Cosmopolitan and vernacular in history

Public Culture

Volumn 12, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 591-625

  Pollock, Sheldon ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0034550680     PISSN: 08992363     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1215/08992363-12-3-591     Document Type: Article

References (85)

1. Sheldon Pollock, "India in the Vernacular Millennium: Literary Culture and Polity 1000-1500," in Early Modernities, ed. Shmuel Eisenstadt, Wolfgang Schluchter, and Björn Wittrock, special issue of Daedalus 127, no. 3 (1998): 41-74.
2. On the important idea of incommunication and its history (exemplified in the case of Bangla and Oriya), see Sudipta Kaviraj, "Writing, Speaking, Being: Language and the Historical Formation of Identities in India," in Nationalstaat und Sprachkonflikt in Süd-und Südostasien, ed. Dagmar Hellmann-Rajanayagam and Dietmar Rothermund (Stuttgart: Steiner, 1992), 25-65, especially 26.
3. See Roland Robertson, "The Universalism-Particularism Issue," in Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture (London: Sage, 1992), 102.
4. For Derrida's unhistorical essentialization of the nonessentialized nature of literature, see his Acts of Literature, ed. Derek Atridge (London: Routledge, 1992), especially 40-49.
5. See Norbert Elias, "The Retreat of Sociologists into the Present," in Modern German Sociology, ed. Volker Meja, Dieter Misgeld, and Nico Stehr (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), 150-72. The greater part of what is purveyed as the "pre-modern" in a work like Anthony Giddens's The Consequences of Modernity (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990), finds little support, and much contradiction, in the historical record of southern Asia.
6. See Norbert Elias, "The Retreat of Sociologists into the Present," in Modern German Sociology, ed. Volker Meja, Dieter Misgeld, and Nico Stehr (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), 150-72. The greater part of what is purveyed as the "pre-modern" in a work like Anthony Giddens's The Consequences of Modernity (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990), finds little support, and much contradiction, in the historical record of southern Asia.
7. Sejong's demotic reforms in Korea in the mid-fifteenth century, and the development of chu-nom script in Vietnam around the same time, did not produce anything remotely comparable to what we find in fifteenth-century southern Asia or western Europe. Instead, the innovations in both Korea and Vietnam appear to have been largely instruments designed for the promulgation of neoConfucianism. Nor does anything of the same cultural or political order pertain to the "vernacular" novel in China, where vernacularization of the sort considered here never occurred.
8. Ulf Hannerz, "Culture between Center and Periphery: Toward a Macroanthropology," Ethnos 3-4 (1989): 210-11.
9. Quentin Skinner, Liberty before liberalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 118.
10. K. S. Agase, ed., Chandogyopanisat with the Commentary of Shankara (Poona: Anandashrama Press, 1902), 1.1.10 (my translation).
11. This and the following section draw on evidence and argument from a book I am now completing. The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit and Power 300-1500, where I acknowledge the complexity of these questions in a way that is impossible in a short essay such as this one.
12. Vishwanath Shastri Bharadvaj, ed., Vikramankadevacarita of Bilhana, 3 vols. (Varanasi: Samskrit Sahitya Research Committee of the Banaras Hindu University, 1964), 18.89 (my translation).
13. In the eastern part of this world, Latin had to contend with another cosmopolitan language, namely Greek, which would have its own complex interactions with the Slavic vernaculars in the later Byzantine empire. See, for example, Byzantium and the Slavs in Letters and Culture, ed. Ihor Sevcenke (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute; Naples: Institute Universitario Orientale, 1991).
14. For Martial, see Paul Veyne, "Humanitas," in The Romans, ed. Andrea Giardina (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 365, and William Harris, Ancient Literacy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989), 227. Harris also cites Horace on p. 224.
15. For Martial, see Paul Veyne, "Humanitas," in The Romans, ed. Andrea Giardina (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 365, and William Harris, Ancient Literacy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989), 227. Harris also cites Horace on p. 224.
16. Sheldon Pollock, "The Sanskrit Cosmopolis, A.D. 300-1300: Transculturation, Vernacularization, and the Question of Ideology," in The Ideology and Status of Sanskrit in South and Southeast Asia, ed. J. E. M. Houben (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1996), 197-247.
17. On the history of the concept of Latinitas ("'Latinness' . . . and especially the literary style that marked the high literature of Rome and those who sought to perpetuate it"), see W. Martin Bloomer, Latinity and Literary Society at Rome (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997), 1-2, where the point is also made that Latinitas and orbis terrarum are probably calqued on Hellenismos and oikoumene in the Greek world. We might also compare, without speculating on their origins, such later terms as Arabiya and Farsiyat.
18. Claude Nicolet, Space, Geography, and Politics in the Early Roman Empire (Ann Arbor. University of Michigan Press, 1991), 33.
19. See De Vita Hadriani of Aelius Spartianus 11.1: murumque per octoginta milia passuum primus duxit, qui barbaros Romanosque divideret. Available as of July 2000 on-line at http:/www. gmu.edu/departments/fld/CLASSICS/sha.hadr.html.
20. Fergus Millar, The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993).
21. Ramsay MacMullen, Changes in the Roman Empire: Essays in the Ordinary (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990), 32 (see also 62).
22. In "The Occidental Tagore," Boston Review 19, no. 5 (1994): 22, Lloyd Rudolph's response to Martha Nussbaum's "Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism," in the same magazine. Her essay has since been reprinted as For Love of Country: Debating the Limits of Patriotism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996). The prominence given to classical cosmopolitanism in contemporary discussions seems (to this lapsed classicist, at any rate) to be much exaggerated. The word kosmopolites, for instance, seems to occur only in the much-cited (Greek) utterance attributed to Diogenes in Diogenes Laertius's biography, as well as in the work of Philo, the (Greek) Jewish philosopher of Alexandria. Neither the word itself nor any of its derivatives (nor even cosmopolis) occurs in classical Latin. On Ovid's (ingens) orbis in urbe (fuit), a common trope, see Nicolet, Space, Geography, and Politics, 114 and cf. 33.
23. In "The Occidental Tagore," Boston Review 19, no. 5 (1994): 22, Lloyd Rudolph's response to Martha Nussbaum's "Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism," in the same magazine. Her essay has since been reprinted as For Love of Country: Debating the Limits of Patriotism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996). The prominence given to classical cosmopolitanism in contemporary discussions seems (to this lapsed classicist, at any rate) to be much exaggerated. The word kosmopolites, for instance, seems to occur only in the much-cited (Greek) utterance attributed to Diogenes in Diogenes Laertius's biography, as well as in the work of Philo, the (Greek) Jewish philosopher of Alexandria. Neither the word itself nor any of its derivatives (nor even cosmopolis) occurs in classical Latin. On Ovid's (ingens) orbis in urbe (fuit), a common trope, see Nicolet, Space, Geography, and Politics, 114 and cf. 33.
24. In "The Occidental Tagore," Boston Review 19, no. 5 (1994): 22, Lloyd Rudolph's response to Martha Nussbaum's "Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism," in the same magazine. Her essay has since been reprinted as For Love of Country: Debating the Limits of Patriotism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996). The prominence given to classical cosmopolitanism in contemporary discussions seems (to this lapsed classicist, at any rate) to be much exaggerated. The word kosmopolites, for instance, seems to occur only in the much-cited (Greek) utterance attributed to Diogenes in Diogenes Laertius's biography, as well as in the work of Philo, the (Greek) Jewish philosopher of Alexandria. Neither the word itself nor any of its derivatives (nor even cosmopolis) occurs in classical Latin. On Ovid's (ingens) orbis in urbe (fuit), a common trope, see Nicolet, Space, Geography, and Politics, 114 and cf. 33.
25. In "The Occidental Tagore," Boston Review 19, no. 5 (1994): 22, Lloyd Rudolph's response to Martha Nussbaum's "Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism," in the same magazine. Her essay has since been reprinted as For Love of Country: Debating the Limits of Patriotism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996). The prominence given to classical cosmopolitanism in contemporary discussions seems (to this lapsed classicist, at any rate) to be much exaggerated. The word kosmopolites, for instance, seems to occur only in the much-cited (Greek) utterance attributed to Diogenes in Diogenes Laertius's biography, as well as in the work of Philo, the (Greek) Jewish philosopher of Alexandria. Neither the word itself nor any of its derivatives (nor even cosmopolis) occurs in classical Latin. On Ovid's (ingens) orbis in urbe (fuit), a common trope, see Nicolet, Space, Geography, and Politics, 114 and cf. 33.
26. The judgment on Stoic timidity is Veyne's, "Humanitas," 348-50. He cites and discusses Augustus's Res gestae 3.2 on 353-54. On the Parthians, see, most recently, Philip Hardie, "Fifth-Century Athenian and Augustan Images of the Barbarian Other," Classics Ireland 4 (1997): 46-56; Hardie calls attention to the long afterlife of the images created here.
27. The judgment on Stoic timidity is Veyne's, "Humanitas," 348-50. He cites and discusses Augustus's Res gestae 3.2 on 353-54. On the Parthians, see, most recently, Philip Hardie, "Fifth-Century Athenian and Augustan Images of the Barbarian Other," Classics Ireland 4 (1997): 46-56; Hardie calls attention to the long afterlife of the images created here.
28. The judgment on Stoic timidity is Veyne's, "Humanitas," 348-50. He cites and discusses Augustus's Res gestae 3.2 on 353-54. On the Parthians, see, most recently, Philip Hardie, "Fifth-Century Athenian and Augustan Images of the Barbarian Other," Classics Ireland 4 (1997): 46-56; Hardie calls attention to the long afterlife of the images created here.
29. Embar Krishnamacharya, ed., Suktimuktavali of Jalhana, Gaekwad's Oriental Series 82 (Baroda: Oriental Institute, 1938), 45.69 (my translation). This is a good example of what Freud called Verneinung, or the negation whereby repression is simultaneously maintained and denied.
30. Embar Krishnamacharya, ed., Suktimuktavali of Jalhana, Gaekwad's Oriental Series 82 (Baroda: Oriental Institute, 1938), 45.69 (my translation). This is a good example of what Freud called Verneinung, or the negation whereby repression is simultaneously maintained and denied.
31. Vayupurana 45.82 (my translation); as printed in Willibald Kirfel, Bharatavarsa (indien): Textgeschichtliche Darstellung zweier geographischen Purana-Texte nebst Übersetzung (Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1931), 36.
32. The phrasing is that of Oliver Wolters, "Khmer 'Hinduism' in the Seventh Century," Early South East Asia: Essays in Archaeology, History and Historical Geography, ed. R. B. Smith and W. Watson (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), 438. The uncentered world of Sanskrit has quite archaic origins; on the problem in ritualism, see Charles Malamoud, "Sans lieu ni date: Note sur l'absence de fondation dans l'Inde Védique," in Traces de fondation, ed. Marcel Détienne (Louvain: Peeters, 1990), 183-91.
33. The phrasing is that of Oliver Wolters, "Khmer 'Hinduism' in the Seventh Century," Early South East Asia: Essays in Archaeology, History and Historical Geography, ed. R. B. Smith and W. Watson (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), 438. The uncentered world of Sanskrit has quite archaic origins; on the problem in ritualism, see Charles Malamoud, "Sans lieu ni date: Note sur l'absence de fondation dans l'Inde Védique," in Traces de fondation, ed. Marcel Détienne (Louvain: Peeters, 1990), 183-91.
34. Paul Wheatley, "India beyond the Ganges," Journal of Asian Studies 42 (1982): 28.
35. What is said of the mythic emperor Raghu by the poet Kalidasa in the fourth century - "His chariot of conquest would rest only at the furthest horizon" (Raghuvamsha 3.5) - would be repeated in reference to other, historical kings for centuries to come.
36. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (London: Verso, 1983), 20-25. I am not overlooking the fact that all these scripts ultimately derive from a single Indian prototype. My point is that regional graphic diversity was allowed to develop, in fact, was even sought.
37. See Virgil, The Aeneid of Virgil, ed. T. E. Page (London: MacMillan, 1962), 1.1-7 and H. D. Velankar, ed., Raghuvamsha (Bombay: Nirnaya Sagara Press, 1948), 1.1.
38. See Virgil, The Aeneid of Virgil, ed. T. E. Page (London: MacMillan, 1962), 1.1-7 and H. D. Velankar, ed., Raghuvamsha (Bombay: Nirnaya Sagara Press, 1948), 1.1.
39. Mikhail Bahktin, The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981), 84-258.
40. David Howlett, The English Origins of Old French Literature (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 1996), 165-66.
41. The vernacular story for Iberia is particularly well told in the writings of the late Colin Smith, most recently "The Vernacular," in The New Cambridge Medieval History, vol. 5, ed. David Abulafia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming).
42. See Antonio Gramsci, Selections from Cultural Writings (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991), 188, 168; Mikhail Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984), 465-74.
43. See Antonio Gramsci, Selections from Cultural Writings (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991), 188, 168; Mikhail Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984), 465-74.
44. See Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983), and Pollock, "Vernacular Millennium," 66-67. Gellner's thesis has been much discussed - see most recently The State of the Nation: Ernest Gellner and the Theory of Nationalism, ed. John Hall (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998) - but not in terms of its fundamental historiographical problems.
45. See Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983), and Pollock, "Vernacular Millennium," 66-67. Gellner's thesis has been much discussed - see most recently The State of the Nation: Ernest Gellner and the Theory of Nationalism, ed. John Hall (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998) - but not in terms of its fundamental historiographical problems.
46. See Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983), and Pollock, "Vernacular Millennium," 66-67. Gellner's thesis has been much discussed - see most recently The State of the Nation: Ernest Gellner and the Theory of Nationalism, ed. John Hall (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998) - but not in terms of its fundamental historiographical problems.
47. For a recent attempt to grasp these different factors as a whole - agricultural expansion, population increase, the impact of pastoral nomads, developments in state formation - in explaining new developments in territoriality in the subcontinent, see David Ludden, An Agrarian History of South Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), chap. 2.
48. See Sheldon Pollock, "The Cosmopolitan Vernacular," Journal of Asian Studies 57 (1998): 6-37.
49. Pollock, "Vernacular Millennium," 62-65.
50. Dante, Il Convivio. Vol. 5 of Opere di Dante, ed. G. Busnelli and G. Vandelli (Florence: Felice Le Monnier, 1964), 1.10.4 (Lo naturale amore della propria loquela) and 1.13.10 (non solamente amore, ma perfettissimo amore sia quello ch'io a [mio Volgare] debbo avere ed ho).
51. The Christian poet is cited by Robert Bartlett, The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change 950-1350 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993) 198: gentem lingua facit. No synthetic account exists of the cultural-political genealogies of early modern Europe. See, for now, Nation und Literatur im Europa der frühen Neuzeit, ed. Klaus Garber (Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1989), 36; and Susan Reynolds, Kingdoms and Communities; in Western Europe 900-1300, 2d ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), 250-331.
52. The Christian poet is cited by Robert Bartlett, The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change 950-1350 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993) 198: gentem lingua facit. No synthetic account exists of the cultural-political genealogies of early modern Europe. See, for now, Nation und Literatur im Europa der frühen Neuzeit, ed. Klaus Garber (Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1989), 36; and Susan Reynolds, Kingdoms and Communities; in Western Europe 900-1300, 2d ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), 250-331.
53. The Christian poet is cited by Robert Bartlett, The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change 950-1350 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993) 198: gentem lingua facit. No synthetic account exists of the cultural-political genealogies of early modern Europe. See, for now, Nation und Literatur im Europa der frühen Neuzeit, ed. Klaus Garber (Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1989), 36; and Susan Reynolds, Kingdoms and Communities; in Western Europe 900-1300, 2d ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), 250-331.
54. Analogously, the cosmopolitan languages in southern Asia are facts of language processes themselves (samskrta, "refined"; prakrta. "unrefined"; apabhrashta, "corrupted"), unlike the ethnonyms of other cosmopolitan languages such as Arabiya, Farsi, English.
55. For the citation from Lorenzo's commentary on his sonnets, see Douglas M. Painter, "Humanist Insights and the Vernacular in Sixteenth-Century France," History of European Ideas 16 (1993): 68. On language prohibition, extermination, and politics, see Bartlett, Making of Europe, 202-3 (where the envoys to Wenceslas II are cited). The cultural practices of Deccani kings are described in Someshvara's twelfth-century encyclopedia, the Manasollasa (Baroda: Gaekwad Oriental Series, 1961), vol. 3, 1-83.
56. For the citation from Lorenzo's commentary on his sonnets, see Douglas M. Painter, "Humanist Insights and the Vernacular in Sixteenth-Century France," History of European Ideas 16 (1993): 68. On language prohibition, extermination, and politics, see Bartlett, Making of Europe, 202-3 (where the envoys to Wenceslas II are cited). The cultural practices of Deccani kings are described in Someshvara's twelfth-century encyclopedia, the Manasollasa (Baroda: Gaekwad Oriental Series, 1961), vol. 3, 1-83.
57. For the citation from Lorenzo's commentary on his sonnets, see Douglas M. Painter, "Humanist Insights and the Vernacular in Sixteenth-Century France," History of European Ideas 16 (1993): 68. On language prohibition, extermination, and politics, see Bartlett, Making of Europe, 202-3 (where the envoys to Wenceslas II are cited). The cultural practices of Deccani kings are described in Someshvara's twelfth-century encyclopedia, the Manasollasa (Baroda: Gaekwad Oriental Series, 1961), vol. 3, 1-83.
58. Charles Taylor, for example, is not alone in his conviction that language is the "essential viable and indispensable pole of identification" and that this identification stands outside history. See Pierre Birnbaum, "From Multiculturalism to Nationalism," Political Theory 24 (1996): 39 (where the Taylor citation is given), and compare Anthony Appiah, "Identity, Authenticity, Survival," in Charles Taylor, Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition, ed. Amy Gutman (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994), 156.
59. Charles Taylor, for example, is not alone in his conviction that language is the "essential viable and indispensable pole of identification" and that this identification stands outside history. See Pierre Birnbaum, "From Multiculturalism to Nationalism," Political Theory 24 (1996): 39 (where the Taylor citation is given), and compare Anthony Appiah, "Identity, Authenticity, Survival," in Charles Taylor, Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition, ed. Amy Gutman (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994), 156.
60. A modest example is provided in Pollock "The Cosmopolitan Vernacular," 21-25.
61. This is cited from the RSS pamphlet "Widening Horizons," available as of December 1999 on-line at http://www.rss.org/rss/library/books/WideningHorizons/ch8.html.
62. For a recent general critique of Hindutva culture and politics, see The Concerned Indian's Guide to Communalism, ed. K. N. Panikkar (New Delhi: Penguin, 1999).
63. See K. R. Malkani, "BJP History: Its Birth, Growth and Onward March," available as of December 1999 on-line at http://www.bjp.org/history.htm.
64. On the development of the national-popular, see the helpful essay of David Forgacs, "National-Popular: Genealogy of a Concept," in The Cultural Studies Reader, ed. Simon During (London: Routledge, 1993), 177-90. I leave it to others to determine whether Forgacs is correct to state that Gramsci believed that, in general, "the cosmopolitan traditions of the Italian intellectuals had impeded the molecular ideological activty by which [an intellectual and moral] reformation could be brought about" (186).
65. Gramsci, Selections from Cultural Writings, 260-61 ("Julian Benda"). Benda's article is "Comment un écrivain sert-il l'universel?" Les nouvelles littéraires, 2 November 1929, 1. (I make reerence to material from the original article inasmuch as it was known to Gramsci, though not explicitly addressed in his note.) This largely restates ideas in Benda's La trahison des clercs (Paris: Grasset, 1927; cf. 97-99, 296-98), which is a still-troublesome text. See, for example, Ernest Gellner, "La trahison de la trahison des clercs," in The Polical Responsibilty of Intellectuals, ed. Ian Maclean, Alan Montefiore, and Peter Winch (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). For the ideal that "le clerc doit se proclamer non-pratque" (except, evidently, when he demands the reform of the cléricature), see Benda, La trahison des clercs, 231-35.
66. Gramsci, Selections from Cultural Writings, 260-61 ("Julian Benda"). Benda's article is "Comment un écrivain sert-il l'universel?" Les nouvelles littéraires, 2 November 1929, 1. (I make reerence to material from the original article inasmuch as it was known to Gramsci, though not explicitly addressed in his note.) This largely restates ideas in Benda's La trahison des clercs (Paris: Grasset, 1927; cf. 97-99, 296-98), which is a still-troublesome text. See, for example, Ernest Gellner, "La trahison de la trahison des clercs," in The Polical Responsibilty of Intellectuals, ed. Ian Maclean, Alan Montefiore, and Peter Winch (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). For the ideal that "le clerc doit se proclamer non-pratque" (except, evidently, when he demands the reform of the cléricature), see Benda, La trahison des clercs, 231-35.
67. Gramsci, Selections from Cultural Writings, 260-61 ("Julian Benda"). Benda's article is "Comment un écrivain sert-il l'universel?" Les nouvelles littéraires, 2 November 1929, 1. (I make reerence to material from the original article inasmuch as it was known to Gramsci, though not explicitly addressed in his note.) This largely restates ideas in Benda's La trahison des clercs (Paris: Grasset, 1927; cf. 97-99, 296-98), which is a still-troublesome text. See, for example, Ernest Gellner, "La trahison de la trahison des clercs," in The Polical Responsibilty of Intellectuals, ed. Ian Maclean, Alan Montefiore, and Peter Winch (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). For the ideal that "le clerc doit se proclamer non-pratque" (except, evidently, when he demands the reform of the cléricature), see Benda, La trahison des clercs, 231-35.
68. Gramsci, Selections from Cultural Writings, 260-61 ("Julian Benda"). Benda's article is "Comment un écrivain sert-il l'universel?" Les nouvelles littéraires, 2 November 1929, 1. (I make reerence to material from the original article inasmuch as it was known to Gramsci, though not explicitly addressed in his note.) This largely restates ideas in Benda's La trahison des clercs (Paris: Grasset, 1927; cf. 97-99, 296-98), which is a still-troublesome text. See, for example, Ernest Gellner, "La trahison de la trahison des clercs," in The Polical Responsibilty of Intellectuals, ed. Ian Maclean, Alan Montefiore, and Peter Winch (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). For the ideal that "le clerc doit se proclamer non-pratque" (except, evidently, when he demands the reform of the cléricature), see Benda, La trahison des clercs, 231-35.
69. Gramsci, Selections from Cultural Writings, 260-61 ("Julian Benda"). Benda's article is "Comment un écrivain sert-il l'universel?" Les nouvelles littéraires, 2 November 1929, 1. (I make reerence to material from the original article inasmuch as it was known to Gramsci, though not explicitly addressed in his note.) This largely restates ideas in Benda's La trahison des clercs (Paris: Grasset, 1927; cf. 97-99, 296-98), which is a still-troublesome text. See, for example, Ernest Gellner, "La trahison de la trahison des clercs," in The Polical Responsibilty of Intellectuals, ed. Ian Maclean, Alan Montefiore, and Peter Winch (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). For the ideal that "le clerc doit se proclamer non-pratque" (except, evidently, when he demands the reform of the cléricature), see Benda, La trahison des clercs, 231-35.
70. The signatories of this hypemationalist document, "Pour un parti de l'intelligence," included Paul Bourget, Maurice Barrès, Jacques Maritain, and Francis Jammes.
71. Ernest Renan, says Benda, is not a "necessary effect" of the French consciousness, but "an arbitrary, even unforeseeable event," and his true particularity and value lie in the degree of his difference from the group of which he is part, in the way that any human being's value is what sets him or her apart from the species ("Comment un écrivain sert-il l'universel?," 1).
72. Benda himself, as we can see in hindsight, was dead wrong - or grossly premature - to infer (on the grounds that one does not pray for the healthy) that the fervor with which the "nationalization of the esprit" was being preached in 1929 signaled its imminent dissolution in a new European consciousness.
73. Gramsci, Selections from Cultural Writings, 246-47 ("Interpretations of the Risorgimento [ii]").
74. Gramsci, Selections from Cultural Writings, 246.
75. Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), 76, 80, 93. Despite his Gellnerian model, Kymlicka somehow counts Native American cultures as "genuinely distinct societal cultures," like those of the Puerto Ricans or Québecois (79-80). A strong critique of Kymlicka is offered in Jeremy Waldron, "Minority Cultures and the Cosmopolitan Alternative," in The Rights of Minority Communities, ed. W. Kymlicka (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 93-119.
76. Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), 76, 80, 93. Despite his Gellnerian model, Kymlicka somehow counts Native American cultures as "genuinely distinct societal cultures," like those of the Puerto Ricans or Québecois (79-80). A strong critique of Kymlicka is offered in Jeremy Waldron, "Minority Cultures and the Cosmopolitan Alternative," in The Rights of Minority Communities, ed. W. Kymlicka (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 93-119.
77. Tom Nairn, "Internationalism and the Second Coming," in Mapping the Nation, ed. Gopal Balakrishnan (London: Verso, 1996), 267-80; the texts quoted are on 274-76. Originally published in Daedalus 122, no. 3 (1993): 115-40.
78. Tom Nairn, "Internationalism and the Second Coming," in Mapping the Nation, ed. Gopal Balakrishnan (London: Verso, 1996), 267-80; the texts quoted are on 274-76. Originally published in Daedalus 122, no. 3 (1993): 115-40.
79. See, for example, Partha Chatterjee, A Possible India: Essays in Political Criticism (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997); D. R. Nagaraj, Collected Essays (Delhi: Oxford University Press, forthcoming), and D. R. Nagaraj, "Introduction," in Ashis Nandy, Exiled at Home (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998). I forbear citing my Chicago colleagues, whose engagement with these questions is on display in this volume.
80. See, for example, Partha Chatterjee, A Possible India: Essays in Political Criticism (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997); D. R. Nagaraj, Collected Essays (Delhi: Oxford University Press, forthcoming), and D. R. Nagaraj, "Introduction," in Ashis Nandy, Exiled at Home (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998). I forbear citing my Chicago colleagues, whose engagement with these questions is on display in this volume.
81. See, for example, Partha Chatterjee, A Possible India: Essays in Political Criticism (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997); D. R. Nagaraj, Collected Essays (Delhi: Oxford University Press, forthcoming), and D. R. Nagaraj, "Introduction," in Ashis Nandy, Exiled at Home (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998). I forbear citing my Chicago colleagues, whose engagement with these questions is on display in this volume.
82. Chatterjee puts several of these ideas well (see A Possible India, especially 261-62 and 280-85). The sensitivity he evinces should not be blithely generalized, however, whether in the sphere of power or culture. Consider how, in a fit of misguided vernacularism, the Communist Party-Marxist government of West Bengal in 1981 prohibited English-medium instruction in elementary education; this law was rescinded in 1998 after heated protests by working-class people who were outraged at the opportunities for advancement being denied to them (a precedent ignored by the government of Tamil Nadu, which instituted a similar law regarding Tamil in autumn 1998). attempt to preserve vernacularity on the backs of the poor is a familiar liberal strategy; see Gramsci, Selections from Cultural Writings, 166.
83. Chatterjee puts several of these ideas well (see A Possible India, especially 261-62 and 280-85). The sensitivity he evinces should not be blithely generalized, however, whether in the sphere of power or culture. Consider how, in a fit of misguided vernacularism, the Communist Party-Marxist government of West Bengal in 1981 prohibited English-medium instruction in elementary education; this law was rescinded in 1998 after heated protests by working-class people who were outraged at the opportunities for advancement being denied to them (a precedent ignored by the government of Tamil Nadu, which instituted a similar law regarding Tamil in autumn 1998). attempt to preserve vernacularity on the backs of the poor is a familiar liberal strategy; see Gramsci, Selections from Cultural Writings, 166.
84. See Homi Bhabha, "Signs Taken for Wonders," in The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 1996), especially 112-15.
85. Ulrich Beck, The Reinvention of Politics: Rethinking Modernity in the Global Social Order (Oxford: Polity Press, 1997).