Long-term changes in the North Sea ecosystem

Environmental Reviews

Volumn 9, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 131-187

  Clark, Robin A ^a,b   Frid, Chris L J ^a  

^a NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b CENTRE FOR ENVIRONMENT   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Anthropogenic impacts; Climate change; Ecosystem functioning; Long term changes; North Sea; Time series

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034739998     PISSN: 11818700     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1139/er-9-3-131     Document Type: Article

References (201)

1. Aebischer, N., Coulson, J., and Colebrook, J. 1990. Parallel long-term trends across four marine trophic levels and weather. Nature, 347: 753-755.
2. Allen, D.M., Edwards, D., Feller, R.J., Hutchinson, S.E., and Ogburn-Matthews, V. 1997. Detection and analysis of unusual events in long-term zooplankton and nekton data sets from the North Inlet Estuary, South Carolina, U.S.A. Oceanol. Acta, 20: 165-175.
3. Austen, M.C., Buchanan, J.B., Hunt, H.G., Josefson, A.B., and Kendall, M.A. 1991. Comparison of long-term trends in benthic and pelagic communities of the North Sea. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 71: 179-190.
4. Backhaus, J.O., Harms, I.H., Krause, M., and Heath, M.R. 1994. An hypothesis concerning the space-time succession of Calanus finmarchicus in the northern North Sea. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 51: 169-180.
5. Bamber, R.N. 1980. Properties of fly ash as a marine sediment. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 11: 323-326.
6. Beukema, J.J. 1979. Biomass and species richness of the macrobenthic animals living on a tidal flat area in the Dutch Wadden Sea: effects of a severe winter. Neth. J. Sea Res. 13: 203-223.
7. Beukema, J.J. 1985. Zoobenthos survival during severe winters on high and low tidal flats in the Dutch Wadden Sea. In Marine biology of polar regions and effects of severe winters on high and low tidal flats in the Dutch Wadden Sea. Edited by J.S. Gray and M.E. Christiansen. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 351-361.
8. Beukema, J.J. 1992a. Expected changes in the Wadden Sea benthos in a warmer world: Lessons from periods with milder winters. Neth. J. Sea Res. 30: 73-79.
9. Beukema, J.J. 1992b. Expected effects of changes in winter temperatures on benthic animals living in soft sediments in coastal North Sea areas. In Expected effects of climatic change of marine coastal ecosystems. Edited by J.J Beukema, W.J. Wolff, and J.W.M. Brouns. Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 83-92.
10. Beukema, J.J. 1992c. Long-term and recent changes in the benthic macrofauna living on tidal flats in the western part of the Wadden Sea. Neth. Inst. Sea Res. Publ. Ser., 20: 135-141.
11. Beukema, J.J., Essink, K., and Dekker, R. 2000. Long term observations on the dynamics of three species of polychaetes living on tidal flats of the Wadden Sea: the role of weather and predator-prey interactions. J. Anim. Ecol. 69: 31-44.
12. Brockmann, U., Billen, G., and Gieskes, W.W.C. 1988. North Sea nutrients and eutrophication. In Pollution of the North Sea - an assessment. Edited by W. Salomons, B.L. Bayne, E.K. Duursma, and U. Förstner. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. pp. 348-389.
13. Buchanan, J.B. 1993. Evidence of benthic pelagic coupling at a station off the Northumberland coast. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 172: 1-10.
14. Buchanan, J.B., and Moore, J.J. 1986a. A broad review of variability and persistence in the Northumberland benthic fauna - 1971-85. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 6: 641-657.
15. Buchanan, J.B., and Moore, J.J. 1986b. Long-term studies at a benthic station off the coast of Northumberland. Hydrobiologia, 142: 121-127.
16. Buchanan, J.B., Kingston, P.F., and Sheader, M. 1974. Long-term population trends of the benthic macrofauna in the offshore mud of the Northumbrian coast. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 54: 785-795.
17. Buchanan, J.B., Sheader, M., and Kingston, P.F. 1978. Sources of variability in the benthic macrofauna off the south Northumberland coast, 1971-1976. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 58: 191-209.
18. Buchanan, J.B., Brachi, R., Christie, G., and Moore, J.J. 1986. An analysis of a stable period in the Northumberland benthic fauna - 1973-80. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 66: 659-670.
19. Buhl-Mortensen, L. 1996. Type-II statistical errors in environmental science and the precautionary principle. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 32: 528-531.
20. Camphuysen, C.J., and Garthe, S. 2000. Seabirds and commercial fisheries: population trends of piscivorous seabirds explained? In Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Edited by M.J. Kaiser and S.J. de Groot. Blackwell Scientific. pp. 163-184.
21. Camphuysen, C.J., Calvo, B., Durinck, J., Ensor, K., Follestad, A., Furness, R.W., Garthe, S., Leaper, G., Skov, H., Tasker, M.L., and Winter, C.J.N. 1995. Consumption of discards in the North Sea. Final Report EC DG XIV Research Contract BIOECO/93/10. Neth. Inst. Sea Res., Texel. 202 + LVI p.
22. Carpenter, S.R. 1988. Complex interactions in lake communities. Springer-Verlag, New York, N.Y. 283 p.
23. Carruthers, J.N., Lawford, A.L., Veley, V.F.C., and Parrish, B.B. 1951. Variations in brood strength in North Sea haddock, in the light of relevant wind conditions. Nature, 168: 317-319.
24. Cederwall, H., and Elmgren, R. 1980. Biomass increase of benthic macrofauna demonstrates eutrophication of the Baltic Sea. Ophelia, 19: 287-304. Clark, R.B. 1992. Marine pollution. Clarendon Press. 161 p.
25. Cederwall, H., and Elmgren, R. 1980. Biomass increase of benthic macrofauna demonstrates eutrophication of the Baltic Sea. Ophelia, 19: 287-304. Clark, R.B. 1992. Marine pollution. Clarendon Press. 161 p.
26. Colebrook, J.M. 1978. Continuous plankton records: zooplankton and environment, North-east Atlantic and North Sea. Oceanol. Acta, 1: 9-23.
27. Colebrook, J.M. 1981. Continuous Plankton Records: persistence in time-series of annual means of abundance of zooplankton. Mar. Biol. 61: 143-149.
28. Colebrook, J. 1982a. Continuous Plankton Records: persistence in time-series and the population dynamics of Pseudocalanus elongatus and Acartia clausi. Mar. Biol. 66: 289-294.
29. Colebrook, J. 1982b. Continuous plankton records: seasonal variations in the distribution and abundance of plankton in the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea. J. Plankton Res. 4: 435-462.
30. Colebrook, J.M. 1982c. Continuous plankton records: phytoplankton, zooplankton and environment, North-East Atlantic and North Sea, 1958-1980. Oceanol. Acta, 5: 473-480.
31. Colebrook, J.M. 1984. Continuous plankton records: relationships between species of phytoplankton and zooplankton in the seasonal cycle. Mar. Biol. 83: 313-323.
32. Colebrook, J.M. 1985. Sea surface temperature and zooplankton, North Sea, 1948-1983. J. Cons., Cons. Perm. Int. Explor. Mer, 42: 179-185.
33. Colebrook, J.M. 1986. Environmental influences on long-term variability in marine plankton. Hydrobiologia, 142: 309-325.
34. Colijn, F. 1992. Changes in plankton communities: when, where and why? ICES Mar. Sci. Symp. 195: 193-212.
35. Cook, R.M., Sinclair, A., and Stefánson, G. 1997. Potential collapse of North Sea cod stocks. Nature, 385: 521-522.
36. Corten, A., and van de Kamp, G. 1996. Variation in the abundance of southern fish species in the southern North Sea in relation to hydrography and climate. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 53: 1113-1119.
37. Coulson, J.C. 1963. The status of the kittiwake in the British Isles. Bird Study, 10: 147-179.
38. Coulson, J.C., and Thomas, C.S. 1985. Changes in the biology of the kittiwake Rissa tridactyla: A 31 year study of a breeding colony. J. Anim. Ecol. 54: 9-26.
39. Continuous Plankton Recorder Survey Team. 1992. Continuous plankton records: the North Sea in the 1980s. ICES Mar. Sci. Symp. 195: 243-248.
40. Cushing, D.H. 1967. The grouping of herring populations. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 47: 193-208.
41. Cushing, D.H. 1974. The natural regulation of fish populations. In Sea fisheries research. Elek Science, London, U.K. pp. 399-412.
42. Cushing, D.H. 1975. Marine ecology and fisheries. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K. 292 p.
43. Cushing, D.H. 1982. Climate and fisheries. Academic Press, London, U.K.
44. Cushing, D. 1984. The gadoid outburst in the North Sea. J. Cons., Cons. Perm. Int. Explor. Mer, 41: 159-166.
45. Cushing, D. 1990. Plankton production and year class strength in fish populations: an update of the match/mismatch hypothesis. Adv. Mar. Biol. 26: 249-293.
46. Cushing, D.H. 1992. A short history of the Downs stock of herring. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 49: 437-443.
47. Cushing, D. 1995. The long-term relationship between zooplankton and fish. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 52: 611-626.
48. Davis, F.M. 1923. No. 1. Preliminary investigations of the Dogger Bank. Fishery investigations. In Quantitative studies on the fauna of the sea bottom, Vol. 2. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Series, London, U.K. pp. 1-54.
49. Davis, F.M. 1925. No. 2. Results of the investigations into the southern North Sea 1921-1924. Fishery Investigations. In Quantitative studies on the fauna of the sea bottom, Vol. 2. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Series, London, U.K. pp. 1-50.
50. de Angelis, D.L., and Waterhouse, J.C. 1987. Equilibrium and non-equilibrium concepts in ecological models. Ecol. Monogr. 57: 1-21.
51. de Groot, S.J., and Lindeboom, H. 1994. Environmental impact of bottom gears on benthic fauna in relation to natural resources management and protection of the North Sea. Neth. Inst. Sea Res., Texel.
52. Dickson, R.R. 1995. The natural history of time series. In Ecological time series. Edited by T.M. Powell and J.H. Steele. Chapman & Hall, New York, N.Y. 419 p.
53. Dickson, R.R., Kelly, P.M., Colebrook, J.M., Wooster, W.S., and Cushing, D.H. 1988a. North winds and production in the eastern North Atlantic. J. Plankton Res. 10: 151-169.
54. Dickson, R.R., Kirkwood, D.D., Topping, G., Bennekom, A.J.v., and Schreurs, W. 1988b. A preliminary trend analysis for nitrate in the North Sea west of 3°E. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, 1988b.
55. Dickson, R.R., Colebrook, J.M., and Svendsen, E. 1992. Recent changes in the summer plankton of the North Sea. ICES Mar. Sci. Symp. 195: 232-242.
56. Dörjes, J., Michaelis, H., and Rhode, B. 1986. Long-term studies of macrozoobenthos in intertidal and shallow subtidal habitats near the island of Norderney (east Frisian coast, Germany). Hydrobiologia, 142: 217-232. Drake, D.E., and Cacchione, D.A. 1985. Seasonal-variation in sediment transport on the Russian River Shelf, California. Cont. Shelf Res. 4: 495-514.
57. Dörjes, J., Michaelis, H., and Rhode, B. 1986. Long-term studies of macrozoobenthos in intertidal and shallow subtidal habitats near the island of Norderney (east Frisian coast, Germany). Hydrobiologia, 142: 217-232. Drake, D.E., and Cacchione, D.A. 1985. Seasonal-variation in sediment transport on the Russian River Shelf, California. Cont. Shelf Res. 4: 495-514.
58. Drake, D.E., and Cacchione, D.A. 1986. Field observations of bed shear-stress and sediment resuspension on continental shelves, Alaska and California. Cont. Shelf Res. 6: 415-429.
59. Duineveld, G.C.A., Künitzer, A., Niermann, U., de Wilde, P.A.W.J., and Gray, J.S. 1991. The macrobenthos of the North Sea. Neth. J. Sea Res. 28: 53-65.
60. Evans, F., and Edwards, A. 1993. Changes in the zooplankton community off the coast of Northumberland between 1969 and 1988, with notes on changes in the phytoplankton and the benthos. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 172: 11-31.
61. Evans, S.M., Leksono, T., and McKinnell, P.D. 1995. Tributyltin pollution - a diminishing problem following legislation limiting the use of TBT-based anti-fouling paints. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 30: 14-21.
62. Evans, S.M., Evans, P.M., and Leksono, T. 1996. Widespread recovery of dogwhelks, Nucella lapillus (L), from tributyltin contamination in the North Sea and Clyde Sea. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 32: 263-269.
63. Feigenbaum, D., and Maris, R. 1984. Feeding in the chaetognatha. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. 22: 343-392.
64. Fisher, J. 1952. The fulmar. Collins, London, U.K. 496 p. Fransz, H.G., Colebrook, J.M., Gamble, J.C., and Krause, M. 1991. The zooplankton of the North Sea. Neth. J. Sea Res. 28: 1-52. Frid, C., and Huliselan, N. 1996. Far-field control of long-term changes in Northumberland (NW North Sea) coastal zooplankton. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 53: 972-977.
65. Fisher, J. 1952. The fulmar. Collins, London, U.K. 496 p. Fransz, H.G., Colebrook, J.M., Gamble, J.C., and Krause, M. 1991. The zooplankton of the North Sea. Neth. J. Sea Res. 28: 1-52. Frid, C., and Huliselan, N. 1996. Far-field control of long-term changes in Northumberland (NW North Sea) coastal zooplankton. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 53: 972-977.
66. Fisher, J. 1952. The fulmar. Collins, London, U.K. 496 p. Fransz, H.G., Colebrook, J.M., Gamble, J.C., and Krause, M. 1991. The zooplankton of the North Sea. Neth. J. Sea Res. 28: 1-52. Frid, C., and Huliselan, N. 1996. Far-field control of long-term changes in Northumberland (NW North Sea) coastal zooplankton. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 53: 972-977.
67. Frid, C.L.J., and Clark, R.A. 2000. Long-term changes in North Sea benthos: Discerning the role of fisheries. In Ecosystem effects of fishing. Edited by M. Kaiser and S.J. de Groot. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, U.K. pp. 198-216.
68. Frid, C.L.J., Newton, L.C., and Williams, J.A. 1994. The feeding rates of Pleurobrachia (ctenophora) and Sagitta (chaetognatha), with notes on the potential seasonal role of planktonic predators in the dynamics of North Sea zooplankton communities. Neth. J. Aqua. Ecol. 28: 181-191.
69. Frid, C.L.J., Buchanan, J.B., and Garwood, P.R. 1996. Variability and stability in the benthos: twenty-two years of monitoring off Northumberland. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 53: 978-980.
70. Frid, C.L.J., Clark, R.A., and Hall, J.A. 1999a. Long term changes in the benthos on a heavily fished ground off the NE coast of England. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 188: 13-20.
71. Frid, C.L.J., Hansson, S., Ragnarsson, S.A., Rjinsdorp, A., and Steingrimsson, S.A. 1999b. Changing levels of predation on benthos as a results of exploitation of fish populations. Ambio, 28: 578-582.
72. Frid, C.L.J., Harwood, K.G., Hall, S.J., and Hall, J.A. 2000. Long-term trends in the benthic communities on North Sea fishing grounds. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 57: 1303-1309.
73. Fromentin, J.M., and Planque, B. 1996. Calanus and environment in the eastern North Atlantic. 2. Influence of the North Atlantic oscillation on C. finmarchicus and C. helgolandicus. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 134: 111-118.
74. Furness, R.W., and Camphuysen, C.J. 1996. Seabirds as monitors of the marine environment. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 54: 726-737.
75. George, D.G., and Harris, G.P. 1985. The effect of climate on long-term changes in the crustacean zooplankton biomass of Lake Windermere, UK. Nature, 316: 536-539.
76. George, D.G., and Hewitt, D.P. 1995. The influence of year to year changes in position of the Atlantic Gulf Stream on the biomass of zooplankton in Windermere north basin, UK. In Management of lakes and reservoirs during global climatic change. Edited by D.G. George, J.G. Jones, P. Puncochar, C.S. Reynolds, and D.W. Sutcliffe. Kluwer Academic. pp. 223-244.
77. George, D.G., and Taylor, A.H. 1995. UK lake plankton and the Gulf Stream. Nature, 378: 139.
78. Gislason, H. 1994. Ecosystem effects of fishing activities in the North-Sea. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 29: 520-527.
79. Graf, G. 1992. Benthic-pelagic coupling: A benthic view. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. 30: 149-190.
80. Graf, G., Bengtsson, W., Faubel, A., Meyer-Reil, L.A., Schulz, R., Theede, H., and Thiel, H. 1984. The importance of the spring phytoplankton bloom for the benthic system of Kiel Bight. Rapp. P-V Réun. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer, 183: 136-143.
81. Greenstreet, S.P.R., and Hall, S.J. 1996. Fishing and the ground-fish assemblage structure in the north-western North Sea: An analysis of long-term and spatial trends. J. Anim. Ecol. 65: 577-598.
82. Greve, W. 1995. Mutual predation causes bifurcations in pelagic ecosystems: the simulation model PLITCH (PLanktonic swITCH), experimental tests, and theory. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 52: 505-510.
83. Greve, W., and Reiners, F. 1988. Plankton time - space dynamics on German Bight - a systems approach. Oecologia, 77: 487-496.
84. Greve, W., Reiners, F., and Nast, J. 1996. Biocoenotic changes of the zooplankton in the German Bight: the possible effects of eutrophication and climate. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 53: 951-956.
85. Hall, J.A. 1996. The dynamics of benthic Infauna in metal contaminated estuaries. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Marine Sciences and Coastal Management, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne, U.K. 230 p.
86. Hamer, K.C., Furness, R.W., and Caldow, R.G.W. 1991. The effects of changes in food availability on the breeding ecology of Great Skuas Catharacta skua in Shetland. J. Zool. 223: 175-188.
87. Hansson, S. 1985. Effects of eutrophication on fish communities, with special reference to the Baltic Sea - a literature review. Institute of Freshwater Research, Drottningholm. pp. 36-56.
88. Hardy, A.C. 1924. The herring in relation to its animate environment. Part 1. The food and feeding habits of the herring with special reference to the East coast of England. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 52: 611-626.
89. Harris, M.P. and Wanless, S. 1997. Breeding success, diet and brood neglect in the kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) over an 11 year period. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 54: 615-623.
90. Heessen, H.J.L. 1988. Fishery effects. In Pollution of the North Sea - an assessment. Edited by W. Salomons, B.L. Bayne, E.K. Duursma, and U. Forstner. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. pp. 538-550.
91. Heessen, H.J.L. 1996. Time-series data for a selection of forty fish species caught during the International Bottom Trawl Survey. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 53: 1079-1084.
92. Heessen, H.J.L., and Daan, N. 1996. Long-term trends in ten non-target North Sea fish species. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 53: 1063-1078.
93. Hempel, G. 1977. Fishing in marine ecosystems. Verh. Dtsch. Zool. Ges. 70: 67-85.
94. Herrando-Perez, S. 1996. Initial benthic recovery following fly ash dumping off the Northumberland Coast. M.Phil. Thesis, Department of Marine Sciences and Coastal Management, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne, U.K. 199 p.
95. Herrando-Perez, S., and Frid, C.L.J. 1998. The cessation of long-term fly-ash dumping: Effects on macrobenthos and sediments. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 36: 780-790.
96. Hickel, W., Mangelsdorf, P., and Berg, J. 1993. The human impact in the German Bight: Eutrophication during three decades 1962-1991. Helgol. Meeresunters. 47: 243-263. Hislop, J.R.G. 1996. Changes in North Sea gadoid stocks. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 53: 1146-1156.
97. Hickel, W., Mangelsdorf, P., and Berg, J. 1993. The human impact in the German Bight: Eutrophication during three decades 1962-1991. Helgol. Meeresunters. 47: 243-263. Hislop, J.R.G. 1996. Changes in North Sea gadoid stocks. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 53: 1146-1156.
98. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). 1998. Report of the Working Group on the Ecosystem Effects of Fishing Activities, International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, Copenhagen, Denmark. 263 p.
99. Jassby, A.D., and Powell, T.M. 1990. Detecting change in ecological time series. Ecology, 71: 2044-2052.
100. Jennings, S., and Kaiser, M.J. 1998. The effects of fishing on marine ecosystems. Adv. Mar. Biol. 34: 201-352.
101. Jennings, S., Warr, K.J., Greenstreet, S.P.R., and Cotter, A.J.R. 2000. Spatial and temporal patterns in North Sea fishing effort. In Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Edited by M.J. Kaiser and S.J. de Groot. Blackwell Scientific. pp. 1-46.
102. Jobling, M. 1995. The influence of environmental temperature on growth and conversion efficiency in fish. ICES CM 1995/P, 1995; pp. 26.
103. Jones, R. 1983. An investigation of North Sea haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) length-at-age data, with particular reference to the effects on growth of the outstanding year classes of 1962 and 1967. J. Cons., Cons. Int. Explor. Mer, 172: 58-71.
104. Josefson, A.B., Jensen, J.N., and Aertebjerg, G. 1993. The benthos community structure in the late 1970s and early 1980s - a result of a major food pulse. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 172: 31-45.
105. Kleppel, G., Davies, C., and Carter, K. 1996. Temperature and copepod growth in the sea: a comment on the temperature-dependent model of Huntley and Lopez. Am. Nat. 148: 397-406.
106. Kneib, R.T. 1991. Indirect effects in experimental studies of marine soft-sediment communities. Am. Zool. 31: 874-885.
107. Kröncke, I. 1990. Macrofauna standing stock of the Dogger Bank - a comparison. 2. 1951-1952 versus 1985-1987 are changes in the community of the northeastern part of the Dogger Bank due to environmental changes. Neth. J. Sea Res. 25: 189-198.
108. Kröncke, I. 1992. Macrofauna standing stock of the Dogger Bank. A comparison: 3. 1950-54 versus 1985-87. A final summary. Helgol. Meeresunters. 46: 137-169. Kröncke, I. 1995. Long-term changes in North Sea benthos. Senckenbergiana Marit. 26: 73-80.
109. Kröncke, I. 1992. Macrofauna standing stock of the Dogger Bank. A comparison: 3. 1950-54 versus 1985-87. A final summary. Helgol. Meeresunters. 46: 137-169. Kröncke, I. 1995. Long-term changes in North Sea benthos. Senckenbergiana Marit. 26: 73-80.
110. Kröncke, I., and Rachor, E. 1992. Macrofauna investigations along a transect from the inner German Bight towards the Dogger Bank. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 91: 269-276.
111. Kröncke, I., Dippner, J.W., Heyen, H., and Zeiss, B. 1998. Long-term changes in macrofaunal communities off Norderney (East Frisia, Germany) in relation to climate variability. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 167: 25-36.
112. Kunitzer, A., Basford, D., Craeymeersch, J.A., Dewarumez, J.M., Dorjes, J., Duineveld, G.C.A., Eleftheriou, A., Heip, C., Herman, P., Kingston, P., Niermann, U., Rachor, E., Rumohr, H., and Dewilde, P.A.J. 1992. The benthic infauna of the North Sea species distribution and assemblages. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 49: 127-143.
113. Laane, R.W.P.M., Southward, A.J., Slinn, D.J., Allen, J., Groeneveld, G., and de Vries, A. 1996. Changes and causes of variability in salinity and dissolved inorganic phosphate in the Irish Sea, English Channel, and Dutch coastal zone. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 53: 933-944.
114. Langton, R.W., and Robinson, W.E. 1990. Faunal associations on scallop grounds in the western Gulf of Maine. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 144: 157-171.
115. Le Fevre-Lehoerff, G., Ibanez, F., Poniz, P., and Fromentin, J. 1995. Hydroclimatic relationships with planktonic time series from 1975 to 1992 in the North Sea off Gravelines, France. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 129: 269-281.
116. Lee, A.J. 1980. North Sea: physical oceanography. In The North West European Shelf Seas: the sea bed and the sea in motion. II. Physical and chemical oceanography, and physical resources. Edited by F.T. Banner, M.B. Collins, and K.S. Massie. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. pp. 467-493.
117. Lindahl, O. 1995. Long term studies of primary production in the Gullmarsfjorden, Sweden. In Ecology of fjords and coastal waters. Edited by H.R. Skjoldal, C. Hopkins, K.E. Erikstad, and H.P. Leinaas. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
118. Lindley, J., Gamble, J., and Hunt, H. 1995. A change in the zooplankton of the central North Sea (55° to 58°N): a possible consequence of changes in the benthos. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 119: 299-303.
119. Mann, K.H. 1993. Physical oceanography, food chains, and fish stocks: a review. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 50: 105-119.
120. McGowan, J.A. 1990. Climate and change in oceanic ecosystems: The value of time-series data. TREE, 5: 293-299.
121. Michaelsen, W. 1896. Die polychaetenfauna der Deutchen Meere, eischlisslich der benachbarten und verbindenden gebiete. Wissenschaftliche Meereschuntersuchungen der Deutchen Meere, Kiel: 229-268.
122. Möbius, K., and Bütschli, O. 1875. Zoologische ergenbnisse de Nodseefahrt IV Echinodermata. Jahresberict der Kommission Wissenschaftliche der Untersuchungen der Deutchen Meere, Kiel, 2-3: 143-152.
123. Murray, L.A., Norton, M.G., Nunny, R.S., and Rolfe, M.S. 1980. The field effects of dumping wastes at sea: 6. The disposal of sewage sludge and industrial waste off the River Humber. In Fish. Res. Board Can., Tech. Rep. vol. 55, pp. 35.
124. Nicholas, K.R., and Frid, C.L.J. 1999. Occurrence of hydromedusae in the plankton off Northumberland (western central North Sea) and the role of planktonic predators. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 79: 979-992.
125. Nielsen, E., and Richardson, K. 1996. Can changes in the fisheries yield in the Kattegat (1950-1992) be linked to changes in primary production? ICES J. Mar. Sci. 53: 988-994.
126. North Sea Task Force. 1993. North Sea Subregion 3b Assessment Report. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Lowestoft, U.K. 154 p.
127. O'Brien, C.M., Fox, C.J., Planque, B., and Casey, J. 2000. Fisheries: Climate variability and North Sea cod. Nature, 404: 142.
128. Oliver, T. 1990. How scientists calculate the TACs. In Fishing news, 9 March 1990.
129. Owens, N.J.P., Cook, D., Colebrook, M., Hunt, H., and Reid, P.C. 1989. Long term trends in the occurrence of Phaeocystis sp. in the North-east Atlantic. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 69: 813-821.
130. Parker, M. 1988. Sewage sludge disposal in the North Sea. In Pollution of the North Sea - an assessment. Edited by W. Salomons, B.L. Bayne, E.K. Duursma, and U. Förstner. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. pp. 246-256.
131. Parsons, T.R. 1991. The impact of fish harvesting on ocean ecology. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 22: 217. Parsons, T.R. 1992. The removal of marine predators by fisheries and the impact on trophic structure. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 25: 51-53.
132. Parsons, T.R. 1991. The impact of fish harvesting on ocean ecology. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 22: 217. Parsons, T.R. 1992. The removal of marine predators by fisheries and the impact on trophic structure. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 25: 51-53.
133. Parsons, T.R. 1996. The impact of industrial fisheries on the trophic structure of marine ecosystems. In Food webs: Integration of patterns and dynamics. Edited by G.A. Polis and K.O. Winemiller. Chapman & Hall, New York, N.Y. pp. 352-357.
134. Pearce, K., and Frid, C. 1999. Coincident changes in marine communities. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 79: 183-185.
135. Pearson, T.H., and Rosenberg, R. 1978. Macrobenthic succession in relation to organic enrichment and pollution of the marine environment. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. 16: 229-311.
136. Pearson, T.H., and Rosenberg, R. 1986. Feast and Famine: Structuring factors in marine benthic communities. In Organization of communities. Edited by J.H.R. Gee and P.S. Gill. Blackwell Scientific. pp. 373-398.
137. Petersen, C.G.J. 1918. A survey of work done in connection with the valuation of the Danish waters from 1883-1917. Report of the Danish Biological Station, 10: 1-76.
138. Petersen, C.G.J., and Boysen-Jensen, P. 1911. Valuation of the sea. Animal life of the sea bottom, its food and quantity. Report of the Danish Biological Station, 10: 1-76.
139. Planque, B., and Fromentin, J.M. 1996. Calanus and environment in the eastern North Atlantic. 1. Spatial and temporal patterns of C. finmarchicus and C. helgolandicus. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 134: 101-109.
140. Planque, B., and Taylor, A.H. 1998. Long-term changes in zooplankton and the climate of the North Atlantic. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 55: 644-654.
141. Pope, J.G., and Macer, C.T. 1996. An evaluation of the stock structure of North sea cod, haddock and whiting since 1920, together with a consideration of the impacts of fisheries and predation effects on their biomass and recruitment. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 53: 1157-1169.
142. Pope, J.G., Stokes, T.K., Murawski, S.A., and Idoine, S.I. 1988. A comparison of fish size composition in the North Sea and on Georges Bank. In Ecodynamics: Contributions to theoretical ecology. Edited by W. Wolff, C.-J. Soeder, and F.R. Drepper. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. pp. 146-152.
143. Radach, G. 1992. Ecosystem functioning in the German Bight under continental nutrient inputs by rivers. Estuaries, 15: 477-496.
144. Radach, G. 1998. Quantification of long-term changes in the German Bight using an ecological development index. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 55: 587-599.
145. Radach, G., Berg, J., and Hagmeier, E. 1990. Long term changes of the annual cycles of meteorological, hydrographie, nutrient and phytoplankton time series at Helgoland and at LV ELBE 1 in the German Bight. Cont. Shelf Res. 10: 305-328.
146. Ramsay, K., Kaiser, M.J., and Hughes, R.N. 1998. Responses of benthic scavengers to fishing disturbance by towed gears in different habitats. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 224: 73-89.
147. Rees, H.L., Rowlett, S.M., West, P.A., Shakespeare, N., Limpenny, D., and Parker, M.M. 1985. Benthic studies at an offshore sewage-sludge disposal site. ICES CM/E:27, 1985; pp. 13.
148. Reid, P., Taylor, A., and Stephens, J. 1988. The hydrography and hydrographic balances of the North Sea. In Pollution of the North Sea - an assessment. Edited by W. Salomons, B.L. Bayne, E.K. Duursma, and U. Förstner. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. pp. 1-19.
149. Reid, P., Lancelot, C., Gieskes, W., Hagmeir, E., and Weichart, G. 1990. Phytoplankton of the North Sea and its dynamics: a review. Neth. J. Sea Res. 26: 295-331.
150. Reid, P.C. 1978. Continuous plankton records: Large-scale changes in the abundance of phytoplankton in the North Sea from 1958 to 1973.
151. Rapp. P-V Réun. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer, 172: 384-389.
152. Reid, P.C., Battle, J.V., Batten, S.D., and Brander, K.M. 2000. Impacts of fisheries on plankton community structure. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 57: 495-502.
153. Reise, K. 1982. Long-term changes in the macrobenthic invertebrate fauna of the Wadden Sea - are polychaetes about to take over? Neth. J. Sea Res. 16: 29-36.
154. Rice, J., and Gislason, H. 1996. Patterns of change in the size spectra of numbers and diversity of the North Sea fish assemblage, as reflected in surveys and models. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 53: 1214-1225.
155. Rijnsdorp, A.D., van Leeuwen, P.I., Daan, N., and Heessen, H.J.L. 1996. Changes in abundance of demersal fish species in the North Sea between 1906-1909 and 1990-1995. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 53: 1054-1062.
156. Robinson, G. 1970. Continuous plankton records: variations in the seasonal cycles of phytoplankton in the north Atlantic. Bull. Mar. Ecol. 6: 333-345.
157. Roff, J.C., Middlebrook, K., and Evans, F. 1988. Long-term variability in North Sea zooplankton off the Northumberland coast: Productivity of small copepods and analysis of trophic interactions. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 68: 143-164.
158. Rogers, S.I., and Millner, R.S. 1996. Factors affecting the annual abundance and regional distribution of English demersal fish populations: 1973 to 1995. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 53: 1094-1112.
159. Rosenberg, R. 1985. Eutrophication - the future marine coastal nuisance. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 16: 227-231. Rothschild, B.J. 1991. On the causes for variability of fish populations - the linkage between large and small scales. In Long term variability of pelagic fish populations and their environment. Edited by T. Karasaki, S. Tanaka, and Y. Toba. Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K. pp. 367-376.
160. Rosenberg, R. 1985. Eutrophication - the future marine coastal nuisance. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 16: 227-231. Rothschild, B.J. 1991. On the causes for variability of fish populations - the linkage between large and small scales. In Long term variability of pelagic fish populations and their environment. Edited by T. Karasaki, S. Tanaka, and Y. Toba. Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K. pp. 367-376.
161. Russell, F.S., Southward, A.J., Boalch, G.T., and Butler, E.I. 1971. Changes in biological conditions in the English Channel off Plymouth during the last half century. Nature, 234: 468-471. Sala, E., and Boudouresque, C.F. 1997. The role of fishes in the organization of a Mediterranean sublittoral. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 212: 25-44.
162. Russell, F.S., Southward, A.J., Boalch, G.T., and Butler, E.I. 1971. Changes in biological conditions in the English Channel off Plymouth during the last half century. Nature, 234: 468-471. Sala, E., and Boudouresque, C.F. 1997. The role of fishes in the organization of a Mediterranean sublittoral. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 212: 25-44.
163. Sala, E., and Zabala, M. 1996. Fish predation and the structure of the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 140: 71-81.
164. Schroeder, A., and Knust, R. In press. Long term changes in the benthos of the German Bight (North Sea) -possible influences of fisheries? ICES J. Mar. Sci.
165. Serchuk, F.M., Kirkegaard, E., and Daan, N. 1996. Status and trends of the major roundfish, flatfish and pelagic fish stocks in the North Sea: Thirty-year overview. ICES J. Mar. Sci.s, 53: 1130-1145.
166. Shepherd, J.G. 1990. Stability and the objectives of fisheries management: the scientific background. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food, Lowestoft, U.K. 16 p.
167. Shepherd, J.G. 1992. Aide Memoire on Scientific Advice on Fisheries Management. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Lowestoft. 18 p. Shepherd, J.G., and Cushing, D.H. 1990. Regulation in fish populations: myth or mirage. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. B, 330: 151-164.
168. Shepherd, J.G. 1992. Aide Memoire on Scientific Advice on Fisheries Management. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Lowestoft. 18 p. Shepherd, J.G., and Cushing, D.H. 1990. Regulation in fish populations: myth or mirage. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. B, 330: 151-164.
169. Shepherd, J.G., Pope, J.G., and Cousens, R.D. 1984. Variations in fish stocks and hypotheses concerning their links with climate. Rapp. P-V Réun. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer, 185: 255-267.
170. Shillabeer, N., and Tapp, J.F. 1990. Long-term studies of the benthic biology of Tees bay and the Tees estuary. Hydrobiologia, 195: 63-78.
171. Shugar, H.H. 1990. Using ecosystem models to assess potential consequences of global climatic change. Trends Ecol. Evol. 5: 303-307.
172. Solow, A.R. 1994. Detecting change in the composition of a multispecies community. Biometrics, 50: 556-565.
173. Steele, J.H. 1991. Can ecological theory cross the land-sea boundary. J. Theor. Biol. 153: 425-436.
174. Stephens, J.A., Jordan, M.B., Taylor, A.H., and Proctor, R. 1998. The effects of fluctuations in North Sea flows on zooplankton abundance. J. Plankton Res. 20: 943-956. Strauss, S.Y. 1991. Indirect effects in community ecology: Their definition, study and importance. TREE, 6: 206-210.
175. Stephens, J.A., Jordan, M.B., Taylor, A.H., and Proctor, R. 1998. The effects of fluctuations in North Sea flows on zooplankton abundance. J. Plankton Res. 20: 943-956. Strauss, S.Y. 1991. Indirect effects in community ecology: Their definition, study and importance. TREE, 6: 206-210.
176. Sverdrup, H. 1953. On conditions for the vernal blooming of phytoplankton. J. Cons., Cons. Perm. Int. Explor. Mer. 18: 287-295.
177. Taylor, A.H. 1995. North-south shifts of the Gulf Stream and their climatic connection with the abundance of zooplankton in the UK and its surrounding seas. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 52: 711-721.
178. Taylor, A.H. 1996. North-south shifts of the Gulf Stream:
179. Taylor, A.H., and Stephens, J.A. 1980. Latitudinal displacements of the Gulf Stream (1966 to 1977) and their relation to changes in temperature and zooplankton abundance in the NE Atlantic. Oceanol. Acta, 3: 145-149.
180. Taylor, A.H., and Stephens, J.A. 1998. The North Atlantic Oscillation and the latitude of the Gulf Stream. Tellus, 50: 134-142.
181. Taylor, A.H., Colebrook, J.M., Stephens, J.A., and Baker, N.G. 1992. Latitudinal displacements of the Gulf Stream and the abundance of plankton in the north-east Atlantic. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 72: 919-921.
182. Taylor, A.H., Jordan, M.B., and Stephens, J.A. 1998. Gulf Stream shifts following ENSO events. Nature, 18: 638.
183. Thurman, H.V. 1987. Essentials of oceanography. Merrill. 370 p. Tuck, I.D., Hall, S.J., Robertson, M.R., Armstrong, E., and Basford, D.J. 1998. Effects of physical trawling disturbance in a previously unfished sheltered Scottish sea loch. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 162: 227-242.
184. Thurman, H.V. 1987. Essentials of oceanography. Merrill. 370 p. Tuck, I.D., Hall, S.J., Robertson, M.R., Armstrong, E., and Basford, D.J. 1998. Effects of physical trawling disturbance in a previously unfished sheltered Scottish sea loch. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 162: 227-242.
185. Tunberg, B.G., and Nelson, W.G. 1998. Do climatic oscillations influence cyclical patterns of soft bottom macrobenthic communities on the Swedish west coast. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 170: 85-94.
186. Turchin, P. 1992. Complex dynamics in ecological time series. Ecology, 73: 289-305.
187. Turner, S.J., Thrush, S.F., Pridmore, R.D., Hewitt, J.E., Cummings, V.J., and Maskery, M. 1995. Are soft-sediment communities stable? An example from a windy harbour. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 120: 219-230.
188. Underwood, A.J. 1990. Experiments in ecology and management - their logics, functions and interpretations. Aust. J. Ecol. 15: 365-389.
189. Underwood, A.J. 1992. Beyond Baci - the detection of environmental impacts on populations in the real, but variable, world. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 161: 145-178.
190. Underwood, A.J. 1996. Detection, interpretation, prediction and management of environmental disturbances: some roles for experimental marine ecology. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 200: 1-27.
191. Verity, M., and Smetacek, V. 1996. Organism life cycles, predation and the structure of marine pelagic ecosystems. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 130: 277-293.
192. Wanless, S., and Harris, M. 2000. Seabird research influences fishery policy. NERC News, Spring '00: 18-19.
193. Warner, A.J., and Hays, G.C. 1994. Sampling by the Continuous Plankton Recorder survey. Prog. Oceanogr. 34: 237-256.
194. Whitman, J.D., and Sebens, K.P. 1992. Regional variation in fish predation intensity: a historical perspective in the Gulf of Maine. Oecologia, 90: 305-315.
195. Williams, R., Lindley, J.A., Hunt, H.G., and Collins, N.R. 1993. Plankton community structure and geographical distribution in the North Sea. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 172: 143-156.
196. Willis, A.J. 1995. Does Gulf Stream position affect vegetation dynamics in western Europe? Oikos, 73: 408-410.
197. Wilson, W.H. 1990. Competition and predation in marine soft-sediment communities. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 21: 221-241.
198. Witbaard, R., Duineveld, G.C.A., and de Wilde, P.A.J.W. 1997. A long-term growth record derived from Arctica islandica (Mollusca, Bivalvia) from the Fladen Ground (northern North Sea). J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 77: 801-816.
199. Wooton, R.J. 1990. Ecology of teleost fishes. Chapman & Hall, London, U.K. 402 p. Zeiss, B., and Kröncke, I. 1997. Long-term macrofaunal studies in a subtidal habitat off Norderney (East Frisia, Germany) from 1978 to 1994. 1. The late winter samples. Oceanol. Acta, 20: 311-318.
200. Wooton, R.J. 1990. Ecology of teleost fishes. Chapman & Hall, London, U.K. 402 p. Zeiss, B., and Kröncke, I. 1997. Long-term macrofaunal studies in a subtidal habitat off Norderney (East Frisia, Germany) from 1978 to 1994. 1. The late winter samples. Oceanol. Acta, 20: 311-318.
201. Ziljlstra, J.J., and de Wolf, P. 1988. Natural events. In Pollution of the North Sea - an assessment. Edited by W. Salomons, B.L. Bayne, E.K. Duursma, and U. Förstner. Springer Verlag, Berlin, Germany. pp. 164-180.