Why don't minorities join special operations forces?

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 26, Issue 4, 2000, Pages 523-545

  Kirby, Sheila Nataraj ^a   Harrell, Margaret C ^b   Sloan, Jennifer ^b  

^a RAND CORPORATION   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034417221     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327X0002600402     Document Type: Article

References (31)

1. See, for example David J. Armor, "Race and Gender in the U.S. Military," Armed Forces & Society 23 (1996): 25; Sheila N. Kirby and Harry J. Thie, Enlisted Force Management: A Historical Perspective (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, MR-755-OSD, 1997); M. Binkin and M. J. Eitelberg, Blacks and the Military (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1982).
2. See, for example David J. Armor, "Race and Gender in the U.S. Military," Armed Forces & Society 23 (1996): 25; Sheila N. Kirby and Harry J. Thie, Enlisted Force Management: A Historical Perspective (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, MR-755-OSD, 1997); M. Binkin and M. J. Eitelberg, Blacks and the Military (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1982).
3. See, for example David J. Armor, "Race and Gender in the U.S. Military," Armed Forces & Society 23 (1996): 25; Sheila N. Kirby and Harry J. Thie, Enlisted Force Management: A Historical Perspective (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, MR-755-OSD, 1997); M. Binkin and M. J. Eitelberg, Blacks and the Military (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1982).
4. For an excellent history of SOF, see Susan L. Marquis, Unconventional Warfare: Rebuilding U.S. Special Operations Forces (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1997).
5. United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM), Special Operations in Peace and War. USSOCOM: Pub 1, January 25, 1996, 3-1.
6. United States Special Operations Command, ibid., 3-2 - 3-4.
7. We must point out that these data on race/ethnicity are self-reported.
8. Two years ago, the GT composite score cutoff was waived from 110 to 100.
9. The clean discipline record requirement can be waived in rare instances.
10. According to Army Research Institute analyses of the entrance tests for Army SF, failure rates for blacks for the swim test were almost 6 times higher than those for whites (Judith E. Brooks and Michelle M. Zazanis, eds., Enhancing U.S. Army Special Forces: Research and Applications [Alexandria, VA: United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 1997]). The success rates in passing the SEALS selection test given at Great Lakes Training Center show clear differences in the pass rate for blacks and Hispanics and the rate for whites, and again the swim requirements appeared to be the major hurdle. There is both research and anecdotal evidence to suggest that socioeconomic and cultural differences play a large role in explaining this disparity in swimming skills (Fred A. Mael, Swimming Proficiency and Race: A Biographical Perspective [Alexandria, VA: United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences n.d.]). There is considerable disagreement as to whether differences in swimming abilities are linked to racial physiological characteristics (see, for example, W. A. Campbell, Jr., Aquatics: Shades of Black and White [Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, 1991]); D. Burdeshaw, "Acquisition of Elementary Swimming Skills by Negro and White College Women," The Research Quarterly 39 (1968): 872-879; for an opposite point of view, see J. E. Schutte, E. J. Townsend, J. Hugg, R. F. Shoup, R. M. Malina, and C. G. Blomqvist, "Density of Lean Body Mass is Greater in Blacks than in Whites," Journal of Applied Physiology 56 (1984): 1647-1649.
11. According to Army Research Institute analyses of the entrance tests for Army SF, failure rates for blacks for the swim test were almost 6 times higher than those for whites (Judith E. Brooks and Michelle M. Zazanis, eds., Enhancing U.S. Army Special Forces: Research and Applications [Alexandria, VA: United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 1997]). The success rates in passing the SEALS selection test given at Great Lakes Training Center show clear differences in the pass rate for blacks and Hispanics and the rate for whites, and again the swim requirements appeared to be the major hurdle. There is both research and anecdotal evidence to suggest that socioeconomic and cultural differences play a large role in explaining this disparity in swimming skills (Fred A. Mael, Swimming Proficiency and Race: A Biographical Perspective [Alexandria, VA: United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences n.d.]). There is considerable disagreement as to whether differences in swimming abilities are linked to racial physiological characteristics (see, for example, W. A. Campbell, Jr., Aquatics: Shades of Black and White [Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, 1991]); D. Burdeshaw, "Acquisition of Elementary Swimming Skills by Negro and White College Women," The Research Quarterly 39 (1968): 872-879; for an opposite point of view, see J. E. Schutte, E. J. Townsend, J. Hugg, R. F. Shoup, R. M. Malina, and C. G. Blomqvist, "Density of Lean Body Mass is Greater in Blacks than in Whites," Journal of Applied Physiology 56 (1984): 1647-1649.
12. According to Army Research Institute analyses of the entrance tests for Army SF, failure rates for blacks for the swim test were almost 6 times higher than those for whites (Judith E. Brooks and Michelle M. Zazanis, eds., Enhancing U.S. Army Special Forces: Research and Applications [Alexandria, VA: United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 1997]). The success rates in passing the SEALS selection test given at Great Lakes Training Center show clear differences in the pass rate for blacks and Hispanics and the rate for whites, and again the swim requirements appeared to be the major hurdle. There is both research and anecdotal evidence to suggest that socioeconomic and cultural differences play a large role in explaining this disparity in swimming skills (Fred A. Mael, Swimming Proficiency and Race: A Biographical Perspective [Alexandria, VA: United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences n.d.]). There is considerable disagreement as to whether differences in swimming abilities are linked to racial physiological characteristics (see, for example, W. A. Campbell, Jr., Aquatics: Shades of Black and White [Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, 1991]); D. Burdeshaw, "Acquisition of Elementary Swimming Skills by Negro and White College Women," The Research Quarterly 39 (1968): 872-879; for an opposite point of view, see J. E. Schutte, E. J. Townsend, J. Hugg, R. F. Shoup, R. M. Malina, and C. G. Blomqvist, "Density of Lean Body Mass is Greater in Blacks than in Whites," Journal of Applied Physiology 56 (1984): 1647-1649.
13. According to Army Research Institute analyses of the entrance tests for Army SF, failure rates for blacks for the swim test were almost 6 times higher than those for whites (Judith E. Brooks and Michelle M. Zazanis, eds., Enhancing U.S. Army Special Forces: Research and Applications [Alexandria, VA: United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 1997]). The success rates in passing the SEALS selection test given at Great Lakes Training Center show clear differences in the pass rate for blacks and Hispanics and the rate for whites, and again the swim requirements appeared to be the major hurdle. There is both research and anecdotal evidence to suggest that socioeconomic and cultural differences play a large role in explaining this disparity in swimming skills (Fred A. Mael, Swimming Proficiency and Race: A Biographical Perspective [Alexandria, VA: United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences n.d.]). There is considerable disagreement as to whether differences in swimming abilities are linked to racial physiological characteristics (see, for example, W. A. Campbell, Jr., Aquatics: Shades of Black and White [Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, 1991]); D. Burdeshaw, "Acquisition of Elementary Swimming Skills by Negro and White College Women," The Research Quarterly 39 (1968): 872-879; for an opposite point of view, see J. E. Schutte, E. J. Townsend, J. Hugg, R. F. Shoup, R. M. Malina, and C. G. Blomqvist, "Density of Lean Body Mass is Greater in Blacks than in Whites," Journal of Applied Physiology 56 (1984): 1647-1649.
14. According to Army Research Institute analyses of the entrance tests for Army SF, failure rates for blacks for the swim test were almost 6 times higher than those for whites (Judith E. Brooks and Michelle M. Zazanis, eds., Enhancing U.S. Army Special Forces: Research and Applications [Alexandria, VA: United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 1997]). The success rates in passing the SEALS selection test given at Great Lakes Training Center show clear differences in the pass rate for blacks and Hispanics and the rate for whites, and again the swim requirements appeared to be the major hurdle. There is both research and anecdotal evidence to suggest that socioeconomic and cultural differences play a large role in explaining this disparity in swimming skills (Fred A. Mael, Swimming Proficiency and Race: A Biographical Perspective [Alexandria, VA: United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences n.d.]). There is considerable disagreement as to whether differences in swimming abilities are linked to racial physiological characteristics (see, for example, W. A. Campbell, Jr., Aquatics: Shades of Black and White [Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, 1991]); D. Burdeshaw, "Acquisition of Elementary Swimming Skills by Negro and White College Women," The Research Quarterly 39 (1968): 872-879; for an opposite point of view, see J. E. Schutte, E. J. Townsend, J. Hugg, R. F. Shoup, R. M. Malina, and C. G. Blomqvist, "Density of Lean Body Mass is Greater in Blacks than in Whites," Journal of Applied Physiology 56 (1984): 1647-1649.
15. See Martin R. Walker, An Analysis of Discipline Rates Among Racial/Ethnic Groups in the U.S. Military Fiscal Years 1987-1991, Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute, for an analysis of discipline rates among racial/ethnic groups in the services.
16. P. G. Nordlie, E. R. Sevilla, Jr., W. S. Edmonds, and S. J. White, A Study of Racial Factors in the Army's Justice and Discharge Systems. Washington, D.C.: DAPE-HRR, The Pentagon, Rep. No. HSR-RR-79/18-Hr, in 4 vols, 1979.
17. Margaret Harrell, Sheila Nataraj Kirby, Jennifer Sloan, Clifford Graf II, Christopher McKelvey, and Jerry M. Sollinger, Barriers to Minority Participation in Special Operations Forces (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, MR-1042-SOCOM, 1999).
18. Harrell et al., Barriers; Martha Lappin, Evaluating the Impact of Cognitive Ability Test Cutoff Scores. Paper presented to the American Psychological Association in Toronto, August, 1996: Martha Teplitzky, Minority Representation in the Enlisted Special Forces, United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. Briefing presented to Brigadier General T. C. Jones, Director, Human Resources, July 23, 1992; Martha Teplitzky, Minority Representation in the Enlisted Special Forces (Alexandria, VA: United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 1992).
19. Harrell et al., Barriers; Martha Lappin, Evaluating the Impact of Cognitive Ability Test Cutoff Scores. Paper presented to the American Psychological Association in Toronto, August, 1996: Martha Teplitzky, Minority Representation in the Enlisted Special Forces, United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. Briefing presented to Brigadier General T. C. Jones, Director, Human Resources, July 23, 1992; Martha Teplitzky, Minority Representation in the Enlisted Special Forces (Alexandria, VA: United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 1992).
20. Harrell et al., Barriers; Martha Lappin, Evaluating the Impact of Cognitive Ability Test Cutoff Scores. Paper presented to the American Psychological Association in Toronto, August, 1996: Martha Teplitzky, Minority Representation in the Enlisted Special Forces, United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. Briefing presented to Brigadier General T. C. Jones, Director, Human Resources, July 23, 1992; Martha Teplitzky, Minority Representation in the Enlisted Special Forces (Alexandria, VA: United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 1992).
21. Harrell et al., Barriers; Martha Lappin, Evaluating the Impact of Cognitive Ability Test Cutoff Scores. Paper presented to the American Psychological Association in Toronto, August, 1996: Martha Teplitzky, Minority Representation in the Enlisted Special Forces, United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. Briefing presented to Brigadier General T. C. Jones, Director, Human Resources, July 23, 1992; Martha Teplitzky, Minority Representation in the Enlisted Special Forces (Alexandria, VA: United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 1992).
22. Paul Rosenfeld and Amy L. Culbertson, "Hispanics in the Military." In Hispanics in the Workplace, ed. Stephen B. Knouse, Paul Rosenfeld, and Amy L. Culbertson (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1992).
23. Gary W. Peterson, Mary E. Stivers, and David F. Peters, "Family Versus Nonfamily Significant Others for the Career Decisions of Low-income Youth, Family Relations (July 1986): 417-424; William H. Sewell, Archibald O. Ohlendorf, and George W. Ohlendorf, "The Educational and Early Occupational Status Attainment Process: Replication and Revision," American Sociological Review 35 (1970): 1014-1027.
24. Gary W. Peterson, Mary E. Stivers, and David F. Peters, "Family Versus Nonfamily Significant Others for the Career Decisions of Low-income Youth, Family Relations (July 1986): 417-424; William H. Sewell, Archibald O. Ohlendorf, and George W. Ohlendorf, "The Educational and Early Occupational Status Attainment Process: Replication and Revision," American Sociological Review 35 (1970): 1014-1027.
25. Thomas F. Pettigrew and Joanne Martin, "Shaping the Organizational Context for Black American Inclusion," Journal of Social Issues 43 (1987): 41-78.
26. The term "solo" is used here to refer to more than a single individual when there are relatively few minorities in proportion to whites in a given work group.
27. Pettigrew and Martin, ibid.
28. Rosabeth M. Kanter, Men and Women of the Corporation (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1977).
29. This refers to two incidents. First, in December 1995, a black Fayetteville couple was murdered by Army soldiers assigned to the 82nd Airborne Division at Fort Bragg. At least one of these soldiers identified himself as a "skinhead." As a result of these murders, Secretary of the Army West ordered an Army-wide investigation into soldier links to extremist groups. Second, in July 1996, swastikas were painted on the barracks doors of six black SF soldiers by a disgruntled black soldier.
30. Bruce Orvis, Narayan Sastry, and Laurie McDonald, Military Recruiting Outlook: Recent Trends in Enlistment Propensity and Conversion of Potential Enlisted Supply (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, MR-677-A/OSD, 1996).
31. We hypothesized that swimming was particularly difficult for minorities coming from large urban areas with limited access to pools. However, given that many minorities - not just blacks - also come from large urban areas, the fact that Hispanics and other minorities are not seriously underrepresented is somewhat puzzling. One possible explanation may be that Hispanics, although grouped together, are quite heterogeneous with respect to background, so swimming may not be as big a hurdle for some groups as for blacks. Many of the other minorities are Pacific Islanders, who tend to have learned swimming at an early age. Second, at least with respect to Army SOF candidates, a much larger proportion of Hispanics came from combat arms backgrounds and were airborne qualified compared with blacks. This was true of other minorities as well, many of whom were Ranger-qualified in addition.