Independent and interdependent conceptions of self: An investigation of age, gender, and culture differences in importance and satisfaction ratings

Cross-Cultural Research

Volumn 34, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 113-134

  Watkins, David ^a   Mortazavi, Shahrenaz ^b   Trofimova, Irina ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG   (Hong Kong)

^b SHAHID BEHESHTI UNIVERSITY   (Iran)

^c MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034415572     PISSN: 10693971     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/106939710003400202     Document Type: Article

References (42)

1. Andersen, S. M., Reznik, I., & Chen, S. (1997). The self in relation to others: Cognitive and motivational underpinnings. In J. G. Snodgrass & R. L. Thompson (Eds.), The self across psychology (pp. 233-275). New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
2. Bochner, S. (1994). Cross-cultural differences in the self-concept: A test of Hofstede's individualism/collectivism distinction. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 25, 273-283.
3. Bond, M. H. (1994). Into the heart of collectivism: A personal and scientific journey. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, S. C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
4. Bond, M. H. (1996). Social psychology across cultures: Two ways forward. Keynote address at the 26th International Congress of Psychology, Montreal, Canada.
5. Bond, M. H., & Cheung, T.-S. (1983). College students' spontaneous self-concept: The effect of culture among respondents in Hong Kong, Japan, and the United States. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 14, 153-171.
6. Brislin, R. W. (1986). The wording and translation of research instruments. In W. J. Lonner & J. W. Berry (Eds.), Field methods in cross-cultural research (pp. 137-164). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
7. Byrne, B., Shavelson, R. J., & Marsh, H. W. (1992). Multigroup comparisons in self-concept research. In T. M. Brinthaupt & R. P. Lipka (Eds.), The self: Definitional and methodological issues. New York: State University of New York Press.
8. Cousins, S. D. (1989). Culture and self-perception in Japan and the United States. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 124-131.
9. Cross, S. E., & Madson, L. (1997). Models of the self: Self-construals and gender. Psychological Bulletin, 722, 5-37.
10. Davis-Zinner, N. (1990). Source differences in male and female self-esteem. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, California School of Professional Psychology, Los Angeles.
11. Dhawan, N., Roseman, I. J., Naidu, R. K., Thapa, K., & Rettek, S. I. (1995). Self-concepts across two cultures; India and the United States. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 26, 606-621.
12. Elovson, A. C., & Fleming, J. S. (1988). Rationale for multidimensional self-esteem scale scoring and weighting. Unpublished manuscript, California State University.
13. Enriquez, V. (1993). Developing a Filipino psychology. In U. Kim & J. W. Berry (Eds.), Indigenous psychologies. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
14. Harter, S. (1985). Manual for the Self-Perception Profile for Children. Denver, CO: University of Denver.
15. Hattie, J. (1992). Self-concept. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
16. Hayes, N. (1993). Principles of social psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
17. Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
18. Hofstede, G. (1983). Dimensions of national cultures in fifty countries and three regions. In J. B. Deregowski, S. Dziurawiec, & R. C. Annis (Eds.), Expiscations in cross-cultural psychology (pp. 335-355). Lisse, Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.
19. Hsu, F.L.K. (1985). The self in cross-cultural perspective. In A. J. Marsella, G. de Vos, & F.L.K. Hsu (Eds.), Culture and self. London: Tavistock.
20. Inelmen, K. (1996). Relationship of sex-role orientation to two measures of self-esteem. Unpublished MA thesis, Bogazici University.
21. Ip, G.W.M., & Bond, M. H. (1995). Culture, values, and the spontaneous self-concept. Asian Journal of Psychology, 1, 29-35.
22. Josephs, R. A., Markus, H. R., & Tafarodi, R. W. (1992). Gender and selfesteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 391-402.
23. Kashima, Y., Yamaguchi, S., Kim, U., Choi, S. C., Gelfand, M. J., & Yuki, M. (1995). Culture, gender, and self: A perspective from individualism-collectivism research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 925-937.
24. Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., Matsumoto, H., & Norasakkunkit, V. (1997). Individual and collective processes in the construction of the self: Self-enhancement in the United States and self-criticism in Japan. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1245-1267.
25. Kuhn, M. H., & McPartland, T. S. (1954). An empirical investigation of self-attitudes. American Sociological Review, 19, 68-76.
26. Luk, C. L., & Bond, M. H. (1992). Explaining Chinese self-esteem in terms of the self-concept. Psychologia, 35, 147-154.
27. Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253.
28. Mpofu, E. (1994). Exploring the self-concept in an African culture. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 155, 341-354.
29. Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
30. Schwartz, S. (1994). Beyond individualism/collectivism: New cultural dimensions of values. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, S. C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
31. Schweder, R. A., & Bourne, E. J. (1982). Does the concept of self vary cross-culturally? In A. J. Marsella & G. M. White (Eds.), Cultural conceptions of mental health and therapy. Dortrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel.
32. Shavelson, R. J., Hubner, J. J., & Stanton, G. C. (1976). Self-concept: Validation of construct interpretations. Review of Educational Research, 46, 407-441.
33. Tam, A.S.F., & Watkins, D. (1995). Towards a hierarchical model of self-concept for Hong Kong Chinese adults with physical disabilities. International Journal of Psychology, 30, 1-17.
34. Triandis, H. C. (1989). The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts. Psychological Review, 96, 506-520.
35. Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview.
36. Triandis, H. C., McCusker, C., & Hui, C. H. (1990). Multimethod probes of individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1006-1020.
37. Walsh, W. A., & Banaji, M. R. (1997). The collective self. In J. Snodgrass & R. L. Thompson (Eds.), The self across psychology (pp. 193-214). New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. Vol. 818
38. Watkins, D., Adair, J., Akande, A., Cheng, C., Fleming, J., Gerong, A., Ismail, M., McInerney, D., Lefner, K., Mpofu, E., Regmi, M., Singh-Sengupta, S., Watson, S., Wondimu, H., & Yu, J. (1998). Cultural dimensions, gender, and the nature of self-concept: A fourteen-country study. International Journal of Psychology, 33, 17-31.
39. Watkins, D., Adair, J., Akande, A., Gerong, A., McInerney, D., Sunar, D., Watson, S., Wen, Q., & Wondimu, H. (1998). Individualism-collectivism, gender, and the self-concept: A nine-culture investigation. Psychologia, 41, 259-271.
40. Watkins, D., Yau, J., Dahlin, B., & Wondimu, H. (1997). The Twenty Statements Test: Some measurement issues. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 28, 626-633.
41. Watkins, D., Yau, J., Fleming, J., Davis-Zinner, N., Tam, A., Juhasz, A., & Walker, A. (1997). Gender differences in the basis and level of adult self-esteem: A cross-cultural perspective. Psychologia, 40, 265-276.
42. Yamaguchi, S. (1994). Collectivism among the Japanese: A perspective from the self. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, S. C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.