples was accompanied by sometimes extreme cruelty toward them; for examples, see W.O. Henderson. The German Colonial Empire (London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 1993), pp.83-99.
38. There are two schools of thought on these issues: one which we may call the mainstream and the other Marxian. Although there are points of agreement between the two, the disagreements range from the motives and objectives to the workings and the effects of colonialism on the subjected peoples and countries. On the mains ream approach see Eli F. Heckscher, Mercantilism Vol.II (London: Allan and Unwin, 2nd edn. 1995), pp.25-6. 178-235; D.K. Fieldhouse, Economics and Empire, 1830-1914 (London: MacMillan, 1984), and The Colonial Empires (note 23): Michael Ashley Havinden and David Meredith, Colonialism and Development: Britain and its Tropical Colonies, 1850-1960 (London: Routledge, 1993); Raymond F.Betts, Uncertain Dimensions: Western Overseas Empires in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985): John Kent, Internationalism of Colonialism: Britain, France and Black Africa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992); Charles Wilson. 'The Economic Role and Mainsprings of Imperialism', in Peter Duignan and L.H. Gann (eds.), Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960: The Economics of Colonialism, Vol.4 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), pp.68-94: Virginia Thompson, 'French Economic Policy in Tropical Africa', in Dilignan and Gann (eds.), pp.127-64: L.H. Gann. 'Economic Development in Germany's African Empire, 1884-1914', in Duignan and Gann (eds.), pp.213-56; Richard Hartmond, 'Some Economic Aspects of Portuguese Africa in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries', in Duignan and Gann (eds.), pp.257-82: John Maynard Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and money (London: MacMillan, 1963), pp.333-71.
39. There are two schools of thought on these issues: one which we may call the mainstream and the other Marxian. Although there are points of agreement between the two, the disagreements range from the motives and objectives to the workings and the effects of colonialism on the subjected peoples and countries. On the mains ream approach see Eli F. Heckscher, Mercantilism Vol.II (London: Allan and Unwin, 2nd edn. 1995), pp.25-6. 178-235; D.K. Fieldhouse, Economics and Empire, 1830-1914 (London: MacMillan, 1984), and The Colonial Empires (note 23): Michael Ashley Havinden and David Meredith, Colonialism and Development: Britain and its Tropical Colonies, 1850-1960 (London: Routledge, 1993); Raymond F.Betts, Uncertain Dimensions: Western Overseas Empires in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985): John Kent, Internationalism of Colonialism: Britain, France and Black Africa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992); Charles Wilson. 'The Economic Role and Mainsprings of Imperialism', in Peter Duignan and L.H. Gann (eds.), Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960: The Economics of Colonialism, Vol.4 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), pp.68-94: Virginia Thompson, 'French Economic Policy in Tropical Africa', in Dilignan and Gann (eds.), pp.127-64: L.H. Gann. 'Economic Development in Germany's African Empire, 1884-1914', in Duignan and Gann (eds.), pp.213-56; Richard Hartmond, 'Some Economic Aspects of Portuguese Africa in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries', in Duignan and Gann (eds.), pp.257-82: John Maynard Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and money (London: MacMillan, 1963), pp.333-71.
40. There are two schools of thought on these issues: one which we may call the mainstream and the other Marxian. Although there are points of agreement between the two, the disagreements range from the motives and objectives to the workings and the effects of colonialism on the subjected peoples and countries. On the mains ream approach see Eli F. Heckscher, Mercantilism Vol.II (London: Allan and Unwin, 2nd edn. 1995), pp.25-6. 178-235; D.K. Fieldhouse, Economics and Empire, 1830-1914 (London: MacMillan, 1984), and The Colonial Empires (note 23): Michael Ashley Havinden and David Meredith, Colonialism and Development: Britain and its Tropical Colonies, 1850-1960 (London: Routledge, 1993); Raymond F.Betts, Uncertain Dimensions: Western Overseas Empires in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985): John Kent, Internationalism of Colonialism: Britain, France and Black Africa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992); Charles Wilson. 'The Economic Role and Mainsprings of Imperialism', in Peter Duignan and L.H. Gann (eds.), Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960: The Economics of Colonialism, Vol.4 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), pp.68-94: Virginia Thompson, 'French Economic Policy in Tropical Africa', in Dilignan and Gann (eds.), pp.127-64: L.H. Gann. 'Economic Development in Germany's African Empire, 1884-1914', in Duignan and Gann (eds.), pp.213-56; Richard Hartmond, 'Some Economic Aspects of Portuguese Africa in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries', in Duignan and Gann (eds.), pp.257-82: John Maynard Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and money (London: MacMillan, 1963), pp.333-71.
41. There are two schools of thought on these issues: one which we may call the mainstream and the other Marxian. Although there are points of agreement between the two, the disagreements range from the motives and objectives to the workings and the effects of colonialism on the subjected peoples and countries. On the mains ream approach see Eli F. Heckscher, Mercantilism Vol.II (London: Allan and Unwin, 2nd edn. 1995), pp.25-6. 178-235; D.K. Fieldhouse, Economics and Empire, 1830-1914 (London: MacMillan, 1984), and The Colonial Empires (note 23): Michael Ashley Havinden and David Meredith, Colonialism and Development: Britain and its Tropical Colonies, 1850-1960 (London: Routledge, 1993); Raymond F.Betts, Uncertain Dimensions: Western Overseas Empires in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985): John Kent, Internationalism of Colonialism: Britain, France and Black Africa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992); Charles Wilson. 'The Economic Role and Mainsprings of Imperialism', in Peter Duignan and L.H. Gann (eds.), Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960: The Economics of Colonialism, Vol.4 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), pp.68-94: Virginia Thompson, 'French Economic Policy in Tropical Africa', in Dilignan and Gann (eds.), pp.127-64: L.H. Gann. 'Economic Development in Germany's African Empire, 1884-1914', in Duignan and Gann (eds.), pp.213-56; Richard Hartmond, 'Some Economic Aspects of Portuguese Africa in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries', in Duignan and Gann (eds.), pp.257-82: John Maynard Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and money (London: MacMillan, 1963), pp.333-71.
42. There are two schools of thought on these issues: one which we may call the mainstream and the other Marxian. Although there are points of agreement between the two, the disagreements range from the motives and objectives to the workings and the effects of colonialism on the subjected peoples and countries. On the mains ream approach see Eli F. Heckscher, Mercantilism Vol.II (London: Allan and Unwin, 2nd edn. 1995), pp.25-6. 178-235; D.K. Fieldhouse, Economics and Empire, 1830-1914 (London: MacMillan, 1984), and The Colonial Empires (note 23): Michael Ashley Havinden and David Meredith, Colonialism and Development: Britain and its Tropical Colonies, 1850-1960 (London: Routledge, 1993); Raymond F.Betts, Uncertain Dimensions: Western Overseas Empires in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985): John Kent, Internationalism of Colonialism: Britain, France and Black Africa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992); Charles Wilson. 'The Economic Role and Mainsprings of Imperialism', in Peter Duignan and L.H. Gann (eds.), Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960: The Economics of Colonialism, Vol.4 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), pp.68-94: Virginia Thompson, 'French Economic Policy in Tropical Africa', in Dilignan and Gann (eds.), pp.127-64: L.H. Gann. 'Economic Development in Germany's African Empire, 1884-1914', in Duignan and Gann (eds.), pp.213-56; Richard Hartmond, 'Some Economic Aspects of Portuguese Africa in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries', in Duignan and Gann (eds.), pp.257-82: John Maynard Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and money (London: MacMillan, 1963), pp.333-71.
43. There are two schools of thought on these issues: one which we may call the mainstream and the other Marxian. Although there are points of agreement between the two, the disagreements range from the motives and objectives to the workings and the effects of colonialism on the subjected peoples and countries. On the mains ream approach see Eli F. Heckscher, Mercantilism Vol.II (London: Allan and Unwin, 2nd edn. 1995), pp.25-6. 178-235; D.K. Fieldhouse, Economics and Empire, 1830-1914 (London: MacMillan, 1984), and The Colonial Empires (note 23): Michael Ashley Havinden and David Meredith, Colonialism and Development: Britain and its Tropical Colonies, 1850-1960 (London: Routledge, 1993); Raymond F.Betts, Uncertain Dimensions: Western Overseas Empires in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985): John Kent, Internationalism of Colonialism: Britain, France and Black Africa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992); Charles Wilson. 'The Economic Role and Mainsprings of Imperialism', in Peter Duignan and L.H. Gann (eds.), Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960: The Economics of Colonialism, Vol.4 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), pp.68-94: Virginia Thompson, 'French Economic Policy in Tropical Africa', in Dilignan and Gann (eds.), pp.127-64: L.H. Gann. 'Economic Development in Germany's African Empire, 1884-1914', in Duignan and Gann (eds.), pp.213-56; Richard Hartmond, 'Some Economic Aspects of Portuguese Africa in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries', in Duignan and Gann (eds.), pp.257-82: John Maynard Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and money (London: MacMillan, 1963), pp.333-71.
44. There are two schools of thought on these issues: one which we may call the mainstream and the other Marxian. Although there are points of agreement between the two, the disagreements range from the motives and objectives to the workings and the effects of colonialism on the subjected peoples and countries. On the mains ream approach see Eli F. Heckscher, Mercantilism Vol.II (London: Allan and Unwin, 2nd edn. 1995), pp.25-6. 178-235; D.K. Fieldhouse, Economics and Empire, 1830-1914 (London: MacMillan, 1984), and The Colonial Empires (note 23): Michael Ashley Havinden and David Meredith, Colonialism and Development: Britain and its Tropical Colonies, 1850-1960 (London: Routledge, 1993); Raymond F.Betts, Uncertain Dimensions: Western Overseas Empires in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985): John Kent, Internationalism of Colonialism: Britain, France and Black Africa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992); Charles Wilson. 'The Economic Role and Mainsprings of Imperialism', in Peter Duignan and L.H. Gann (eds.), Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960: The Economics of Colonialism, Vol.4 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), pp.68-94: Virginia Thompson, 'French Economic Policy in Tropical Africa', in Dilignan and Gann (eds.), pp.127-64: L.H. Gann. 'Economic Development in Germany's African Empire, 1884-1914', in Duignan and Gann (eds.), pp.213-56; Richard Hartmond, 'Some Economic Aspects of Portuguese Africa in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries', in Duignan and Gann (eds.), pp.257-82: John Maynard Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and money (London: MacMillan, 1963), pp.333-71.
45. There are two schools of thought on these issues: one which we may call the mainstream and the other Marxian. Although there are points of agreement between the two, the disagreements range from the motives and objectives to the workings and the effects of colonialism on the subjected peoples and countries. On the mains ream approach see Eli F. Heckscher, Mercantilism Vol.II (London: Allan and Unwin, 2nd edn. 1995), pp.25-6. 178-235; D.K. Fieldhouse, Economics and Empire, 1830-1914 (London: MacMillan, 1984), and The Colonial Empires (note 23): Michael Ashley Havinden and David Meredith, Colonialism and Development: Britain and its Tropical Colonies, 1850-1960 (London: Routledge, 1993); Raymond F.Betts, Uncertain Dimensions: Western Overseas Empires in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985): John Kent, Internationalism of Colonialism: Britain, France and Black Africa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992); Charles Wilson. 'The Economic Role and Mainsprings of Imperialism', in Peter Duignan and L.H. Gann (eds.), Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960: The Economics of Colonialism, Vol.4 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), pp.68-94: Virginia Thompson, 'French Economic Policy in Tropical Africa', in Dilignan and Gann (eds.), pp.127-64: L.H. Gann. 'Economic Development in Germany's African Empire, 1884-1914', in Duignan and Gann (eds.), pp.213-56; Richard Hartmond, 'Some Economic Aspects of Portuguese Africa in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries', in Duignan and Gann (eds.), pp.257-82: John Maynard Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and money (London: MacMillan, 1963), pp.333-71.
46. There are two schools of thought on these issues: one which we may call the mainstream and the other Marxian. Although there are points of agreement between the two, the disagreements range from the motives and objectives to the workings and the effects of colonialism on the subjected peoples and countries. On the mains ream approach see Eli F. Heckscher, Mercantilism Vol.II (London: Allan and Unwin, 2nd edn. 1995), pp.25-6. 178-235; D.K. Fieldhouse, Economics and Empire, 1830-1914 (London: MacMillan, 1984), and The Colonial Empires (note 23): Michael Ashley Havinden and David Meredith, Colonialism and Development: Britain and its Tropical Colonies, 1850-1960 (London: Routledge, 1993); Raymond F.Betts, Uncertain Dimensions: Western Overseas Empires in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985): John Kent, Internationalism of Colonialism: Britain, France and Black Africa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992); Charles Wilson. 'The Economic Role and Mainsprings of Imperialism', in Peter Duignan and L.H. Gann (eds.), Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960: The Economics of Colonialism, Vol.4 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), pp.68-94: Virginia Thompson, 'French Economic Policy in Tropical Africa', in Dilignan and Gann (eds.), pp.127-64: L.H. Gann. 'Economic Development in Germany's African Empire, 1884-1914', in Duignan and Gann (eds.), pp.213-56; Richard Hartmond, 'Some Economic Aspects of Portuguese Africa in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries', in Duignan and Gann (eds.), pp.257-82: John Maynard Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and money (London: MacMillan, 1963), pp.333-71.
47. There are two schools of thought on these issues: one which we may call the mainstream and the other Marxian. Although there are points of agreement between the two, the disagreements range from the motives and objectives to the workings and the effects of colonialism on the subjected peoples and countries. On the mains ream approach see Eli F. Heckscher, Mercantilism Vol.II (London: Allan and Unwin, 2nd edn. 1995), pp.25-6. 178-235; D.K. Fieldhouse, Economics and Empire, 1830-1914 (London: MacMillan, 1984), and The Colonial Empires (note 23): Michael Ashley Havinden and David Meredith, Colonialism and Development: Britain and its Tropical Colonies, 1850-1960 (London: Routledge, 1993); Raymond F.Betts, Uncertain Dimensions: Western Overseas Empires in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985): John Kent, Internationalism of Colonialism: Britain, France and Black Africa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992); Charles Wilson. 'The Economic Role and Mainsprings of Imperialism', in Peter Duignan and L.H. Gann (eds.), Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960: The Economics of Colonialism, Vol.4 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), pp.68-94: Virginia Thompson, 'French Economic Policy in Tropical Africa', in Dilignan and Gann (eds.), pp.127-64: L.H. Gann. 'Economic Development in Germany's African Empire, 1884-1914', in Duignan and Gann (eds.), pp.213-56; Richard Hartmond, 'Some Economic Aspects of Portuguese Africa in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries', in Duignan and Gann (eds.), pp.257-82: John Maynard Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and money (London: MacMillan, 1963), pp.333-71.
48. On the Marsian approach see Karl Marx, Capital, Vol.1, trans. Samuel Moore and Edward Aveling (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1971),pp.431-2. 453-4, 775-8;
49. V.I. Lenin, Imperialism, The Highest Stage of Capitalism (Peking: Foreign Language Press, 1975);
50. Maurice Dobb, Studies in the Development of Capitalism. (New York,International Publishers, rev. edn. 1975), pp. 177-220:
51. Paul M. Sweezy. The theory of Capitalist Development (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1968),pp.297-8. 301-6, 321, 326-8:
52. Rosa Luxembourg. The Accumulation of capital, trans., Agnes Schwarzchild (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1968). pp.34R-67;
53. A. Emmanuel, Unegual Exchange: A Study of the Imperialism of Trade (London: New Left Books. 1972), pp.52-71;
54. Samir Amin, Acccumlation an a World Scale: A Critique of the Theory of Underdevelopment (New York: Monthly Review Press. 1972);
55. E. Mandel, Late Capitalism, trans., Joris de Bres (London: Verso, 1975), pp.85-90, 344-65.
56. Colonialism and economic imperialism, though related, are two different phenomena. Colonialism always involved full political control: it was the rule of a land by an alien power. Economic imperialism could operate without full political control. For instance, the Ottoman Empire was never a colony but. especially in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, it was subjected to economic imperialism by the European powers, first by Great Britain and France and then by Germany. Colonialism always bestowed an 'advantage' to the colonist, but that advantage was not necessarily economic, and if economic, it need not result in exploitation. Profit, except in the Marxian sense, does not always ensue from exploitation.
57. Mexico. Peru and India experienced such looting. However, the lands colonized after the eighteenth century had little treasure to loot.
58. The Dutch transferred Indonesian fiscal surpluses between 1831-77: the British East India Company and other chartered companies sometimes paid dividends out of colonial taxation. But these were exceptions rather than the rule. See Fieldhouse, The Colonial Empires (note 23), p.25.
59. This was made possible through commercial monopoly over the colony, and provided high profit levels for metropolitan merchants and producers. Great Britain, assured of the competitiveness of its industries, had dismantled the system of commercial monopoly by the 1860s. and the age of free trade imperialism was ushered in.
60. This did not apply to Great Britain's settlement colonies such as Australia, New Zealand and Canada, which were allowed to develop their own protectionist policies from 1859 on.
61. On these forms of exploitation, and for a critical evaluation, see Fieldhouse. The Colonial Empires (note 23), 380-94.
62. It is often alleged, especially by Marxian analysts, that the European colonial powers underdeveloped the colonies, or that their policies led to arrested development. For an analysis which is at variance with these views, in the case of Africa, see Peter Duignan and L.H. Gann, 'Economic Achievements of the Colonizers: An Assessment', in Peter Duignan and L. H. Gann (eds.), Colonialism in Africa (note 25), pp.673-95.
63. The definition of internal colonialism adopted here is similar to that of Havens and Flinn in its emphasis on dominant and dominated groups, although they do not explicitly refer to the process of exploitation and take the relationship between the dominant and dominated groups as one of dependency. See A. Eugene Havens and William L. Flinn, 'Introduction: Internal Colonialism, Structural Change and National Development', in A. Eugene Havens and Willam L. Flinn (eds.), Internal Colonialism and Structural Change in Colombia (New York: Praeger, 1970), p.11. The phrase 'internal colonialism' was first used by Dobb. The non-Marxian version of the notion of internal colonialism has its roots in the writings of Manoilescu, Hoselitz, Fanon and Mills. The Marxian version originated with Gramsci, Bukharin and Preobrazhensky: see Maurice Dobb. Political Economy and Capitalism: Some Essays in Economics Tradition (London: Routledge, 1937), p.247 (note 1); Studies in the Development of Capitalism (New York: International, 1975), p.194: Bert F. Hoselitz, Sociological Aspects of Economic Growth (Glencoe. IL: The Free Press, 1962), p. 148; Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1965); C. Wright Mills, 'The Problem of Industrial Development', in Irwin L. Horrowitz (ed.), Power, Politics and People (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), p.154; Nikolai Bukharin, Imperialism and World Economy (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973), p.21; Evgeny Preobrazhensky, The New Economics. trans. Brian Pearce (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), pp.77-146; Antonio Gramsci, 'The Southern Question', in The Modern Prince and Other Writings (New York: International, 1957), pp.28-54. For the ideas of Manoilescu and for a critical review of the development of the 'internal colonialism' thesis see Joseph, L. Love, 'Modeling Internal Colonialism: History and Prospect'. World Development, Vol.17. No.6 (June 1989), pp.905-22; see also Robert J. Hind, 'The Internal Colonial Concept', Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol.26 (1984), pp.543-68; Greta Bird and Pat O'Malley, 'Kooris, Internal Colonialism and Social Justice', Social Justice, Vol.16, No.3 (1989), pp.36-9.
64. The definition of internal colonialism adopted here is similar to that of Havens and Flinn in its emphasis on dominant and dominated groups, although they do not explicitly refer to the process of exploitation and take the relationship between the dominant and dominated groups as one of dependency. See A. Eugene Havens and William L. Flinn, 'Introduction: Internal Colonialism, Structural Change and National Development', in A. Eugene Havens and Willam L. Flinn (eds.), Internal Colonialism and Structural Change in Colombia (New York: Praeger, 1970), p.11. The phrase 'internal colonialism' was first used by Dobb. The non-Marxian version of the notion of internal colonialism has its roots in the writings of Manoilescu, Hoselitz, Fanon and Mills. The Marxian version originated with Gramsci, Bukharin and Preobrazhensky: see Maurice Dobb. Political Economy and Capitalism: Some Essays in Economics Tradition (London: Routledge, 1937), p.247 (note 1); Studies in the Development of Capitalism (New York: International, 1975), p.194: Bert F. Hoselitz, Sociological Aspects of Economic Growth (Glencoe. IL: The Free Press, 1962), p. 148; Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1965); C. Wright Mills, 'The Problem of Industrial Development', in Irwin L. Horrowitz (ed.), Power, Politics and People (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), p.154; Nikolai Bukharin, Imperialism and World Economy (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973), p.21; Evgeny Preobrazhensky, The New Economics. trans. Brian Pearce (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), pp.77-146; Antonio Gramsci, 'The Southern Question', in The Modern Prince and Other Writings (New York: International, 1957), pp.28-54. For the ideas of Manoilescu and for a critical review of the development of the 'internal colonialism' thesis see Joseph, L. Love, 'Modeling Internal Colonialism: History and Prospect'. World Development, Vol.17. No.6 (June 1989), pp.905-22; see also Robert J. Hind, 'The Internal Colonial Concept', Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol.26 (1984), pp.543-68; Greta Bird and Pat O'Malley, 'Kooris, Internal Colonialism and Social Justice', Social Justice, Vol.16, No.3 (1989), pp.36-9.
65. The definition of internal colonialism adopted here is similar to that of Havens and Flinn in its emphasis on dominant and dominated groups, although they do not explicitly refer to the process of exploitation and take the relationship between the dominant and dominated groups as one of dependency. See A. Eugene Havens and William L. Flinn, 'Introduction: Internal Colonialism, Structural Change and National Development', in A. Eugene Havens and Willam L. Flinn (eds.), Internal Colonialism and Structural Change in Colombia (New York: Praeger, 1970), p.11. The phrase 'internal colonialism' was first used by Dobb. The non-Marxian version of the notion of internal colonialism has its roots in the writings of Manoilescu, Hoselitz, Fanon and Mills. The Marxian version originated with Gramsci, Bukharin and Preobrazhensky: see Maurice Dobb. Political Economy and Capitalism: Some Essays in Economics Tradition (London: Routledge, 1937), p.247 (note 1); Studies in the Development of Capitalism (New York: International, 1975), p.194: Bert F. Hoselitz, Sociological Aspects of Economic Growth (Glencoe. IL: The Free Press, 1962), p. 148; Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1965); C. Wright Mills, 'The Problem of Industrial Development', in Irwin L. Horrowitz (ed.), Power, Politics and People (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), p.154; Nikolai Bukharin, Imperialism and World Economy (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973), p.21; Evgeny Preobrazhensky, The New Economics. trans. Brian Pearce (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), pp.77-146; Antonio Gramsci, 'The Southern Question', in The Modern Prince and Other Writings (New York: International, 1957), pp.28-54. For the ideas of Manoilescu and for a critical review of the development of the 'internal colonialism' thesis see Joseph, L. Love, 'Modeling Internal Colonialism: History and Prospect'. World Development, Vol.17. No.6 (June 1989), pp.905-22; see also Robert J. Hind, 'The Internal Colonial Concept', Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol.26 (1984), pp.543-68; Greta Bird and Pat O'Malley, 'Kooris, Internal Colonialism and Social Justice', Social Justice, Vol.16, No.3 (1989), pp.36-9.
66. The definition of internal colonialism adopted here is similar to that of Havens and Flinn in its emphasis on dominant and dominated groups, although they do not explicitly refer to the process of exploitation and take the relationship between the dominant and dominated groups as one of dependency. See A. Eugene Havens and William L. Flinn, 'Introduction: Internal Colonialism, Structural Change and National Development', in A. Eugene Havens and Willam L. Flinn (eds.), Internal Colonialism and Structural Change in Colombia (New York: Praeger, 1970), p.11. The phrase 'internal colonialism' was first used by Dobb. The non-Marxian version of the notion of internal colonialism has its roots in the writings of Manoilescu, Hoselitz, Fanon and Mills. The Marxian version originated with Gramsci, Bukharin and Preobrazhensky: see Maurice Dobb. Political Economy and Capitalism: Some Essays in Economics Tradition (London: Routledge, 1937), p.247 (note 1); Studies in the Development of Capitalism (New York: International, 1975), p.194: Bert F. Hoselitz, Sociological Aspects of Economic Growth (Glencoe. IL: The Free Press, 1962), p. 148; Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1965); C. Wright Mills, 'The Problem of Industrial Development', in Irwin L. Horrowitz (ed.), Power, Politics and People (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), p.154; Nikolai Bukharin, Imperialism and World Economy (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973), p.21; Evgeny Preobrazhensky, The New Economics. trans. Brian Pearce (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), pp.77-146; Antonio Gramsci, 'The Southern Question', in The Modern Prince and Other Writings (New York: International, 1957), pp.28-54. For the ideas of Manoilescu and for a critical review of the development of the 'internal colonialism' thesis see Joseph, L. Love, 'Modeling Internal Colonialism: History and Prospect'. World Development, Vol.17. No.6 (June 1989), pp.905-22; see also Robert J. Hind, 'The Internal Colonial Concept', Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol.26 (1984), pp.543-68; Greta Bird and Pat O'Malley, 'Kooris, Internal Colonialism and Social Justice', Social Justice, Vol.16, No.3 (1989), pp.36-9.
67. The definition of internal colonialism adopted here is similar to that of Havens and Flinn in its emphasis on dominant and dominated groups, although they do not explicitly refer to the process of exploitation and take the relationship between the dominant and dominated groups as one of dependency. See A. Eugene Havens and William L. Flinn, 'Introduction: Internal Colonialism, Structural Change and National Development', in A. Eugene Havens and Willam L. Flinn (eds.), Internal Colonialism and Structural Change in Colombia (New York: Praeger, 1970), p.11. The phrase 'internal colonialism' was first used by Dobb. The non-Marxian version of the notion of internal colonialism has its roots in the writings of Manoilescu, Hoselitz, Fanon and Mills. The Marxian version originated with Gramsci, Bukharin and Preobrazhensky: see Maurice Dobb. Political Economy and Capitalism: Some Essays in Economics Tradition (London: Routledge, 1937), p.247 (note 1); Studies in the Development of Capitalism (New York: International, 1975), p.194: Bert F. Hoselitz, Sociological Aspects of Economic Growth (Glencoe. IL: The Free Press, 1962), p. 148; Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1965); C. Wright Mills, 'The Problem of Industrial Development', in Irwin L. Horrowitz (ed.), Power, Politics and People (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), p.154; Nikolai Bukharin, Imperialism and World Economy (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973), p.21; Evgeny Preobrazhensky, The New Economics. trans. Brian Pearce (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), pp.77-146; Antonio Gramsci, 'The Southern Question', in The Modern Prince and Other Writings (New York: International, 1957), pp.28-54. For the ideas of Manoilescu and for a critical review of the development of the 'internal colonialism' thesis see Joseph, L. Love, 'Modeling Internal Colonialism: History and Prospect'. World Development, Vol.17. No.6 (June 1989), pp.905-22; see also Robert J. Hind, 'The Internal Colonial Concept', Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol.26 (1984), pp.543-68; Greta Bird and Pat O'Malley, 'Kooris, Internal Colonialism and Social Justice', Social Justice, Vol.16, No.3 (1989), pp.36-9.
68. The definition of internal colonialism adopted here is similar to that of Havens and Flinn in its emphasis on dominant and dominated groups, although they do not explicitly refer to the process of exploitation and take the relationship between the dominant and dominated groups as one of dependency. See A. Eugene Havens and William L. Flinn, 'Introduction: Internal Colonialism, Structural Change and National Development', in A. Eugene Havens and Willam L. Flinn (eds.), Internal Colonialism and Structural Change in Colombia (New York: Praeger, 1970), p.11. The phrase 'internal colonialism' was first used by Dobb. The non-Marxian version of the notion of internal colonialism has its roots in the writings of Manoilescu, Hoselitz, Fanon and Mills. The Marxian version originated with Gramsci, Bukharin and Preobrazhensky: see Maurice Dobb. Political Economy and Capitalism: Some Essays in Economics Tradition (London: Routledge, 1937), p.247 (note 1); Studies in the Development of Capitalism (New York: International, 1975), p.194: Bert F. Hoselitz, Sociological Aspects of Economic Growth (Glencoe. IL: The Free Press, 1962), p. 148; Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1965); C. Wright Mills, 'The Problem of Industrial Development', in Irwin L. Horrowitz (ed.), Power, Politics and People (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), p.154; Nikolai Bukharin, Imperialism and World Economy (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973), p.21; Evgeny Preobrazhensky, The New Economics. trans. Brian Pearce (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), pp.77-146; Antonio Gramsci, 'The Southern Question', in The Modern Prince and Other Writings (New York: International, 1957), pp.28-54. For the ideas of Manoilescu and for a critical review of the development of the 'internal colonialism' thesis see Joseph, L. Love, 'Modeling Internal Colonialism: History and Prospect'. World Development, Vol.17. No.6 (June 1989), pp.905-22; see also Robert J. Hind, 'The Internal Colonial Concept', Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol.26 (1984), pp.543-68; Greta Bird and Pat O'Malley, 'Kooris, Internal Colonialism and Social Justice', Social Justice, Vol.16, No.3 (1989), pp.36-9.
69. The definition of internal colonialism adopted here is similar to that of Havens and Flinn in its emphasis on dominant and dominated groups, although they do not explicitly refer to the process of exploitation and take the relationship between the dominant and dominated groups as one of dependency. See A. Eugene Havens and William L. Flinn, 'Introduction: Internal Colonialism, Structural Change and National Development', in A. Eugene Havens and Willam L. Flinn (eds.), Internal Colonialism and Structural Change in Colombia (New York: Praeger, 1970), p.11. The phrase 'internal colonialism' was first used by Dobb. The non-Marxian version of the notion of internal colonialism has its roots in the writings of Manoilescu, Hoselitz, Fanon and Mills. The Marxian version originated with Gramsci, Bukharin and Preobrazhensky: see Maurice Dobb. Political Economy and Capitalism: Some Essays in Economics Tradition (London: Routledge, 1937), p.247 (note 1); Studies in the Development of Capitalism (New York: International, 1975), p.194: Bert F. Hoselitz, Sociological Aspects of Economic Growth (Glencoe. IL: The Free Press, 1962), p. 148; Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1965); C. Wright Mills, 'The Problem of Industrial Development', in Irwin L. Horrowitz (ed.), Power, Politics and People (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), p.154; Nikolai Bukharin, Imperialism and World Economy (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973), p.21; Evgeny Preobrazhensky, The New Economics. trans. Brian Pearce (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), pp.77-146; Antonio Gramsci, 'The Southern Question', in The Modern Prince and Other Writings (New York: International, 1957), pp.28-54. For the ideas of Manoilescu and for a critical review of the development of the 'internal colonialism' thesis see Joseph, L. Love, 'Modeling Internal Colonialism: History and Prospect'. World Development, Vol.17. No.6 (June 1989), pp.905-22; see also Robert J. Hind, 'The Internal Colonial Concept', Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol.26 (1984), pp.543-68; Greta Bird and Pat O'Malley, 'Kooris, Internal Colonialism and Social Justice', Social Justice, Vol.16, No.3 (1989), pp.36-9.
70. The definition of internal colonialism adopted here is similar to that of Havens and Flinn in its emphasis on dominant and dominated groups, although they do not explicitly refer to the process of exploitation and take the relationship between the dominant and dominated groups as one of dependency. See A. Eugene Havens and William L. Flinn, 'Introduction: Internal Colonialism, Structural Change and National Development', in A. Eugene Havens and Willam L. Flinn (eds.), Internal Colonialism and Structural Change in Colombia (New York: Praeger, 1970), p.11. The phrase 'internal colonialism' was first used by Dobb. The non-Marxian version of the notion of internal colonialism has its roots in the writings of Manoilescu, Hoselitz, Fanon and Mills. The Marxian version originated with Gramsci, Bukharin and Preobrazhensky: see Maurice Dobb. Political Economy and Capitalism: Some Essays in Economics Tradition (London: Routledge, 1937), p.247 (note 1); Studies in the Development of Capitalism (New York: International, 1975), p.194: Bert F. Hoselitz, Sociological Aspects of Economic Growth (Glencoe. IL: The Free Press, 1962), p. 148; Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1965); C. Wright Mills, 'The Problem of Industrial Development', in Irwin L. Horrowitz (ed.), Power, Politics and People (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), p.154; Nikolai Bukharin, Imperialism and World Economy (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973), p.21; Evgeny Preobrazhensky, The New Economics. trans. Brian Pearce (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), pp.77-146; Antonio Gramsci, 'The Southern Question', in The Modern Prince and Other Writings (New York: International, 1957), pp.28-54. For the ideas of Manoilescu and for a critical review of the development of the 'internal colonialism' thesis see Joseph, L. Love, 'Modeling Internal Colonialism: History and Prospect'. World Development, Vol.17. No.6 (June 1989), pp.905-22; see also Robert J. Hind, 'The Internal Colonial Concept', Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol.26 (1984), pp.543-68; Greta Bird and Pat O'Malley, 'Kooris, Internal Colonialism and Social Justice', Social Justice, Vol.16, No.3 (1989), pp.36-9.
71. The definition of internal colonialism adopted here is similar to that of Havens and Flinn in its emphasis on dominant and dominated groups, although they do not explicitly refer to the process of exploitation and take the relationship between the dominant and dominated groups as one of dependency. See A. Eugene Havens and William L. Flinn, 'Introduction: Internal Colonialism, Structural Change and National Development', in A. Eugene Havens and Willam L. Flinn (eds.), Internal Colonialism and Structural Change in Colombia (New York: Praeger, 1970), p.11. The phrase 'internal colonialism' was first used by Dobb. The non-Marxian version of the notion of internal colonialism has its roots in the writings of Manoilescu, Hoselitz, Fanon and Mills. The Marxian version originated with Gramsci, Bukharin and Preobrazhensky: see Maurice Dobb. Political Economy and Capitalism: Some Essays in Economics Tradition (London: Routledge, 1937), p.247 (note 1); Studies in the Development of Capitalism (New York: International, 1975), p.194: Bert F. Hoselitz, Sociological Aspects of
72. The definition of internal colonialism adopted here is similar to that of Havens and Flinn in its emphasis on dominant and dominated groups, although they do not explicitly refer to the process of exploitation and take the relationship between the dominant and dominated groups as one of dependency. See A. Eugene Havens and William L. Flinn, 'Introduction: Internal Colonialism, Structural Change and National Development', in A. Eugene Havens and Willam L. Flinn (eds.), Internal Colonialism and Structural Change in Colombia (New York: Praeger, 1970), p.11. The phrase 'internal colonialism' was first used by Dobb. The non-Marxian version of the notion of internal colonialism has its roots in the writings of Manoilescu, Hoselitz, Fanon and Mills. The Marxian version originated with Gramsci, Bukharin and Preobrazhensky: see Maurice Dobb. Political Economy and Capitalism: Some Essays in Economics Tradition (London: Routledge, 1937), p.247 (note 1); Studies in the Development of Capitalism (New York: International, 1975), p.194: Bert F. Hoselitz, Sociological Aspects of Economic Growth (Glencoe. IL: The Free Press, 1962), p. 148; Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1965); C. Wright Mills, 'The Problem of Industrial Development', in Irwin L. Horrowitz (ed.), Power, Politics and People (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), p.154; Nikolai Bukharin, Imperialism and World Economy (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973), p.21; Evgeny Preobrazhensky, The New Economics. trans. Brian Pearce (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), pp.77-146; Antonio Gramsci, 'The Southern Question', in The Modern Prince and Other Writings (New York: International, 1957), pp.28-54. For the ideas of Manoilescu and for a critical review of the development of the 'internal colonialism' thesis see Joseph, L. Love, 'Modeling Internal Colonialism: History and Prospect'. World Development, Vol.17. No.6 (June 1989), pp.905-22; see also Robert J. Hind, 'The Internal Colonial Concept', Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol.26 (1984), pp.543-68; Greta Bird and Pat O'Malley, 'Kooris, Internal Colonialism and Social Justice', Social Justice, Vol.16, No.3 (1989), pp.36-9.
73. The definition of internal colonialism adopted here is similar to that of Havens and Flinn in its emphasis on dominant and dominated groups, although they do not explicitly refer to the process of exploitation and take the relationship between the dominant and dominated groups as one of dependency. See A. Eugene Havens and William L. Flinn, 'Introduction: Internal Colonialism, Structural Change and National Development', in A. Eugene Havens and Willam L. Flinn (eds.), Internal Colonialism and Structural Change in Colombia (New York: Praeger, 1970), p.11. The phrase 'internal colonialism' was first used by Dobb. The non-Marxian version of the notion of internal colonialism has its roots in the writings of Manoilescu, Hoselitz, Fanon and Mills. The Marxian version originated with Gramsci, Bukharin and Preobrazhensky: see Maurice Dobb. Political Economy and Capitalism: Some Essays in Economics Tradition (London: Routledge, 1937), p.247 (note 1); Studies in the Development of Capitalism (New York: International, 1975), p.194: Bert F. Hoselitz, Sociological Aspects of Economic Growth (Glencoe. IL: The Free Press, 1962), p. 148; Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1965); C. Wright Mills, 'The Problem of Industrial Development', in Irwin L. Horrowitz (ed.), Power, Politics and People (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), p.154; Nikolai Bukharin, Imperialism and World Economy (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973), p.21; Evgeny Preobrazhensky, The New Economics. trans. Brian Pearce (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), pp.77-146; Antonio Gramsci, 'The Southern Question', in The Modern Prince and Other Writings (New York: International, 1957), pp.28-54. For the ideas of Manoilescu and for a critical review of the development of the 'internal colonialism' thesis see Joseph, L. Love, 'Modeling Internal Colonialism: History and Prospect'. World Development, Vol.17. No.6 (June 1989), pp.905-22; see also Robert J. Hind, 'The Internal Colonial Concept', Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol.26 (1984), pp.543-68; Greta Bird and Pat O'Malley, 'Kooris, Internal Colonialism and Social Justice', Social Justice, Vol.16, No.3 (1989), pp.36-9.
74. The definition of internal colonialism adopted here is similar to that of Havens and Flinn in its emphasis on dominant and dominated groups, although they do not explicitly refer to the process of exploitation and take the relationship between the dominant and dominated groups as one of dependency. See A. Eugene Havens and William L. Flinn, 'Introduction: Internal Colonialism, Structural Change and National Development', in A. Eugene Havens and Willam L. Flinn (eds.), Internal Colonialism and Structural Change in Colombia (New York: Praeger, 1970), p.11. The phrase 'internal colonialism' was first used by Dobb. The non-Marxian version of the notion of internal colonialism has its roots in the writings of Manoilescu, Hoselitz, Fanon and Mills. The Marxian version originated with Gramsci, Bukharin and Preobrazhensky: see Maurice Dobb. Political Economy and Capitalism: Some Essays in Economics Tradition (London: Routledge, 1937), p.247 (note 1); Studies in the Development of Capitalism (New York: International, 1975), p.194: Bert F. Hoselitz, Sociological Aspects of Economic Growth (Glencoe. IL: The Free Press, 1962), p. 148; Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1965); C. Wright Mills, 'The Problem of Industrial Development', in Irwin L. Horrowitz (ed.), Power, Politics and People (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), p.154; Nikolai Bukharin, Imperialism and World Economy (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973), p.21; Evgeny Preobrazhensky, The New Economics. trans. Brian Pearce (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), pp.77-146; Antonio Gramsci, 'The Southern Question', in The Modern Prince and Other Writings (New York: International, 1957), pp.28-54. For the ideas of Manoilescu and for a critical review of the development of the 'internal colonialism' thesis see Joseph, L. Love, 'Modeling Internal Colonialism: History and Prospect'. World Development, Vol.17. No.6 (June 1989), pp.905-22; see also Robert J. Hind, 'The Internal Colonial Concept', Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol.26 (1984), pp.543-68; Greta Bird and Pat O'Malley, 'Kooris, Internal Colonialism and Social Justice', Social Justice, Vol.16, No.3 (1989), pp.36-9.
75. A relationship of domination that leads to exploitation may exist between sexes, races, ethnic groups, towns or countries. A classic case of domination is apartheid in South Africa: see Harold Wolpe, 'The Theory of Internal Colonialism: The South African Case', in Ivar Oxaal, Tony Barnett and David Booth (eds.), Beyond the Sociology of Development (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975), pp.229-52.
76. It was Casanova who first emphasized ethnic elements of internal colonialism, See Pablo Gonzales Casanova. 'Internal Colonialism and National Development', Studies in Comparative International Development, Vol.1, No.4 (1965), p.27; also Rodolfo Stavenhagen, 'Classes, Colonialism and Acculturation: Essay on a System of Inter-Ethnic Relations in Mesoamerica', Studies in Comparative International Development, Vol.1, No.6 (1965) pp.53-7.
77. It was Casanova who first emphasized ethnic elements of internal colonialism, See Pablo Gonzales Casanova. 'Internal Colonialism and National Development', Studies in Comparative International Development, Vol.1, No.4 (1965), p.27; also Rodolfo Stavenhagen, 'Classes, Colonialism and Acculturation: Essay on a System of Inter-Ethnic Relations in Mesoamerica', Studies in Comparative International Development, Vol.1, No.6 (1965) pp.53-7.
78. Michael Hechter, Internal Colonialism (note 22), pp.18. 43, 341-9
79. Ibid., pp. 18-43.
80. A case in point is the Brazilian core, the Sao Paolo-Rio de Janeito axis, and periphery, the Northeast: see Antonio Sergio Alfredo Guimaraes, 'Racism and Anti-Racism in Brazil: A Post-modern Perspective', and Rosangela Maria Vieira, 'Black Resistance in Brazil: A Matter of Necessity', both in Bowser (ed.), Racism and Anti-Racism in World Perspective' (note 24), pp.208-26 and 227-46 respectively; for labor market stratification along racial lines, see Anthony M. Platt, 'The Land That Never Has Been Yet: U.S. Race Relations at the Crossroads', Social Justice, Vol.24, No. 1 (1997), pp.7-23.
81. A case in point is the Brazilian core, the Sao Paolo-Rio de Janeito axis, and periphery, the Northeast: see Antonio Sergio Alfredo Guimaraes, 'Racism and Anti-Racism in Brazil: A Post-modern Perspective', and Rosangela Maria Vieira, 'Black Resistance in Brazil: A Matter of Necessity', both in Bowser (ed.), Racism and Anti-Racism in World Perspective' (note 24), pp.208-26 and 227-46 respectively; for labor market stratification along racial lines, see Anthony M. Platt, 'The Land That Never Has Been Yet: U.S. Race Relations at the Crossroads', Social Justice, Vol.24, No. 1 (1997), pp.7-23.
82. Hechter, Internal Colonialism (note 22), pp.43, 341. For a discussion of Hechter's thesis, and its degree of relevance in comparison with other theories on the factors leading to ethnic solidarity and ethnic conflict in the core and periphery nations, see Susan Olzak, 'Ethnic Protest in Core and Periphery', Ethnic and Racial Studies Vol.21 (March 1998), pp. 187-217.
83. Hechter, Internal Colonialism (note 22), pp.43, 341. For a discussion of Hechter's thesis, and its degree of relevance in comparison with other theories on the factors leading to ethnic solidarity and ethnic conflict in the core and periphery nations, see Susan Olzak, 'Ethnic Protest in Core and Periphery', Ethnic and Racial Studies Vol.21 (March 1998), pp. 187-217.
84. Lale Yalćin-Heckmann, 'On Kinship, Tribalism and Ethnicity in Eastern Turkey', in Peter Alford Andrews (ed.), Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey (Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 1989), pp.629-30.
85. van Bruinessen notes the point, hut nevertheless, argues that a Kurd's chances of rising in the state hierarchy are conditional upon his/her agreeing to assimilation into the culture of the dominant ethnic group, the Turks; see M. Martin van Bruinessen, 'The Ethnic Identity of the Kurds', in ibid., pp.619-20.
86. If the Kurds had been discriminated against in business circles, for example, in the banking community. Kurdish businessmen could not have risen to the top, at least not in one generation as many have done since the 1980s. On the businessmen of Kurdish descent living in Istanbul, see Nokta, 6-12 Haziran 1993, pp. 15-24.
87. Lord Kinross, Within the Taurus: A Journey in Asiatic Turkey (London: John Murray, 1954), pp.111, 126.
88. Peter Alford Andrews, 'Introduction', in Andrews (ed.), in Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey (note 40), pp.34-5. While those of similar persuasion to Lord Kinross and Andrews argue that education in Kurdish is necessary for the Kurds' advancement. Öcalan, the leader of the PKK. is not entirely in agreement with them. He implicitly admits that Kurdish is not developed enough to become an educational and scientific language. In an interview, he stated that 'We will use Turkish as the education language, as the Scientific language ... I am not saying this because I admire the Turks or the Turkish language. Science can be done better in Turkish. Social and political life, at least at this stage, can be better conducted in Turkish. When Kurdish develops more, when people can read, write, be instructed, do science, and absorb culture in Kurdish, then the share of Kurdish will increase in education and that of Turkish will decrease. But if we were to suddenly decrease the share of Turkish, the Kurds would remain ignorant'. See the interview with Öcalan in Bally. Kürt Dosyast (note 6), p.235. Similar views are expressed by Kamran Inan, a member of Parliament of Kurdish origin and who had occupied ministerial portfolios. He has repeatedly put forth the view, in meetings of the GAP Coordination Council to which this author has attended as a an official in the GAP Administration, that Kurdish would eternally relegate the Kurds to a closed world of underdevelopment and that learning Turkish and foreign languages is the key to the Kurds' advancement.
89. Owing to the turmoil in some of the Eastern and Southeastern provinces since the mid-1980s, many rural schools have been closed. Although some of the children from these villages, whose schools have been closed down, are being instructed in the 'Regional Boarding Schools,' some children are left without the opportunity of learning Turkish in school. This fact notwithstanding, some Kurds, though in decreasing numbers have been unwilling to send their girls to school on religious or other social grounds, and have been withdrawing their sons from school early, in spring, when farm-work begins, thus denying their offspring the key to advancement in the system. On the unwilllingness of parents to send their children to school, see İsmail Beşikçi, Doǧu'da Deǧişim ve Yapisal Sorunlar (Ankara: Doǧan Yaymevi, 1969), pp.246-8: Ahmet Bilgili ve Feramuz Aydogan, Çokeşli ve Çokçocuklu Aile Araştirmasi, unpublished research report (Van: Yüzüncü Yil Üniversitesi, Sosyoloji Bölümü, 1996), pp.83-4; GAP Bölge Kalkmma Idaresi Başkanliǧi. 21.Yüzyilda Kadin ve GAP (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1997), p. 19: Oya Açikalin. Urfa Asiretleri, unpublished research report (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1991), p.50; GAP Böige Kalkmma ldaresi Baskanligi. GAP Bolgesi'nde Kadinm Statüsii (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1994), pp.96-7. 194. On the use of child labour in the East, see Selahattin Erhan. 'Identity and Political Organization Among the Nomads: The Beritanli Case', Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. The University of Texas at Austin, 1992, p. 177: Ahmet Özer, Doǧu Anadolu'da Asiret Düzeni (Istanbul: Boyut Yayinevi, 1990), p.86: Bilgili and Aydoǧan. Çokeçli ve Co̧kçocuklu Aile Araştirmasi, p.134; Zülküf Aydin, Underdevelopment and Rural Structures in Southeastern Turkey: The Household Economy in Gisgis and Kalhana (London: Ithaca Press, 1986), p. 187.
90. Owing to the turmoil in some of the Eastern and Southeastern provinces since the mid-1980s, many rural schools have been closed. Although some of the children from these villages, whose schools have been closed down, are being instructed in the 'Regional Boarding Schools,' some children are left without the opportunity of learning Turkish in school. This fact notwithstanding, some Kurds, though in decreasing numbers have been unwilling to send their girls to school on religious or other social grounds, and have been withdrawing their sons from school early, in spring, when farm-work begins, thus denying their offspring the key to advancement in the system. On the unwilllingness of parents to send their children to school, see İsmail Beşikçi, Doǧu'da Deǧişim ve Yapisal Sorunlar (Ankara: Doǧan Yaymevi, 1969), pp.246-8: Ahmet Bilgili ve Feramuz Aydogan, Çokeşli ve Çokçocuklu Aile Araştirmasi, unpublished research report (Van: Yüzüncü Yil Üniversitesi, Sosyoloji Bölümü, 1996), pp.83-4; GAP Bölge Kalkmma Idaresi Başkanliǧi. 21.Yüzyilda Kadin ve GAP (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1997), p. 19: Oya Açikalin. Urfa Asiretleri, unpublished research report (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1991), p.50; GAP Böige Kalkmma ldaresi Baskanligi. GAP Bolgesi'nde Kadinm Statüsii (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1994), pp.96-7. 194. On the use of child labour in the East, see Selahattin Erhan. 'Identity and Political Organization Among the Nomads: The Beritanli Case', Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. The University of Texas at Austin, 1992, p. 177: Ahmet Özer, Doǧu Anadolu'da Asiret Düzeni (Istanbul: Boyut Yayinevi, 1990), p.86: Bilgili and Aydoǧan. Çokeçli ve Co̧kçocuklu Aile Araştirmasi, p.134; Zülküf Aydin, Underdevelopment and Rural Structures in Southeastern Turkey: The Household Economy in Gisgis and Kalhana (London: Ithaca Press, 1986), p. 187.
91. Owing to the turmoil in some of the Eastern and Southeastern provinces since the mid-1980s, many rural schools have been closed. Although some of the children from these villages, whose schools have been closed down, are being instructed in the 'Regional Boarding Schools,' some children are left without the opportunity of learning Turkish in school. This fact notwithstanding, some Kurds, though in decreasing numbers have been unwilling to send their girls to school on religious or other social grounds, and have been withdrawing their sons from school early, in spring, when farm-work begins, thus denying their offspring the key to advancement in the system. On the unwilllingness of parents to send their children to school, see İsmail Beşikçi, Doǧu'da Deǧişim ve Yapisal Sorunlar (Ankara: Doǧan Yaymevi, 1969), pp.246-8: Ahmet Bilgili ve Feramuz Aydogan, Çokeşli ve Çokçocuklu Aile Araştirmasi, unpublished research report (Van: Yüzüncü Yil Üniversitesi, Sosyoloji Bölümü, 1996), pp.83-4; GAP Bölge Kalkmma Idaresi Başkanliǧi. 21.Yüzyilda Kadin ve GAP (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1997), p. 19: Oya Açikalin. Urfa Asiretleri, unpublished research report (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1991), p.50; GAP Böige Kalkmma ldaresi Baskanligi. GAP Bolgesi'nde Kadinm Statüsii (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1994), pp.96-7. 194. On the use of child labour in the East, see Selahattin Erhan. 'Identity and Political Organization Among the Nomads: The Beritanli Case', Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. The University of Texas at Austin, 1992, p. 177: Ahmet Özer, Doǧu Anadolu'da Asiret Düzeni (Istanbul: Boyut Yayinevi, 1990), p.86: Bilgili and Aydoǧan. Çokeçli ve Co̧kçocuklu Aile Araştirmasi, p.134; Zülküf Aydin, Underdevelopment and Rural Structures in Southeastern Turkey: The Household Economy in Gisgis and Kalhana (London: Ithaca Press, 1986), p. 187.
92. Owing to the turmoil in some of the Eastern and Southeastern provinces since the mid-1980s, many rural schools have been closed. Although some of the children from these villages, whose schools have been closed down, are being instructed in the 'Regional Boarding Schools,' some children are left without the opportunity of learning Turkish in school. This fact notwithstanding, some Kurds, though in decreasing numbers have been unwilling to send their girls to school on religious or other social grounds, and have been withdrawing their sons from school early, in spring, when farm-work begins, thus denying their offspring the key to advancement in the system. On the unwilllingness of parents to send their children to school, see İsmail Beşikçi, Doǧu'da Deǧişim ve Yapisal Sorunlar (Ankara: Doǧan Yaymevi, 1969), pp.246-8: Ahmet Bilgili ve Feramuz Aydogan, Çokeşli ve Çokçocuklu Aile Araştirmasi, unpublished research report (Van: Yüzüncü Yil Üniversitesi, Sosyoloji Bölümü, 1996), pp.83-4; GAP Bölge Kalkmma Idaresi Başkanliǧi. 21.Yüzyilda Kadin ve GAP (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1997), p. 19: Oya Açikalin. Urfa Asiretleri, unpublished research report (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1991), p.50; GAP Böige Kalkmma ldaresi Baskanligi. GAP Bolgesi'nde Kadinm Statüsii (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1994), pp.96-7. 194. On the use of child labour in the East, see Selahattin Erhan. 'Identity and Political Organization Among the Nomads: The Beritanli Case', Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. The University of Texas at Austin, 1992, p. 177: Ahmet Özer, Doǧu Anadolu'da Asiret Düzeni (Istanbul: Boyut Yayinevi, 1990), p.86: Bilgili and Aydoǧan. Çokeçli ve Co̧kçocuklu Aile Araştirmasi, p.134; Zülküf Aydin, Underdevelopment and Rural Structures in Southeastern Turkey: The Household Economy in Gisgis and Kalhana (London: Ithaca Press, 1986), p. 187.
93. Owing to the turmoil in some of the Eastern and Southeastern provinces since the mid-1980s, many rural schools have been closed. Although some of the children from these villages, whose schools have been closed down, are being instructed in the 'Regional Boarding Schools,' some children are left without the opportunity of learning Turkish in school. This fact notwithstanding, some Kurds, though in decreasing numbers have been unwilling to send their girls to school on religious or other social grounds, and have been withdrawing their sons from school early, in spring, when farm-work begins, thus denying their offspring the key to advancement in the system. On the unwilllingness of parents to send their children to school, see İsmail Beşikçi, Doǧu'da Deǧişim ve Yapisal Sorunlar (Ankara: Doǧan Yaymevi, 1969), pp.246-8: Ahmet Bilgili ve Feramuz Aydogan, Çokeşli ve Çokçocuklu Aile Araştirmasi, unpublished research report (Van: Yüzüncü Yil Üniversitesi, Sosyoloji Bölümü, 1996), pp.83-4; GAP Bölge Kalkmma Idaresi Başkanliǧi. 21.Yüzyilda Kadin ve GAP (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1997), p. 19: Oya Açikalin. Urfa Asiretleri, unpublished research report (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1991), p.50; GAP Böige Kalkmma ldaresi Baskanligi. GAP Bolgesi'nde Kadinm Statüsii (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1994), pp.96-7. 194. On the use of child labour in the East, see Selahattin Erhan. 'Identity and Political Organization Among the Nomads: The Beritanli Case', Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. The University of Texas at Austin, 1992, p. 177: Ahmet Özer, Doǧu Anadolu'da Asiret Düzeni (Istanbul: Boyut Yayinevi, 1990), p.86: Bilgili and Aydoǧan. Çokeçli ve Co̧kçocuklu Aile Araştirmasi, p.134; Zülküf Aydin, Underdevelopment and Rural Structures in Southeastern Turkey: The Household Economy in Gisgis and Kalhana (London: Ithaca Press, 1986), p. 187.
94. Owing to the turmoil in some of the Eastern and Southeastern provinces since the mid-1980s, many rural schools have been closed. Although some of the children from these villages, whose schools have been closed down, are being instructed in the 'Regional Boarding Schools,' some children are left without the opportunity of learning Turkish in school. This fact notwithstanding, some Kurds, though in decreasing numbers have been unwilling to send their girls to school on religious or other social grounds, and have been withdrawing their sons from school early, in spring, when farm-work begins, thus denying their offspring the key to advancement in the system. On the unwilllingness of parents to send their children to school, see İsmail Beşikçi, Doǧu'da Deǧişim ve Yapisal Sorunlar (Ankara: Doǧan Yaymevi, 1969), pp.246-8: Ahmet Bilgili ve Feramuz Aydogan, Çokeşli ve Çokçocuklu Aile Araştirmasi, unpublished research report (Van: Yüzüncü Yil Üniversitesi, Sosyoloji Bölümü, 1996), pp.83-4; GAP Bölge Kalkmma Idaresi Başkanliǧi. 21.Yüzyilda Kadin ve GAP (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1997), p. 19: Oya Açikalin. Urfa Asiretleri, unpublished research report (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1991), p.50; GAP Böige Kalkmma ldaresi Baskanligi. GAP Bolgesi'nde Kadinm Statüsii (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1994), pp.96-7. 194. On the use of child labour in the East, see Selahattin Erhan. 'Identity and Political Organization Among the Nomads: The Beritanli Case', Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. The University of Texas at Austin, 1992, p. 177: Ahmet Özer, Doǧu Anadolu'da Asiret Düzeni (Istanbul: Boyut Yayinevi, 1990), p.86: Bilgili and Aydoǧan. Çokeçli ve Co̧kçocuklu Aile Araştirmasi, p.134; Zülküf Aydin, Underdevelopment and Rural Structures in Southeastern Turkey: The Household Economy in Gisgis and Kalhana (London: Ithaca Press, 1986), p. 187.
95. Owing to the turmoil in some of the Eastern and Southeastern provinces since the mid-1980s, many rural schools have been closed. Although some of the children from these villages, whose schools have been closed down, are being instructed in the 'Regional Boarding Schools,' some children are left without the opportunity of learning Turkish in school. This fact notwithstanding, some Kurds, though in decreasing numbers have been unwilling to send their girls to school on religious or other social grounds, and have been withdrawing their sons from school early, in spring, when farm-work begins, thus denying their offspring the key to advancement in the system. On the unwilllingness of parents to send their children to school, see İsmail Beşikçi, Doǧu'da Deǧişim ve Yapisal Sorunlar (Ankara: Doǧan Yaymevi, 1969), pp.246-8: Ahmet Bilgili ve Feramuz Aydogan, Çokeşli ve Çokçocuklu Aile Araştirmasi, unpublished research report (Van: Yüzüncü Yil Üniversitesi, Sosyoloji Bölümü, 1996), pp.83-4; GAP Bölge Kalkmma Idaresi Başkanliǧi. 21.Yüzyilda Kadin ve GAP (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1997), p. 19: Oya Açikalin. Urfa Asiretleri, unpublished research report (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1991), p.50; GAP Böige Kalkmma ldaresi Baskanligi. GAP Bolgesi'nde Kadinm Statüsii (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1994), pp.96-7. 194. On the use of child labour in the East, see Selahattin Erhan. 'Identity and Political Organization Among the Nomads: The Beritanli Case', Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. The University of Texas at Austin, 1992, p. 177: Ahmet Özer, Doǧu Anadolu'da Asiret Düzeni (Istanbul: Boyut Yayinevi, 1990), p.86: Bilgili and Aydoǧan. Çokeçli ve Co̧kçocuklu Aile Araştirmasi, p.134; Zülküf Aydin, Underdevelopment and Rural Structures in Southeastern Turkey: The Household Economy in Gisgis and Kalhana (London: Ithaca Press, 1986), p. 187.
96. Owing to the turmoil in some of the Eastern and Southeastern provinces since the mid-1980s, many rural schools have been closed. Although some of the children from these villages, whose schools have been closed down, are being instructed in the 'Regional Boarding Schools,' some children are left without the opportunity of learning Turkish in school. This fact notwithstanding, some Kurds, though in decreasing numbers have been unwilling to send their girls to school on religious or other social grounds, and have been withdrawing their sons from school early, in spring, when farm-work begins, thus denying their offspring the key to advancement in the system. On the unwilllingness of parents to send their children to school, see İsmail Beşikçi, Doǧu'da Deǧişim ve Yapisal Sorunlar (Ankara: Doǧan Yaymevi, 1969), pp.246-8: Ahmet Bilgili ve Feramuz Aydogan, Çokeşli ve Çokçocuklu Aile Araştirmasi, unpublished research report (Van: Yüzüncü Yil Üniversitesi, Sosyoloji Bölümü, 1996), pp.83-4; GAP Bölge Kalkmma Idaresi Başkanliǧi. 21.Yüzyilda Kadin ve GAP (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1997), p. 19: Oya Açikalin. Urfa Asiretleri, unpublished research report (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1991), p.50; GAP Böige Kalkmma ldaresi Baskanligi. GAP Bolgesi'nde Kadinm Statüsii (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1994), pp.96-7. 194. On the use of child labour in the East, see Selahattin Erhan. 'Identity and Political Organization Among the Nomads: The Beritanli Case', Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. The University of Texas at Austin, 1992, p. 177: Ahmet Özer, Doǧu Anadolu'da Asiret Düzeni (Istanbul: Boyut Yayinevi, 1990), p.86: Bilgili and Aydoǧan. Çokeçli ve Co̧kçocuklu Aile Araştirmasi, p.134; Zülküf Aydin, Underdevelopment and Rural Structures in Southeastern Turkey: The Household Economy in Gisgis and Kalhana (London: Ithaca Press, 1986), p. 187.
97. Owing to the turmoil in some of the Eastern and Southeastern provinces since the mid-1980s, many rural schools have been closed. Although some of the children from these villages, whose schools have been closed down, are being instructed in the 'Regional Boarding Schools,' some children are left without the opportunity of learning Turkish in school. This fact notwithstanding, some Kurds, though in decreasing numbers have been unwilling to send their girls to school on religious or other social grounds, and have been withdrawing their sons from school early, in spring, when farm-work begins, thus denying their offspring the key to advancement in the system. On the unwilllingness of parents to send their children to school, see İsmail Beşikçi, Doǧu'da Deǧişim ve Yapisal Sorunlar (Ankara: Doǧan Yaymevi, 1969), pp.246-8: Ahmet Bilgili ve Feramuz Aydogan, Çokeşli ve Çokçocuklu Aile Araştirmasi, unpublished research report (Van: Yüzüncü Yil Üniversitesi, Sosyoloji Bölümü, 1996), pp.83-4; GAP Bölge Kalkmma Idaresi Başkanliǧi. 21.Yüzyilda Kadin ve GAP (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1997), p. 19: Oya Açikalin. Urfa Asiretleri, unpublished research report (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1991), p.50; GAP Böige Kalkmma ldaresi Baskanligi. GAP Bolgesi'nde Kadinm Statüsii (Ankara: GAP İdaresi, 1994), pp.96-7. 194. On the use of child labour in the East, see Selahattin Erhan. 'Identity and Political Organization Among the Nomads: The Beritanli Case', Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. The University of Texas at Austin, 1992, p. 177: Ahmet Özer, Doǧu Anadolu'da Asiret Düzeni (Istanbul: Boyut Yayinevi, 1990), p.86: Bilgili and Aydoǧan. Çokeçli ve Co̧kçocuklu Aile Araştirmasi, p.134; Zülküf Aydin, Underdevelopment and Rural Structures in Southeastern Turkey: The Household Economy in Gisgis and Kalhana (London: Ithaca Press, 1986), p. 187.
98. The political reason was and is nation-building out of a multitude of ethnic groups each of which, until the Republic (1923), held no allegiance to any public body except the Sultan and its own ethnic group, religious community or tribe.
99. Marx, Capital. Vol.1, Ch.22.
100. Emmanuel, Unequal Exchange (note 25), pp.57-71.
101. Ibid., 161.
102. Love, 'Modeling Internal Colonialism' (note 33), p.908.
103. This is the thesis developed by Manoilescu. see ibid., pp.908-10.
104. This was the policy adopted during Soviet industralization in the late 1920s and 1930s. The theoretical arguments in favour of such a policy were developed by Preobrazhensky, in his New Economics (note 33), pp.77-223.
105. This thesis was first developed by Celso Furtado to explain the Brazilian situation. For a discussion of the views of Furtado who wrote in Portugese, see Love. 'Modeling Internal Colonialism' (note 33), pp.912-14. Furtado's arguments derive from earlier work by Prebisch and Singer on unequal exchange at the international level, see Hans W. Singer, International Development, Growth and Change (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), pp.262-7; Prebisch's views are contained in the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America, The Economic Development of Latin America and its Principal Problems, authored by Raul Prebisch (Lake Success. NY: United Nations, 1950), For a neo-Marxian explanation of the backwardness within a centre-periphery framework of Southern Italy, the Flemish Region, the American South before the 1980s, and some of the Japanese regions until the mid-1960s, see Mandel, Late Capitalism (note 25), pp.85-90.
106. This thesis was first developed by Celso Furtado to explain the Brazilian situation. For a discussion of the views of Furtado who wrote in Portugese, see Love. 'Modeling Internal Colonialism' (note 33), pp.912-14. Furtado's arguments derive from earlier work by Prebisch and Singer on unequal exchange at the international level, see Hans W. Singer, International Development, Growth and Change (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), pp.262-7; Prebisch's views are contained in the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America, The Economic Development of Latin America and its Principal Problems, authored by Raul Prebisch (Lake Success. NY: United Nations, 1950), For a neo-Marxian explanation of the backwardness within a centre-periphery framework of Southern Italy, the Flemish Region, the American South before the 1980s, and some of the Japanese regions until the mid-1960s, see Mandel, Late Capitalism (note 25), pp.85-90.
107. This thesis was first developed by Celso Furtado to explain the Brazilian situation. For a discussion of the views of Furtado who wrote in Portugese, see Love. 'Modeling Internal Colonialism' (note 33), pp.912-14. Furtado's arguments derive from earlier work by Prebisch and Singer on unequal exchange at the international level, see Hans W. Singer, International Development, Growth and Change (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), pp.262-7; Prebisch's views are contained in the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America, The Economic Development of Latin America and its Principal Problems, authored by Raul Prebisch (Lake Success. NY: United Nations, 1950), For a neo-Marxian explanation of the backwardness within a centre-periphery framework of Southern Italy, the Flemish Region, the American South before the 1980s, and some of the Japanese regions until the mid-1960s, see Mandel, Late Capitalism (note 25), pp.85-90.
108. This thesis was first developed by Celso Furtado to explain the Brazilian situation. For a discussion of the views of Furtado who wrote in Portugese, see Love. 'Modeling Internal Colonialism' (note 33), pp.912-14. Furtado's arguments derive from earlier work by Prebisch and Singer on unequal exchange at the international level, see Hans W. Singer, International Development, Growth and Change (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), pp.262-7; Prebisch's views are contained in the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America, The Economic Development of Latin America and its Principal Problems, authored by Raul Prebisch (Lake Success. NY: United Nations, 1950), For a neo-Marxian explanation of the backwardness within a centre-periphery framework of Southern Italy, the Flemish Region, the American South before the 1980s, and some of the Japanese regions until the mid-1960s, see Mandel, Late Capitalism (note 25), pp.85-90.
109. Spraos in his analysis of the terms of trade between countries, while finding 'unmistakable incremental inequalization for developing countries with respect to the entire pattern of traditional specialization,' notes that worsening terms of trade, theoretically, need not always be unequalizing provided that there are productivity and job increases in the country experiencing adverse terms of trade relative to an identifiable earlier point in time; see John Spraos, Inequalizing Trade? A Study of Traditional North/South Specialization in The Context of Terms of Trade Concepts (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), pp.9-11, 15. The same can be said of the adverse movement of the internal terms of trade; that is, deterioration of agricultural prices in comparison with those of industrial goods need not always be unequalizing for the agriculturalists and for those regions specializing in agriculture.
110. The proponents of the internal colony thesis perceive the state as the executive agency of the capitalist class. This is a reductionist approach because the state, as one neo-Marxist argued, especially in societies with electoral systems, has relative autonomy, and in the interest of its own continuation, from time to time, limits the economic power of the hegemonic classes in order to satisfy the economic interest of the repressed classes: N. Poulantzas, Political Power and Social Classes (London: New Left Books, 1973), p. 193.
111. Gündüz Ökcün, Osmanli Sanayi: 1913, 1915 Yillari Sanayi İsuntstikleri (Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilimler Fakültesi, 1970), Table VI.
112. Çaǧlar Keyder, Dünya Ekonomisi İçnde Türkiye (1923-1929) Ankara: Yurt Yayinlari, 1982); Yahya Tezel, Cumhuriyet Döneminin İktisadi Tarihi (1923-1950) (Ankara: Yurt Yayinlari, 1986), pp.98-115, 197-246.
113. Çaǧlar Keyder, Dünya Ekonomisi İçnde Türkiye (1923-1929) Ankara: Yurt Yayinlari, 1982); Yahya Tezel, Cumhuriyet Döneminin İktisadi Tarihi (1923-1950) (Ankara: Yurt Yayinlari, 1986), pp.98-115, 197-246.
114. The text of 'The First Industrial Plan' is given in Afet İnan. Dovletci̧lik Itkesi ve Türkiye Cumhuriyetinin Birinci Samayi Plant (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1972), p.19.
115. Ibid.
116. Ibid., p.20.
117. Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü, İstatistik Göstcrgeler, 1923-1995 (Ankara: Devlet İstalistik Enstitüsü, 1996), p.411.
118. The plan's principles are put forth in the preamble, and in the speech of the Minister of the Economy, Celal Bayar, delivered to the Congress of Industry, See Afet İnan, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti'nin İkinci Sanayi Plant, 1936 (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1973), pp.4, 14-15.
119. The wholesale price index rocketed up to 280 in 1942 and to 454 in 1944 with 1938 as the base; see Halük Cillov, Türkiye Ekonomisi (Istanbul: Istanbul Ün versitesi İktisat Fakültesi Yayini, 1971), p. 139.
120. Ergün Günçe, 'Türkiye'de Planlamanin Dünü-Bugünü-Yarim', ODTÜ Gelişme Dergisi, 1981 Özel Sayisi (1981), p. 122.
121. Haydar Kazgan, 'Cumhuriyet Döneminde Türk İmalat Sanayi', in Cumhuriyet Döneminde Türk Sanayiinin Gelişmesi Sempozyumu, 23-26 Kasum 1981 (Istanbul: Istanbul Teknik Universitesi, 1981), p.8.
122. Yalçin Küçük, Planlama, Kalkinma ve Türkive (Istanbul: Tekin Yayinevi, 1981), p.81.
123. For an analysis of the period see Morris Singer, The Economic Advance of Turkey: 1938-1960 (Ankara: Turkish Economic Society, 1977); also Z.Y. Herslag, Turkey: The Challenge of Growth (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1958), and Willam Hale. The Political and Economic Development of Modern Turkey (London: Croom Helm, 1981).
124. For an analysis of the period see Morris Singer, The Economic Advance of Turkey: 1938-1960 (Ankara: Turkish Economic Society, 1977); also Z.Y. Herslag, Turkey: The Challenge of Growth (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1958), and Willam Hale. The Political and Economic Development of Modern Turkey (London: Croom Helm, 1981).
125. For an analysis of the period see Morris Singer, The Economic Advance of Turkey: 1938-1960 (Ankara: Turkish Economic Society, 1977); also Z.Y. Herslag, Turkey: The Challenge of Growth (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1958), and Willam Hale. The Political and Economic Development of Modern Turkey (London: Croom Helm, 1981).
126. See Bertil Walstedt, State Economic Enterprises in a Mixed Economy: The Turkish Case (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), pp.81, 131, 146-7.
127. Paul Krugman, 'History and Industry Location: The Case of the Manufacturing Belt', The American Economic Review, Vol.81, No.2 (1991), pp.80-83: Increasing Returns and Economic Geography', Journal of Political Economy, Vol.99, No.3 (1991), pp.483-99: Geography and Trade (Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1991).
128. Paul Krugman, 'History and Industry Location: The Case of the Manufacturing Belt', The American Economic Review, Vol.81, No.2 (1991), pp.80-83: Increasing Returns and Economic Geography', Journal of Political Economy, Vol.99, No.3 (1991), pp.483-99: Geography and Trade (Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1991).
129. Paul Krugman, 'History and Industry Location: The Case of the Manufacturing Belt', The American Economic Review, Vol.81, No.2 (1991), pp.80-83: Increasing Returns and Economic Geography', Journal of Political Economy, Vol.99, No.3 (1991), pp.483-99: Geography and Trade (Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1991).
130. R.D. Norton, 'Agglomeration and Competitiveness: From Mar-hall to Chinitz', Urban Studies, Vol.29, No.2 (1992), pp. 155-70: Nicholas Kaldor, 'The Irelevance of Equilibrium Economies', Economic Journal, Vol.82 (Nov. 1972), pp. 1237-55: 'The Case for Regional Policy', Scottish Journal of Political Economy, Vol.17 (1970), pp. 337-47; Gunnar Myrdal, Economic Theory and Underdeveloped Regions (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1957); P.M. Romer, 'Increasing Returns and Long Run Growth', Journal of Political Economy, Vol.94, No.5 (1986), pp. 1002-37.
131. R.D. Norton, 'Agglomeration and Competitiveness: From Mar-hall to Chinitz', Urban Studies, Vol.29, No.2 (1992), pp. 155-70: Nicholas Kaldor, 'The Irelevance of Equilibrium Economies', Economic Journal, Vol.82 (Nov. 1972), pp. 1237-55: 'The Case for Regional Policy', Scottish Journal of Political Economy, Vol.17 (1970), pp. 337-47; Gunnar Myrdal, Economic Theory and Underdeveloped Regions (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1957); P.M. Romer, 'Increasing Returns and Long Run Growth', Journal of Political Economy, Vol.94, No.5 (1986), pp. 1002-37.
132. R.D. Norton, 'Agglomeration and Competitiveness: From Mar-hall to Chinitz', Urban Studies, Vol.29, No.2 (1992), pp. 155-70: Nicholas Kaldor, 'The Irelevance of Equilibrium Economies', Economic Journal, Vol.82 (Nov. 1972), pp. 1237-55: 'The Case for Regional Policy', Scottish Journal of Political Economy, Vol.17 (1970), pp. 337-47; Gunnar Myrdal, Economic Theory and Underdeveloped Regions (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1957); P.M. Romer, 'Increasing Returns and Long Run Growth', Journal of Political Economy, Vol.94, No.5 (1986), pp. 1002-37.
133. R.D. Norton, 'Agglomeration and Competitiveness: From Mar-hall to Chinitz', Urban Studies, Vol.29, No.2 (1992), pp. 155-70: Nicholas Kaldor, 'The Irelevance of Equilibrium Economies', Economic Journal, Vol.82 (Nov. 1972), pp. 1237-55: 'The Case for Regional Policy', Scottish Journal of Political Economy, Vol.17 (1970), pp. 337-47; Gunnar Myrdal, Economic Theory and Underdeveloped Regions (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1957); P.M. Romer, 'Increasing Returns and Long Run Growth', Journal of Political Economy, Vol.94, No.5 (1986), pp. 1002-37.
134. R.D. Norton, 'Agglomeration and Competitiveness: From Mar-hall to Chinitz', Urban Studies, Vol.29, No.2 (1992), pp. 155-70: Nicholas Kaldor, 'The Irelevance of Equilibrium Economies', Economic Journal, Vol.82 (Nov. 1972), pp. 1237-55: 'The Case for Regional Policy', Scottish Journal of Political Economy, Vol.17 (1970), pp. 337-47; Gunnar Myrdal, Economic Theory and Underdeveloped Regions (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1957); P.M. Romer, 'Increasing Returns and Long Run Growth', Journal of Political Economy, Vol.94, No.5 (1986), pp. 1002-37.
135. Roberto P. Camagni, The Concept of Innovative Milieu and I Relevance for Public Policies in European Lagging Region', Papers in Regional Science, Vol.74. No.4 (1995). pp.317-40;
136. T.R. Lakshmanan and Makoto Okumura. The Nature and Evolution of Knowledge Networks in Japanese Manulacturine', Papers in Regional Science, Vol.74. No. 1 (1995), pp.63-85.
137. W.J. Coffey and M. Polese, 'Producer Services and Regional development: A Policy Oriented Perspective', Papers of The Regional Science Association, Vol.67 (1989), pp. 13-27; Stephen Cohen and John Zysman, Manufacturing Matters: The Myth of the Post-Industrial Economy (New York: Basic Books, 1982);
138. W.J. Coffey and M. Polese, 'Producer Services and Regional development: A Policy Oriented Perspective', Papers of The Regional Science Association, Vol.67 (1989), pp. 13-27; Stephen Cohen and John Zysman, Manufacturing Matters: The Myth of the Post-Industrial Economy (New York: Basic Books, 1982);
139. S.H. Park, 'Linkages Between Industry and Services and Their Implications for Urban Employment Generation in Developing Countries', Journal of Development Economics, Vol.30 (1989), pp. 359-79.
140. İlhan Tekeli, Tansu Senyapih and Murat Güvenç, Ankara'da Salayi Üreliminin Tarihsel Gelişim Süred (Ankara: Mili Prodüktivite Merkezi. 1991), pp.58-93.
141. Walstedt, State Manufacturing Enterprises in a Mixed Economy (note 68), pp.81. 146-7.223.
142. Myrdal, Economic Theory (note 70), pp.23-38.
143. Cemil Kuthay and Nihal Çinar. Kalkinmada Öncelikli İllerin Sanayi Envunteri (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Tepkilati, 1989), Table V.
144. Türkiye Ticaret. Sanayi, Deniz Ticarel Odalari ve Ticaret Borsalan Birligi, Planlt Dönemde Rakumlarla Türkiye Ekonomisi (Ankara: TOBB, 1990), p.50.
145. In a recent report, Sakip Sabanci. (he co-owner of (he second largest industrial and banking conglomerate in Turkey, stated this very openly; see Sakip Sabanci, Dogu Anadolu: Ekonomik ve Sosval Kalkmma Politikalan (Istanbul: privately published. Nov. 1995), pp.9, 79.
146. On the GAP Project see State Planning Organization. The Southeastern Anatolia Project, Final Master Plan Report, 4 vols. (Ankara: State Planning Organization, 1989): Servet Mutlu, 'The Southeastern Anatolia Project of Turkey: Its Context. Objectives and Prospect', Orient, German Journal for Politics antl Economics of the Middle East, Vol.37. No. 1 (1996), pp.59-86.
147. On the GAP Project see State Planning Organization. The Southeastern Anatolia Project, Final Master Plan Report, 4 vols. (Ankara: State Planning Organization, 1989): Servet Mutlu, 'The Southeastern Anatolia Project of Turkey: Its Context. Objectives and Prospect', Orient, German Journal for Politics antl Economics of the Middle East, Vol.37. No. 1 (1996), pp.59-86.
148. Yaşar Kaya, a Kurdish nationalist now living in exile, likened the Keban Dam, a major upstream dam on the Euphrates which currently produces 6 billion kilowatt hours of electricity per year, to a cow which is 'grazed in the East, but milked in the West', see Yasar Kaya, 'Uç Safsata', Ekonomik Panorama, 26 Nisan - 3 Mayts 1992. p.20. Mehmet Garan, president of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Diyarbakir. in an interview, said: 'GAP is not an investment for the region, but for the nation. 85 per cent of it is investment is in energy. If investment is made in energy in a society without industry, this energy can be used only in lighting and in the use of basic consumer durables. Beyond this it has no use. Now, when it is said that this GAP is a national project, what the authorities mean is that these investments are made in the GAP region. At this point they are deceiving the people': see 'Gu̧neydogulu ibadamlan GAP'i Anlattilar'. Politik ve Ekonomik Bülten, 5-11 Aralik 1994, No. 160, p.3.
149. Yaşar Kaya, a Kurdish nationalist now living in exile, likened the Keban Dam, a major upstream dam on the Euphrates which currently produces 6 billion kilowatt hours of electricity per year, to a cow which is 'grazed in the East, but milked in the West', see Yasar Kaya, 'Uç Safsata', Ekonomik Panorama, 26 Nisan - 3 Mayts 1992. p.20. Mehmet Garan, president of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Diyarbakir. in an interview, said: 'GAP is not an investment for the region, but for the nation. 85 per cent of it is investment is in energy. If investment is made in energy in a society without industry, this energy can be used only in lighting and in the use of basic consumer durables. Beyond this it has no use. Now, when it is said that this GAP is a national project, what the authorities mean is that these investments are made in the GAP region. At this point they are deceiving the people': see 'Gu̧neydogulu ibadamlan GAP'i Anlattilar'. Politik ve Ekonomik Bülten, 5-11 Aralik 1994, No. 160, p.3.
150. Devlet istatistik Enstiẗs̈, İl ve Böige Istatistikleri. 1993 (Ankara: Devlet Istatistik Enstitüsü, 1993), p.224.
151. Dinçer, Özaslan and Satilmis, İllerin Sosyo-Ekonomik Geliişmiçlik Siralamast (note 4), p.98. Another study gives the infant mortality rate as 60 per thousand for the East for 1993 and 52.6 per thousand for Turkey as a whole, see Atilla Hancioǧlu, 'Bebek ve Çocuk Ölümlülügu', in Sagltk Bakanliǧi, Hacettepe Nüfus Etütleri Enstitüsü ve Macro International. Türkive Nüfus ve Saglik Arasftinncisi. 1993 (Ankara: Saglik Bakanhgi, 1994). p.87.
152. Dinçer, Özaslan and Satilmis, İllerin Sosyo-Ekonomik Geliişmiçlik Siralamast (note 4), p.98. Another study gives the infant mortality rate as 60 per thousand for the East for 1993 and 52.6 per thousand for Turkey as a whole, see Atilla Hancioǧlu, 'Bebek ve Çocuk Ölümlülügu', in Sagltk Bakanliǧi, Hacettepe Nüfus Etütleri Enstitüsü ve Macro International. Türkive Nüfus ve Saglik Arasftinncisi. 1993 (Ankara: Saglik Bakanhgi, 1994). p.87.
153. Frederic C. Shorter and Miroslav Macura. Türkiye'de Nüfus Artişi (1935-1975); Doǧurganlik ve Ölümlülük Eǧilimleri (Ankara: Yurt Yaymlan, 1983), p.77.
154. Özden Bilen, 'A Technical Perspective on Euphrates - Tigris Basin', in Ali Ihsan Baǧis (ed.), Water as an Element of Cooperation and Development in The Middle East (Ankara: Hacettepe University and Friedrich - Naumann Foundation in Turkey, 1994), pp.81-100; N. Frankei, 'Water and Turkish Foreign Policy', Political Communication and Persuasion, No.8 (1991), pp.257-311; N. Naff and R. C. Matson, Water in the Middle East - Conflict or Cooperation (Boulder, CO: Westview Press. 1984); John Kolars. 'Problems of International River Management: The Case of the Euphrates', in Asit K. Biswas (ed.), International Waters of the Middle East from Euphrates - Tigris to Nile, Water Resources Management Series: 2 (Bombay: Oxford University Press. 1994), pp.54-66.
155. Özden Bilen, 'A Technical Perspective on Euphrates - Tigris Basin', in Ali Ihsan Baǧis (ed.), Water as an Element of Cooperation and Development in The Middle East (Ankara: Hacettepe University and Friedrich - Naumann Foundation in Turkey, 1994), pp.81-100; N. Frankei, 'Water and Turkish Foreign Policy', Political Communication and Persuasion, No.8 (1991), pp.257-311; N. Naff and R. C. Matson, Water in the Middle East - Conflict or Cooperation (Boulder, CO: Westview Press. 1984); John Kolars. 'Problems of International River Management: The Case of the Euphrates', in Asit K. Biswas (ed.), International Waters of the Middle East from Euphrates - Tigris to Nile, Water Resources Management Series: 2 (Bombay: Oxford University Press. 1994), pp.54-66.
156. Özden Bilen, 'A Technical Perspective on Euphrates - Tigris Basin', in Ali Ihsan Baǧis (ed.), Water as an Element of Cooperation and Development in The Middle East (Ankara: Hacettepe University and Friedrich - Naumann Foundation in Turkey, 1994), pp.81-100; N. Frankei, 'Water and Turkish Foreign Policy', Political Communication and Persuasion, No.8 (1991), pp.257-311; N. Naff and R. C. Matson, Water in the Middle East - Conflict or Cooperation (Boulder, CO: Westview Press. 1984); John Kolars. 'Problems of International River Management: The Case of the Euphrates', in Asit K. Biswas (ed.), International Waters of the Middle East from Euphrates - Tigris to Nile, Water Resources Management Series: 2 (Bombay: Oxford University Press. 1994), pp.54-66.
157. Özden Bilen, 'A Technical Perspective on Euphrates - Tigris Basin', in Ali Ihsan Baǧis (ed.), Water as an Element of Cooperation and Development in The Middle East (Ankara: Hacettepe University and Friedrich - Naumann Foundation in Turkey, 1994), pp.81-100; N. Frankei, 'Water and Turkish Foreign Policy', Political Communication and Persuasion, No.8 (1991), pp.257-311; N. Naff and R. C. Matson, Water in the Middle East - Conflict or Cooperation (Boulder, CO: Westview Press. 1984); John Kolars. 'Problems of International River Management: The Case of the Euphrates', in Asit K. Biswas (ed.), International Waters of the Middle East from Euphrates - Tigris to Nile, Water Resources Management Series: 2 (Bombay: Oxford University Press. 1994), pp.54-66.
158. State Planning Organization. The Southeastern Anatolia Project Master Plan Study, Vol.3 (note 79), B-14.
159. Devlet istatistik Enstitüsü, Türkiye'de Toptumscil ve Ekonomik Gelipmenin 50 Yili (Ankara: Devlet istatistik Enstitüsü. 1973), p.392.
160. State Planning Organization, The Southeastern Anatolia Project, Vol.3 (note 79), B-14.
161. Devlet Planlama Teskilati. V.Bes Yi/lik Plan Hazrlik Çaliçmalari: 1: V.Bes Yillik Kalkynma Plant Oncesinde Geliçmeler, 1972-1983. Ekonomik ve Sosyal Gelipmeler (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teskilati. 1985), p.169: Vl.Bes. Yillik Kalktnma Plain (1990-1994), 1993 Yih Program Destek Çaliçmalart, Ekonomik ve Sosyal Sektörlerdeki Gelişmeler (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teskilati. 1992), pp.22-3.
162. Devlet Planlama Teskilati. V.Bes Yi/lik Plan Hazrlik Çaliçmalari: 1: V.Bes Yillik Kalkynma Plant Oncesinde Geliçmeler, 1972-1983. Ekonomik ve Sosyal Gelipmeler (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teskilati. 1985), p.169: Vl.Bes. Yillik Kalktnma Plain (1990-1994), 1993 Yih Program Destek Çaliçmalart, Ekonomik ve Sosyal Sektörlerdeki Gelişmeler (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teskilati. 1992), pp.22-3.
163. They were Hazar I. Hazar 2, Tortum and Çagçag 3 hydroelectric plants.
164. Turbine efficiency of 40 per cent is taken from Ayhar who is an energy economist at the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources; see Emine Ayhar, "Diinya Enerji Sektö'ündc Gelişmeler, Enerji Yogunluguntin Azaltilmasi ve Türkiye'nin Kortmiu'. in Devlet Planlama Tes.ki!ati, 3.Izmir lktisat Kongresi. 4-7 Ha;.imn 1992: Seklorel Gtlime Stratejisi (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teskilati, 1993), p.30.
165. Türkiye Elektrik Kurumu Genel Müdürlügü. WASP Modell Ht UZKII Dönem Üretim - Tiiketim incelemexi (1996 - 2010) (Ankara: Türkiye Elektrik Kurumu, 1994), p. 17. Table 15.
166. ilhan Tekeli and Sclim ilkin. Diinya Ruhniiiindii Türkiye'nin İktisadi Polilika Amytşlari (Ankara: Orta Doǧu Teknik Üniversitesi. 1983), pp.85-8; Uygnlamayu Geçerken Türkiye'de Devlelţiliǧin Oluşumu (Ankara: Orta Doǧu Teknik Üniversitesi, 1482), pp.75-7.
167. ilhan Tekeli and Sclim ilkin. Diinya Ruhniiiindii Türkiye'nin İktisadi Polilika Amytşlari (Ankara: Orta Doǧu Teknik Üniversitesi. 1983), pp.85-8; Uygnlamayu Geçerken Türkiye'de Devlelţiliǧin Oluşumu (Ankara: Orta Doǧu Teknik Üniversitesi, 1482), pp.75-7.
168. Ergün Kip, 'Türkiye'de Taban Fiyatlan. Destekleme ve Alimlan ve İç Ticaret Hadleri', in Cevket Pamuk and Zafer Toprak (eds.), Türkiye'de Tarimsal Yapi'ar (1923-2000) (Ankara: Yurt Yayinlan, 1988), pp. 135-62.
169. Nur Keyder. 'Türkiye'de Tarimsal Reel Gelir ve Kirsal Reiah Endeksi'. METU Stiulies Development. Vol.12. No.3 (1976), pp.57-74; Oktay Varlier, Türkiye Tarimmda Yü/tixal Degiyme ve Toprak Böliifiinrii (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teskilati 1978), p. 121 ; Türkiye'de Ic Ticaret Hadleri (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teskilati, 1978), Tables 2 and 4.
170. Nur Keyder. 'Türkiye'de Tarimsal Reel Gelir ve Kirsal Reiah Endeksi'. METU Stiulies Development. Vol.12. No.3 (1976), pp.57-74; Oktay Varlier, Türkiye Tarimmda Yü/tixal Degiyme ve Toprak Böliifiinrii (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teskilati 1978), p. 121 ; Türkiye'de Ic Ticaret Hadleri (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teskilati, 1978), Tables 2 and 4.
171. Nur Keyder. 'Türkiye'de Tarimsal Reel Gelir ve Kirsal Reiah Endeksi'. METU Stiulies Development. Vol.12. No.3 (1976), pp.57-74; Oktay Varlier, Türkiye Tarimmda Yü/tixal Degiyme ve Toprak Böliifiinrii (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teskilati 1978), p. 121 ; Türkiye'de Ic Ticaret Hadleri (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teskilati, 1978), Tables 2 and 4.
172. Servct Mutlu, 'Bölgesel Ic Ticaret Hadleri Kirsal Refah ve Ic Göcler'. Bngn;ici Üniversitesi Ekimomi ve Idari Bilimler Derisi. Vol.4. No. l (1990), p.76.
173. Rosa Luxemburg. The Accumulation of Capital (note 25), pp.351 -2.
174. Emmanuel. Unequal Exchange, passim; Mandel, Ltile Capitalism (note 25), pp.345-51: Amin. Accumulation on a World Scale (note 25), pp.70-78. Marx Capital. V. 1: 571-2. Eor Marx the necessary condition for unequal exchange is different avcr.ige labour productivities in lhe trading partners, whereas for Emmanuel it is different wage levels.
175. Emmanuel. Unequal Exchange, passim; Mandel, Ltile Capitalism (note 25), pp.345-51: Amin. Accumulation on a World Scale (note 25), pp.70-78. Marx Capital. V. 1: 571-2. Eor Marx the necessary condition for unequal exchange is different avcr.ige labour productivities in lhe trading partners, whereas for Emmanuel it is different wage levels.
176. Emmanuel. Unequal Exchange, passim; Mandel, Ltile Capitalism (note 25), pp.345-51: Amin. Accumulation on a World Scale (note 25), pp.70-78. Marx Capital. V. 1: 571-2. Eor Marx the necessary condition for unequal exchange is different avcr.ige labour productivities in lhe trading partners, whereas for Emmanuel it is different wage levels.